Regulated Voltage Power Supplies

Every electronic circuit is designed to operate off of some supply voltage, which is usually assumed to be constant. A voltage regulator provides this constant DC output voltage and contains circuitry that continuously holds the output voltage at the design value regardless of changes in load current or input voltage (this assumes that the load current and input voltage are within the specified operating range for the part).

Introduction to regulated dc power supplies

Power supply is a broad term but this lesson is restricted to discussion of circuits that generate a fixed or controllable magnitude dc voltage from the available form of input voltage. Integrated-circuit (IC) chips used in the electronic circuits need standard dc voltage of fixed magnitude. Many of these circuits need well-regulated dc supply for their proper operation. In majority of the cases the required voltages are of magnitudes varying between -18 to +18 volts. Some equipment may need multiple output power supplies. For example, in a Personal Computer one may need 3.3 volt, 5 volt and 12 volt power supplies. The digital ICs may need 3.3volt supply and the hard disk driver or the floppy driver may need 5 and 12 volts supplies. The individual output voltages from the multiple output power supply may have different current ratings and different voltage regulation requirements. Almost invariably these outputs are isolated dc voltages where the dc output is ohmically isolated from the input supply. In case of multiple output supplies ohmic isolation between two or more outputs may be desired. The input connection to these power supplies is often taken from the standard utility power plug point (ac voltage of 115V / 60Hz or 230V / 50Hz). It may not be unusual, though, to have a power supply working from any other voltage level which could be of either ac or dc type. There are two broad categories of regulated power supplies: y Linear regulated power supply y Switched mode power supply (SMPS) In some cases one may use a combination of switched mode and linear power supplies to gain some desired advantages of both the types.

The Basic Linear Regulator

Linear regulators exist in two basic forms: series regulators and shunt regulators: y Series regulators are the more common form. The series regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "top half" of the voltage divider). The power dissipated by the regulating device is equal to the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating device. y The shunt regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage divider). The current through the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows uselessly to ground, making this form even less efficient than the series regulator.

In electronics, a linear regulator is a voltage regulator based on an active device (such as a bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor or vacuum tube) operating in its "linear region" (in contrast, a switching regulator is based on a transistor forced to act as an on/off switch) or passive devices like zener diodes operated in their breakdown region. The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor, continuously adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a constant output voltage. It is very inefficient compared to a switched-mode power supply, since it sheds the difference voltage by dissipating heat. Voltage controlled Current source: A linear regulator operates by using a voltage-controlled current source to force a fixed voltage to appear at the regulator output terminal. The control circuitry must monitor (sense) the output voltage, and adjust the current source (as required by the load) to hold the output voltage at the desired value. The design limit of the current source defines the maximum load current the regulator can source and still maintain regulation. The output voltage is controlled using a feedback loop, which requires some type of compensation to assure loop stability. Most linear regulators have built-in compensation, and are completely stable without external components. Some regulators (like Low-Dropout types), do require some external capacitance connected from the output lead to ground to assure regulator stability. Another characteristic of any linear regulator is that it requires a finite amount of time to "correct" the output voltage after a change in load current demand.This "time lag" defines the characteristic called transient response, which is a measure of how fast the regulator returns to steady-state conditions after a load change.

Control Loop Operation

The operation of the control loop in a typical linear regulator will be detailed using the simplified schematic diagram in Figure 2 (the function of the control loop is similar in all of the linear regulator types).

Linear Regulator Types

There are three basic types of linear regulator designs which will be covered: y Standard (NPN Darlington) Regulator y Low Dropout or LDO Regulator y Quasi LDO Regulator Comparison between types of Linear Regulator The comparison b/w types is explained below: y The single most important difference between these three types is the dropout voltage, which is defined as the minimum voltage drop required across the regulator to maintain output voltage regulation. A critical point to be considered is that the linear regulator that operates with the smallest voltage across it dissipates the least internal power and has the highest efficiency. The LDO requires the least voltage across it, while the Standard regulator requires the most. y The second important difference between the regulator types is the ground pin current required by the regulator when driving rated load current. The Standard regulator has the lowest ground pin current, while the LDO generally has the highest A comparison of the three regulator types is shown in Figure.

Linear regulated power supply

The supply shown in the following figure is unregulated voltage power supply. This kind of unregulated dc voltage is most often derived from the utility ac source. The utility ac voltage is first stepped down using a utility frequency transformer, then it is rectified using diode rectifier and filtered by placing a capacitor across the rectifier output. The voltage across the capacitor is still fairly unregulated and is load dependent. The ripple in the capacitor voltage is not only dependent on the capacitance magnitude but also depends on load and supply voltage variations. The unregulated capacitor voltage becomes the input to the linear type power supply circuit. The filter capacitor size is chosen to optimize the overall cost and volume. However, unless the capacitor is sufficiently large the capacitor voltage may have unacceptably large ripple. The representative rectifier and capacitor voltage waveforms, where a 100 volts (peak), 50 Hz ac voltage is rectified and filtered using a capacitor of 1000 micro-farad and fed to a load of 100 ohms is shown in Fig.

Operation Of voltage Regulator For proper operation of the voltage regulator, the instantaneous value of unregulated input voltage must always be few volts more than the desired regulated voltage at the output. Thus the ripple across the capacitor voltage (difference between the maximum and minimum instantaneous magnitudes) must not be large or else the minimum voltage level may fall below the required level for output voltage regulation. The magnitude of voltage-ripple across the input capacitor increases with increase in load connected at the output. The step down transformer talked above should be chosen such that the peak value of rectified voltage is always larger than the sum of bare minimum voltage required at the input of the regulator and the worst-case ripple in the capacitor voltage. Thus the transformer turns ratio is chosen on the basis of minimum specified supply voltage magnitude. The end user of the power supply will like to have a regulated output voltage (with voltage ripple within some specified range) while the load and supply voltage fluctuations remain within the allowable limit. To achieve this the unregulated dc voltage is fed to a voltage regulator circuit. The circuit in Fig. shows, schematically, a linear regulator circuit where a transistor is placed in between the unregulated dc voltage and the desired regulated dc output. Difference between the instantaneous input voltage and the regulated output voltage is blocked across the collector -emitter terminals of the transistor. As discussed previously, in such circuits the lowest instantaneous magnitude of the unregulated dc voltage must be slightly greater than the desired output voltage (to allow some voltage for transistor biasing circuit). The power dissipation in the transistor and the useful output power will be in the ratio of voltage drops across the transistor and the load (here the control power dissipated in the base drive circuit of the transistor is assumed to be relatively small and is neglected). The worst-case series voltage drop across the transistor may be quite large if the allowed variation in supply magnitude is large. Worst-case power dissipation in the transistor will correspond to maximum supply voltage and maximum load condition (load voltage is assumed to be well regulated). Efficiency of linear voltage regulator circuits will be quite low when supply voltage is on the higher side of the nominal voltage. CURRENT LIMITING The function of current limiting circuitry is to prevent damage to the IC when an overload is placed on the output of the regulator (the load impedance is too low). Without current limiting, the regulator would source excessive load current and destroy the pass transistor inside the part. To prevent this occurrence, the current limit circuit will override the voltage control loop, and cut down the drive to the pass transistor so that the maximum safe current level is not exceeded. There are two basic types of current limiting circuits most commonly used in linear regulators: y Constant Current Limiting y Voltage-Dependent Current Limiting (sometimes called "Foldback Limiting")

CONSTANT CURRENT LIMITING Many regulators (and most LDO regulators) specify only a single value of maximum current. This value is guaranteed for any input/output voltage within the maximum ratings for the part. For example, the LP2952 is guaranteed to source at least 250 mA without going into current limiting, as long as the output is in the 1.25V - 29V range and the input voltage is at least 0.8V above the output. In Figure, a simplified schematic diagram is shown of a circuit that will provide constant current limiting. This is a "discrete" design implementation (the circuitry used in an IC regulator may be slightly different).

VOLTAGE DEPENDENT (FOLDBACK) CURRENT LIMITING Voltage regulators which are relatively high current (>1A) use a type of current limiting where the maximum allowable value of load current is dependent on the input-output voltage differential across the part. The reason this is required is due to a characteristic of all transistors called Safe Operating Area (SOA) that limits the amount of current a transistor can safely handle as the voltage increases (see Figure).

The data shown in the SOA curve were taken from a published data sheet for a TIP31A (3A/60V) NPN transistor. The important information on the SOA curve is that the safe operating current value drops to about 15% of maximum when the voltage across the part (VCE) is at its full rated value. If the full 3A current rating is to be used, the VCE can not exceed about 14V. It is important to realize that the input-output voltage across a linear regulator is also the VCE across its pass transistor. This means the load current must be limited in accordance with the SOA curve of the regulator pass transistor. The current limit curve for a linear regulator must fit "under" the SOA curve for the pass transistor if the device is to survive under all overload conditions. The current limit curve for the LM317 will be detailed later (in Figure 11) to illustrate this. It can be seen the shape of the curve resembles the SOA curve in Figure 9 drawn on linear axes.

Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

Like a linear power supply, the switched mode power supply too converts the available unregulated ac or dc input voltage to a regulated dc output voltage. However in case of SMPS with input supply drawn from the ac mains, the input voltage is first rectified and filtered using a capacitor at the rectifier output. The unregulated dc voltage across the capacitor is then fed to a high frequency dc-to-dc converter. Most of the dc-to-dc converters used in SMPS circuits have an intermediate high frequency ac conversion stage to facilitate the use of a high frequency transformer for voltage scaling and isolation. In contrast, in linear power supplies with input voltage drawn from ac mains, the mains voltage is first stepped down (and isolated) to the desired magnitude using a mains frequency transformer, followed by rectification and filtering. The high frequency transformer used in a SMPS circuit is much smaller in size and weight compared to the low frequency transformer of the linear power supply circuit. The Switched Mode Power Supply owes its name to the dc-to-dc switching converter for conversion from unregulated dc input voltage to regulated dc output voltage. The switch employed is turned ON and OFF (referred as switching) at a high frequency. During ON mode the switch is in saturation mode with negligible voltage drop across the collector and emitter terminals of the switch where as in OFF mode the switch is in cut-off mode with negligible current through the collector and emitter terminals. On the contrary the voltage-regulating switch, in a linear regulator circuit, always remains in the active region. Here simplified schematic switching arrangement is described that omits the transformer action. In fact there are several other switched mode dc-to-dc converter circuits that do not use a high frequency transformer. In such SMPS circuits the unregulated input dc voltage is fed to a high frequency voltage chopping circuit such that when the chopping circuit (often called dc to dc chopper) is in ON state, the unregulated voltage is applied to the output circuit that includes the load and some filtering circuit. When the chopper is in OFF state, zero magnitude of voltage is applied to the output side. The ON and OFF durations are suitably controlled such that the average dc voltage applied to the output circuit equals the desired magnitude of output voltage. The ratio of ON time to cycle time (ON + OFF time) is known as duty ratio of the chopper circuit. A high switching frequency (of the order of 100 KHz) and a fast

control over the duty ratio results in application of the desired mean voltage along with ripple voltage of a very high frequency to the output side, consisting of a low pass filter circuit followed by the load. The high frequency ripple in voltage is effectively filtered using small values of filter capacitors and inductors. A schematic chopper circuit along with the output filter is shown in fig.

Some other switched mode power supply circuits work in a slightly different manner than the dc-to-dc chopper circuit discussed above. Advantages and disadvantages The main advantages of this method are: y Greater efficiency because the switching transistor dissipates little power when it is outside of its active region (i.e., when the transistor acts like a switch and either has a negligible voltage drop across it or a negligible current through it). y smaller size and lighter weight (from the elimination of low frequency transformers which have a high weight) and y lower heat generation due to higher efficiency. and disadvantages include: y Greater complexity y Generation of high-amplitude y High-frequency energy that the low-pass filter must block to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI), and y A ripple voltage at the switching frequency and the harmonic frequencies. The transistor (or other device) is used as one half of a potential divider to control the output voltage, and a feedback circuit compares the output voltage to a reference voltage in order to adjust the input to the transistor, thus keeping the output voltage reasonably constant. This is inefficient: since the transistor is acting like a resistor, it will waste electrical energy by converting it to heat. In fact, the power loss due to heating in the transistor is the current times the voltage dropped across the transistor. The same function can be performed more efficiently by a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), but it is more complex and the switching currents in it tend to produce electromagnetic interference. A SMPS can easily provide more than 30A of current at voltages as low as 3V, while for the same voltage and current, a linear regulator would be very bulky and heavy.

SMPS versus linear power supply

As discussed above, in a linear regulator circuit the excess voltage from the unregulated dc input supply drops across a series element (and hence there is power loss in proportion to this voltage drop) whereas in switched mode circuit the unregulated portion of the voltage is removed by modulating the switch duty ratio. The switching losses in modern switches (like: MOSFETs) are much less compared to the loss in the linear element. In most of the switched mode power supplies it is possible to insert a high frequency transformer to isolate the output and to scale the output voltage magnitude. In linear power supply the isolation and voltage-scaling transformer can be put only across the low frequency utility supply. The low frequency transformer is very heavy and bulky in comparison to the high frequency transformer of similar VA rating. Similarly the output voltage filtering circuit, in case of low frequency ripples is much bulkier than if the ripple is of high frequency. The switched mode circuit produces ripple of high frequency that can be filtered easily using smaller volume of filtering elements. Linear power supply though more bulky and less efficient has some advantages too when compared with the switched mode power supply. Generally the control of the linear power supply circuit is much simpler than that of SMPS circuit. Since there is no high frequency switching, the switching related electro-magnetic interference (EMI) is practically absent in linear power supplies but is of some concern in SMPS circuits. Also, as far as output voltage regulation is concerned the linear power supplies are superior to SMPS. One can more easily meet tighter specifications on output voltage ripples by using linear power supplies.

Hybrid (SMPS followed by linear) power supply

A comparison of linear and switched mode power supplies tells about the advantages and disadvantages of the two. Linear power supply is highly inefficient if it has to work over large variations in input voltage, is more bulky because of the use of low frequency transformer and filter elements (inductors and capacitors). On the other hand linear power supplies give better output voltage regulation. It may sometimes be required to have output voltage regulation similar to the one provided by linear supplies and compactness and better efficiency of a switched mode supply. For this, the linear power supply may be put in tandem with a switched mode supply. Let us consider a case where one needs an isolated and well-regulated 5 volts output while input power is drawn from utility supply that has large voltage fluctuation. In such a situation one may generate an isolated 7.5 volts from an SMPS and follow it by a 5 volts linear power supply set to work with 7.5 volts input. The input to linear power supply must be few volts more than the required output (for proper biasing of the switches) and hence SMPS tries to maintain around 7.5 volts input. It can be seen that the linear power supply now does not have large input voltage variation in spite of large variations in the utility rms voltage. The SMPS portion of the power supply efficiently performs the job of voltage isolation and conversion from widely varying utility voltage to fairly regulated 7.5 volts dc. Under the given condition it may not be difficult to see that the overall efficiency of this hybrid power supply will lie between that of a SMPS and a linear supply. The overall cost may or may not increase even though two supplies in tandem are used. It is to be kept in mind that to achieve the same output voltage

specification by an SMPS circuit alone, the control and filtering circuit may become more costly and complex (than the one used in the hybrid power supply unit). Similarly if the linear supply has to be designed for larger fluctuation in input voltage the component ratings, including heat-sink ratings, will be higher and may cost as much as the hybrid unit.

Multiple output SMPS

A single power supply unit may need to output several different voltages. The individual output voltages may have different ratings in terms of output current, voltage regulation and ripple voltages. These outputs may need isolation between them. Generally a common high frequency transformer links the input and output windings and in spite of output voltage feedback all the outputs can not have same regulation because of different loads connected to different outputs and hence different ohmic (resistive) drops in the output windings (loads are generally variable and user dependent). Also the coupling between the different secondary windings and the primary winding may not be same causing different voltage drops across the respective leakage inductances. Barring this mismatch in the voltage drops across the resistances and leakage inductances of the secondary windings their output voltages are in proportional to their turns ratios. The turns ratios are properly chosen to give fairly regulated individual output voltages (even if only one output voltage feedback is used for SMPS switch control). The output that needs to have tighter voltage regulation may be used for output voltage feedback.

Resonant Mode Power Supplies

Resonant mode power supplies are a variation over SMPS circuits where the switching losses are significantly reduced by adapting zero-voltage or zero-current switching techniques. In non-resonant mode SMPS circuits the switches are subjected to hard switching (during hard-switching, both the voltage and current in the switch are of considerable magnitude resulting in large instantaneous switching power loss). Efficiency of resonant mode power supplies is generally higher than non-resonant mode supplies.

Power supply specifications

Power supplies may have several specifications to be met, including their voltage and current ratings. There may be short time ratings of higher magnitudes of current and continuous ratings of somewhat lower magnitudes. One needs to specify the tolerable limits on the ripple voltages, short-circuit protection level of current (if any) and the nature of output volt-current curve during over-current or short circuit (the output voltage magnitude should reduce or fold back towards zero, gradually, depending on the severity of over-current). The fuse requirement (if any) on the input and the output side may need to be specified. One needs to specify the type of input supply (whether ac or dc) or whether the power supply can work both from ac or dc input voltages. Acceptable range of variation in input voltage magnitude, supply frequency (in case of ac input) are also to be specified. Efficiency, weight and volume are some other important specifications.

Some applications require the electro-magnetic compatibility standards to be met. By electromagnetic compatibility it is meant that the level of EMI generation by power supply should be within tolerable limits and at the same time the power supply should have the ability to work satisfactorily in a limited noisy environment. It is quite common to have output voltage isolation and it is specified in terms of isolation breakdown voltage. In case of multiple power supplies it needs to be specified whether all the outputs need to be isolated or not and what should be the acceptable ripple voltage range for each. In majority of the cases the available source of input power is the alternating type utility voltage of 50 or 60 Hz. The voltage levels commonly used are 115V (common in countries like, USA) and 230 volts (common in India and many of the European countries). Most utility (mains) power supplies are expected to have 10% voltage regulation but for additional precaution the SMPS circuits must work even if input voltages have 20% variation. Now-a-days universal power supplies that work satisfactorily and efficiently both on 115 V and 230 V input are quite popular. These power supplies are very convenient for international travelers who can simply plug-on their equipments, like laptop computer and shaving machine, without having to pay much attention on the exact voltage and frequency levels of the utility supply. In contrast some of the other power supplies have a selector switch and the user is required to adjust the switch position to match the utility voltage. In case user forgets to keep the selector switch at correct position, the equipment attached may get damaged.

Comparison of a linear power supply and a switched-mode power supply

Linear power supply Switching power supply Notes Size and weight Heatsinks for high power linear regulators add size and weight. Transformers, if used, are large due to low operating frequency (mains power frequency is at 50 or 60 Hz); otherwise can be compact due to low component count. Smaller transformer (if used; else inductor) due to higher operating frequency (typically 50 kHz 1 MHz). Size and weight of adequate RF shielding may be significant. A transformer's power handling capacity of given size and weight increases with frequency provided that hysteresis losses can be kept down. Therefore, higher operating frequency means either higher capacity or smaller transformer. Output voltage With transformer used, any voltages available; if transformerless, not exceeding input. If unregulated, voltage varies significantly with load. Any voltages available, limited only by transistor breakdown voltages in many circuits. Voltage varies little with load. A SMPS can usually cope with wider variation of input before the output voltage changes. Efficiency, heat, and power dissipation If regulated: efficiency largely depends on voltage difference between input and output; output voltage is regulated by dissipating excess power as heat resulting in a typical efficiency of 3040%.[2] If unregulated, transformer iron and copper losses may be the only significant sources of inefficiency. Output is regulated using duty cycle control; the transistors are switched fully on or fully off, so very little resistive losses between input and the load. The only heat generated is in the non-ideal aspects of the components and quiescent current in the control circuitry. Switching losses in the transistors (especially in the short part of each cycle when the device is partially on), on-resistance of the switching transistors, equivalent series resistance in the inductor and capacitors,

and core losses in the inductor, and rectifier voltage drop contribute to a typical efficiency of 60 70%. However, by optimizing SMPS design (such as choosing the optimal switching frequency, avoiding saturation of inductors, and active rectification), the amount of power loss and heat can be minimized; a good design can have an efficiency of 95%. Complexity Unregulated may be simply a diode and capacitor; regulated has a voltage regulating IC or discrete circuit and a noise filtering capacitor; usually a simpler circuit (and simpler feedback loop stability criteria) than switch-mode circuits. Consists of a controller IC, one or several power transistors and diodes as well as a power transformer, inductors, and filter capacitors. Some design complexities present (reducing noise/interference; extra limitations on maximum ratings of transistors at high switching speeds) not found in linear regulator circuits. In switch-mode mains (AC-to-DC) supplies, multiple voltages can be generated by one transformer core, but that can introduce design/use complications: for example it may place *minimum* output current restrictions on one output. For this SMPSs have to use duty cycle control. One of the outputs has to be chosen to feed the voltage regulation feedback loop (Usually 3.3 V or 5 V loads are more fussy about their supply voltages than the 12 V loads, so this drives the decision as to which feeds the feedback loop. The other outputs usually track the regulated one pretty well). Both need a careful selection of their transformers. Due to the high operating frequencies in SMPSs, the stray inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board traces become important. Radio frequency interference Mild high-frequency interference may be generated by AC rectifier diodes under heavy current loading, while most other supply types produce no high-frequency interference. Some mains hum induction into unshielded cables, problematical for low-signal audio. EMI/RFI produced due to the current being switched on and off sharply. Therefore, EMI filters and RF shielding are needed to reduce the disruptive interference. Long wires between the components may reduce the high frequency filter efficiency provided by the capacitors at the inlet and outlet. Stable switching frequency may be important. Electronic noise at the output terminals Unregulated PSUs may have a little AC ripple superimposed upon the DC component at twice mains frequency (100 120 Hz). Can cause audible mains hum in audio equipment or brightness ripples or banded distortions in analog security cameras. Noisier due to the switching frequency of the SMPS. An unfiltered output may cause glitches in digital circuits or noise in audio circuits. This can be suppressed with capacitors and other filtering circuitry in the output stage. With a switched mode PSU the switching frequency can be chosen to keep the noise out of the circuits working frequency band (e.g., for audio systems above the range of human hearing) Electronic noise at the input terminals Causes harmonic distortion to the input AC, but relatively little or no high frequency noise. Very low cost SMPS may couple electrical switching noise back onto the mains power line, causing interference with A/V equipment connected to the same phase. Non power-factor-corrected SMPSs also cause harmonic distortion. This can be prevented if a (properly earthed) EMI/RFI filter is connected between the input terminals and the bridge rectifier. Acoustic noise Faint, usually inaudible mains hum, usually due to vibration of windings in the transformer and/or magnetostriction. Usually inaudible to most humans, unless they have a fan or are unloaded/malfunctioning, or use a switching frequency within the audio range, or the laminations of the coil vibrate at a subharmonic of the operating frequency. The operating frequency of an unloaded SMPS is sometimes in the audible human range,

and may sound subjectively quite loud for people who have hyperacusis in the relevant frequency range. Power factor Low for a regulated supply because current is drawn from the mains at the peaks of the voltage sinusoid, unless a choke-input or resistorinput circuit follows the rectifier (now rare). Ranging from very low to medium since a simple SMPS without PFC draws current spikes at the peaks of the AC sinusoid. Active/passive power factor correction in the SMPS can offset this problem and are even required by some electric regulation authorities, particularly in Europe. The internal resistance of low-power transformers in linear power supplies usually limits the peak current each cycle and thus gives a better power factor than many switch-mode power supplies that directly rectify the mains with little series resistance. Inrush current Large current when mains-powered linear power supply equipment is switched on until magnetic flux of transformer stabilises and capacitors charge completely, unless a slowstart circuit is used. Extremely large peak "in-rush" surge current limited only by the impedance of the input supply and any series resistance to the filter capacitors. Empty filter capacitors initially draw large amounts of current as they charge up, with larger capacitors drawing larger amounts of peak current. Being many times above the normal operating current, this greatly stresses components subject to the surge, complicates fuse selection to avoid nuisance blowing and may cause problems with equipment employing overcurrent protection such as uninterruptible power supplies. Mitigated by use of a suitable soft-start circuit or series resistor. Risk of electric shock Supplies with transformers allow metalwork to be grounded, safely. Dangerous if primary/secondary insulation breaks down, unlikely with reasonable design. Transformerless mainsoperated supply dangerous. In both linear and SM the mains, and possibly the output voltages, are hazardous and must be well-isolated. Common rail of equipment (including casing) is energised to half mains voltage, but at high impedance, unless equipment is earthed/grounded or doesn't contain EMI/RFI filtering at the input terminals. Due to regulations concerning EMI/RFI radiation, many SMPS contain EMI/RFI filtering at the input stage before the bridge rectifier consisting of capacitors and inductors. Two capacitors are connected in series with the Live and Neutral rails with the Earth connection in between the two capacitors. This forms a capacitive divider that energises the common rail at half mains voltage. Its high impedance current source can provide a tingling or a 'bite' to the operator or can be exploited to light an Earth Fault LED. However, this current may cause nuisance tripping on the most sensitive residual-current devices. Risk of equipment damage Very low, unless a short occurs between the primary and secondary windings or the regulator fails by shorting internally. Can fail so as to make output voltage very high. Stress on capacitors may cause them to explode. Can in some cases destroy input stages in amplifiers if floating voltage exceeds transistor base-emitter breakdown voltage, causing the transistor's gain to drop and noise levels to increase.[3] Mitigated by good failsafe design. Failure of a component in the SMPS itself can cause further damage to other PSU components; can be difficult to troubleshoot. The floating voltage is caused by capacitors bridging the primary and secondary sides of the power supply. A connection to an earthed equipment will cause a momentary (and potentially destructive) spike in current at the connector as the voltage at the secondary side of the capacitor equalises to earth potential.

Other Voltage Regulators

The other Voltage regulators are: y Common solid-state series voltage regulators are the LM78xx (for positive voltages) and LM79xx (for negative voltages) common fixed voltages are 5 V (for transistor-transistor logic circuits) and 12 V (for communications circuits and peripheral devices such as disk drives). y In fixed voltage regulators the reference pin is tied to ground. y In variable regulators the reference pin is connected to the centre point of a fixed or variable voltage divider fed by the regulator's output. A variable voltage divider (such as a potentiometer) allows the user to adjust the regulated voltage. Fixed regulators

An assortment of 78xx series ICs "Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are commonly available to generate fixed voltages of plus 3 V, and plus or minus 5 V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V when the load is less than 1.5 amperes. The "78xx" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series (7905, 7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device number are the output voltage; eg, a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a -15 V regulator. There are variants on the 78xx series ICs, such as 78L and 78S, some of which can supply up to 1.5 Amps. Adjusting fixed regulators Several ways are used to make fixed IC regulators adjustable. A zener diode or resistor is added between the IC's ground terminal and ground. Resistors are acceptable where ground current is constant, but are ill-suited to regulators with varying ground current. Switching in different zeners, diodes or resistors can be used to obtain stepwise adjustment. A potentiometer can be placed in series with the ground terminal to variably increase the output voltage. This degrades regulation, and is not suitable for regulators with varying ground current.

Adjustable regulators For output voltages not provided by standard fixed regulators and load currents of less than 7 amperes, commonly available "adjustable" three-terminal linear regulators may be used. An adjustable regulator generates a fixed low nominal voltage between its output and its 'adjust' terminal (equivalent to the ground terminal in a fixed regulator). The "317" series (+1.25V) regulates positive voltages while the "337" series (-1.25V) regulates negative voltages.

Adjustable voltage regulator circuit showing 'adjust' terminal The adjustment is performed by constructing a potential divider with its ends between the regulator output and ground, and its centre-tap connected to the 'adjust' terminal of the regulator. The ratio of resistances determines the output voltage using the same feedback mechanisms described earlier. Complex power requirements (e.g., op-amp circuits needing matched positive and negative DC supplies) are more difficult, but single IC dual tracking adjustable regulators are available. Some even have selectable current limiting as well. An example is the 419x series.