Fertilizers & Fertigation

Fertilizers Israels southern region, and in particular the Dead Sea area, is rich in mines that provide potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium for the agricultural sector. Some of the mined material is exported as raw material to fertilizer manufacturers throughout the world, and some is processed in Israel as ready-to-use fertilizers for agriculture in Israel and for export. Israel is among the worlds largest manufacturers of potassium nitrate, a highly soluble fertilizer that is suitable for a wide variety of plants and crops. Potassium nitrate can be delivered through fertigation systems or by foliar application. The fertilizer is sold in powdered or granulated form. Other highly soluble fertilizers manufactured in Israel include MAP (mono-ammonium phosphate) and MKP (mono-potassium phosphate). Fertilizer manufacturers also develop and produce controlled release fertilizers (CRFs). These are coated in polymers to ensure slow, prolonged release and delivery via diffusion. CRFs allow for better exploitation of the fertilizer material and less groundwater pollution. These fertilizers can effectively match the needs of many crops during the growing periods. While CRFs are more expensive than common compound fertilizers by one factor or more, they have the potential to replace conventional fertilizers in greenhouse production. This is due to their ability to reduce the enormous nutrient losses in current fertigation practices, which cause groundwater pollution (where fertigation water is not reused). In 2001, Israel exported $649 million in fertilizers. In recent years, environmental concerns have compelled chemical companies to seek ways to reduce the use of pollutants and increase the use of environment-friendly materials. Fertigation Israel has a total land area of 21,000 km2, of which around 20% is arable. Over half of Israel has an arid to semi-arid climate. In Israel, where water availability is a limiting factor for crop production, microirrigation (mostly drip irrigation) supplies over 75% of the total irrigated area. The fertigation method, which implements the simultaneous use of irrigation and fer tilization, is applied on about 80% of the irrigated land. The main advantages of fertigation over irrigation combined with broadcast or banding fertilization can be summarized as follows: remarkable increase in the efficiency of the fertilizer application; precise application of the nutrients according to crop requirements; convenient use of compound and ready-mix nutrient solutions, including minor elements that are otherwise very difficult to apply accurately to the field; easier regulation and

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monitor ing of nutr ient supply. An essential prerequisite for use of solid fertilizers in fertigation is its solubility in irrigation water. Effective fer tigation requires an understanding of the plant nutrient curve, soil and fertilizer chemistry, and water quality. There are many fertilizer programs for each crop. Fertigation allows for the adjustment of nutrient requirement during the various stages of the plants growth: rooting, vegetative, flowering, fruit set, and maturation. Fertigation programs are developed on the basis of laboratory analysis of soil, leaf, or other plant tissue. These are followed up by field trials, which are conducted by agronomists from the Agricultural Extension Service of Israels Ministr y of Agriculture and Rural Development, and research institutes.

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Seeds
Israel is involved in the development, production and marketing of new varieties, which are resistant to disease and able to meet farmers requirements, including long shelf-life, durability under storage, high yield and adaptation to a variety of climatic conditions. Israel is considered to be one of the leading countries in seed research. Each year, Israel exports over $80 million worth of seeds, mainly hybrid vegetable seeds, to markets which depend on improved yields and quality. Developing New Varieties New seed varieties are developed mostly by Israels private sector seed companies and agricultural research institutes. Research is conducted at various sites, including seed companies research stations, the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and Bar-Ilan University. Market demands also influence research and development. One example is interspecific hybrid cotton which combines the advantages of two cotton species, Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense, and is characterized by longer and stronger fibers. This is typically a high yield-per-area crop, requiring less water. It has been grown with excellent results in the USA, Europe and other regions. These hybrid cotton varieties have improved lint quality, and need 40% less irrigation when grown in marginal fields. Another example is the introduction of a mini seedless watermelon that fits easily into the refrigerator, as well as mini-cucumbers suitable for snacking. Agricultural research has contributed to the development of high added-value products, such as cherry tomatoes, lycopene-rich tomatoes, greenhouse tomatoes, a new generation of Galia type melons, greenhouse peppers, and hybrid cotton. The Israeli seed industry is recognized for its development of hybrid seeds for fresh produce, particularly tomatoes. A tomato hybrid renowned for its long shelf-life has been developed. The fruits of the new varieties are attractive, solid, and enjoy a long shelf-life. A substantial number of tomato greenhouses in Europe utilize seeds developed and produced in Israel. Recently, after the tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) started spreading in many regions in the world, the Israeli seed industry was called upon to carry out extensive research on the subject, and as a result a TYLCV-resistant tomato seed for greenhouse and open field production has been released. Seed scientists have also developed special varieties of peppers, short-day onions, melons and wheat, allowing the farmer to grow high quality produce. New varieties of cucumbers produced in greenhouses have the advantage of obtaining high yields and high quality, even during the off-season.

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The Process of New Variety Development Plant breeding is a very dynamic sector with supporting research that is typically comprehensive and highly developed. The cycle of a product is about four to five years, after which it is replaced on the market by new products. It takes an average of about five to six years to develop and commercialize a new variety; therefore development of the next generation of seeds must begin even before the present one is introduced. Biotechnological methods, which shorten this lengthy process by about 20%, are used. New varieties are tested using molecular markers that can identify desirable or undesirable traits at the earliest development stages, so that experiments can be pursued or discontinued accordingly. The search for new cultivars and the development of new varieties involve the application of sophisticated cross-breeding and genetic engineering methods. Through genetic engineering, still in its experimental stages, desirable characteristics that are not present in the plants can be introduced. Plants produced in this manner are known as transgenic or genetically modified, and are implanted with foreign genes, endowing them with new traits. These methods enable the development of plants resistant to various pathogens, such as viruses and insects, or plants with high levels of vitamins. Highly resistant and vigorous varieties are currently being developed, which minimize the need for pesticides and fertilizers and allow them to grow naturally. Following the transition to organically-grown, chemical-free products, Israel has developed environment-friendly management for vegetable and fruit production.

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Greenhouses
Production under protected conditions has become the principle way for Israeli growers to ensure a constant, year-round supply of high quality products, while minimizing chemical use. This method helps to overcome obstacles imposed by adverse climatic conditions, and a shortage of water and land. The total area covered with greenhouses, nethouses and walk-in tunnels increased from 900 ha in the 1980s to about 6,800 ha in 2002, with 4,000 ha for vegetables and 2,800 ha for floriculture, representing an average annual growth of 5 - 8%. The average farm size is 4 ha for vegetable production and 1.2 ha for flower production Greenhouses, which are capital intensive both in construction and maintenance, are largely used for high added-value crops such as flowers and vegetables. Due to the high investment, growers are constantly seeking methods to streamline their operations and make them more cost-effective. The greenhouse allows the farmer to control most production parameters including climate, fertigation, and biological control of plant disease and insects optimizing land use and yield distribution during the growing season. Israeli farmers successfully grow between 3.5 and 4.5 million roses per hectare in season. An average of 400 tons of tomatoes are grown per hectare, four times the amount harvested in open fields. In addition, plastic greenhouse structures have recently been introduced for housing livestock, poultry, and fish. In addition to traditional greenhouse crops such as flowers and vegetables, experiments have recently been conducted to investigate the feasibility of growing fruit such as nectarines, peaches, loquats, grapes, and bananas under protected conditions. Plastic Covering The plastic used for greenhouse covers is mainly polyethylene, with three- or five-layer technology. This provides the cover with special characteristics such as anti-drip, anti-dust and thermicity. The plastic covering produced today is durable and resistant to vapor from sulfur used as pesticides in greenhouses. Israeli-made plastic sheeting is used for covering structures as well as for light-spectrum control and manipulation to influence plant growth and insect behavior; filter ultra-violet (UV) rays; radiate infrared (IR) rays; and refract and distribute light to maximize its beneficial effect on the plants. Some covers include additives that prevent water from dripping onto the plants (anti-fog) and protect the covering against degradation. The addition of various colors also helps combat pests. Netting The main Integrated Pest Management (IPM) tool that is used in greenhouses and nethouses is the insect-proof net, mainly 50 mesh. These nets keep the insects out, without using any chemicals. Most vegetable and flower greenhouses are sealed with insect-proof nets. Insects carry viruses that have a devastating effect on plants, and methods of controlling them are expensive. Many greenhouses, in addition to the plastic covering, have net walls that prevent the entry of insects and allow for heat dispersal. Other kinds of netting are used for shading. These nets are categorized according to the percentage of shading they produce.

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Advanced manufacturing methods have succeeded in producing netting that serves as a sophisticated thermal screen, reducing solar radiation during the day, and preventing heat loss at night. The new development is particularly beneficial in areas with extreme day and night temperature differences. This netting is also used to cool poultry houses. New research conducted by Israeli scientists show the advantages of color nets on fruit trees such as apple, nectarine, persimmon, peach and various ornamental cut leaves. The new color net is found to promote earliness, improve quality, produce higher yields and provide other benefits. Structure The structure of greenhouses requires a rigid, heavy covering, providing sufficient durability to prevent damage by strong winds and snow. The advanced greenhouse construction currently used in Israel includes curtains, skylights, and shade netting, which move automatically in reaction to sunlight. Modern greenhouses are higher, reaching five meters at the lowest point. This provides better ventilation, while allowing for the installation of shade netting and thermal coverings. It also allows for trellising greenhouse plants such as tomatoes and cucumbers. Israeli standards require that a greenhouse be able to withstand winds of up to 150 km/h. However, greenhouses actually meet far stricter standards and are exported to countries which have harsher climatic conditions than Israel. Substrates The total area of greenhouse crops grown in soilless culture (substrates) has increased to 800 hectares. Substrates enable the farmer to better monitor the growing process (for example, soil diseases, nutrition, water content of soil). The main substrate types are: Tuff (volcanic ash): This is by far the most commonly used material in Israel. Organic substrates such as peat moss, coconut coir and composts: Due to their biological instability, which may lead to aeration problems, these materials are usually mixed with light porous materials such as perlite or Styrofoam. Perlite: Medium or coarse grade is used for vegetables and cut flowers, while the fine grade is used outdoors. Rockwool: This media is becoming less important, although it is still used for rose production.

Climate Control An innovative technology developed in Israel allows cooling of the greenhouses during the day and heating them at night, with a minimal investment of energy. This is accomplished by using a shower system that sprays uniform droplets and is installed at one end of the greenhouse. During the day, these droplets absorb excess heat from the greenhouse and store it until night, when the heat is released. This method is used especially for ornamental plants, which require a high degree of humidity. The Computerized Greenhouse Computer hardware and software have been developed in Israel, which allow automatic control of the greenhouse water, fertilizer and climate systems. Software developers maintain close contact with growers, in order to keep abreast of latest developments in agricultural systems and provide the most effective and advanced solutions.

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Crop Protection
Background Through its unique geographic location, Israel acts as the southern border for temperatezone pests, such as the late blight of potato, and as the northern border for tropical pests, such as the Egyptian cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis). In general, Israel suffers from many parasitic insect pests, diseases and weeds. A wide array of new pests intrude annually, either air-borne or carried on imported plant material. This particular situation requires a dynamic crop protection system. Most of Israels agricultural production is highly intensive, based on small farm units which need close advisory work and regular technical updates. Production is export-oriented and has to comply with the severe quality requirements of the western marketplace. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) The protection of all crops in the country is based on the guiding principle of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as requested by both the domestic and export markets. IPM focuses on a reduction of chemical pest control and protection of the environment. In more practical terms, this means spraying only when necessary, preferring environmentfriendly chemicals, and promoting the use of biological control in a series of crops such as avocado, strawberry, pepper and citrus. A parallel supporting activity consists of the wide adoption of pest monitoring and improved decision-making on pest management and control. Three basic pest management concepts are being used: conventional pest control, supervised control and IPM. The technical policy is to expand the acreage under IPM, and, indeed, 25% of the countrys of fruit crop area is already being managed according to an IPM regime. Chemical Control Chemical control is still part of an IPM system. IPM rationalizes chemical control and combines it with non-chemical control means. Israels agrochemical industry is spearheaded by the worlds largest generic pesticide manufacturer, which also produces a biocontrol agent for the control of graymold, and another large chemical firm, which after producing methyl bromide an ozone-depleting soil fumigant earmarked for phase out by the Montreal Protocol moved recently into the manufacturing of methyl bromide alternatives. Flow of Crop Protection Information The crop protection extension system of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development cooperates with public research, the Plant Protection and Inspection Services, which is the Ministrys regulatory agency, and the chemical industry. This close collaboration and networking ensures that the main problem areas where there are newly intruding pests and pests causing severe losses are dealt with in a well-coordinated way at pesticide registration and recommendation levels for the benefit of the end-users, who are the growers. Technological Developments in Crop Protection The quality requirements of the export markets and the goal of adopting non-chemical pest control practices induced the crop protection technical establishment research,

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extension, and industry to sustain an R&D approach and apply its new and sophisticated technologies on the ground. Following are examples of technological developments: " Soil solarization, which has been applied for over two decades, utilizes solar energy for the control of soil-borne pathogens, root-knot nematodes, insect pests and weeds. " Insect-proof screens reduce the intruding sucking insect populations and the subsequent infestation with viral diseases. This development accompanied the massive growth of the greenhouse industry and the transfer of intensive crops from outdoor to indoor conditions. " UV-absorbing plastic sheets and screens cause spatial disorientation of the sucking insects flying habits, reducing direct losses caused by their sucking and the transfer of viral diseases. " Various insect traps have been developed and applied for both pest monitoring and for the reduction of insect populations. " Pheromone traps are used in most of the countrys cotton fields for monitoring as well as for disrupting communication between male and female pink bollworm moths. " A biocontrol agent based on Trichoderma harzianum controls graymold on several indoor vegetables and grapes. This compound was developed by public research and is now commercially manufactured by the private sector. " Sticky color panels are used indoors for monitoring and mass trapping of sucking insects. Yellow panels are used to control whitefly and blue ones to control western flower thrips.

Grafting is becoming more common. Almost fifty percent of the watermelon grown in the country is grafted on squash which is resistant to soil-borne and viral diseases. Regional Cooperation in Pest Manaagement Israel carries out pest management projects with its neighbors to resolve and alleviate regional pest control problems. A regional pest management program brings together Egypt, Jordan, the Palestinian Authority and Israel, with USAID assistance. In recent years, a regional Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) project for the eradication of the Mediterranean fruit fly has been implemented in the southern part of the country. The project is coordinated by the UN Atomic Energy Commission, and it will be expanded soon under the EASTMED program.

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Agricultural Engineering
Israels agricultural engineering industry is well-known for its irrigation systems. This industry also produces specially-designed machinery for the specific conditions of Israeli agriculture, including sophisticated sensors, greenhouse equipment, cladding materials, packaging systems, and management software. Agricultural engineering research is mostly application oriented and maintains close relationships with the industry for the benefit of Israeli farmers. Some examples of recent developments are described below: Special sensors have been developed to record plant growth-rate and determine growing needs. The use of these sensors results in significant saving in water and fertilizers, while improving production and quality. Special equipment and machinery for vineyards, which enable management of large vineyards with minimal labor, have been developed and commercialized. These include systems for pr uning, windowing, tr imming, sweeping, and spr aying. Harvesting systems for crops such as flower bulbs, potatoes and sweet potatoes, watermelons, dates, jojoba, peanuts, and chili peppers are designed and manufactured according to the special needs of Israeli agriculture. Special systems and methods for post-harvest operations such as separation of clods and stones from potatoes, weighing and sorting flower bulbs and corms according to size, hot-water washing systems for fresh produce, accurate vibrating sizers, flower bunching systems, and length sorting are widely used to improve product quality and reduce labor. A variety of sprayers for dedicated applications are manufactured in Israel, designed for low volume, precise pesticide application. Solar soil disinfestation is widely practiced, using plastic films with special properties. An innovative technology for spray application of polymers for soil mulch purposes was developed, providing a feasible and cost-effective alternative to plastic mulch.The polymers may be applied by spraying the desired quantity to form a membrane film through which seedlings can emerge and later grow on the mulch.The membrane formed is flexible and porous, keeps its integrity on the soil surface, increases soil temperature, and reduces evaporation. In addition, mulched soil prevents the erosion and destruction of young seedlings by sandstorms.The membrane undergoes photo- and bio-degradation, resulting in its complete elimination without environmental pollution and hazards. Automatically Guided Vehicles (AGVs), which follow an electric wire carrying a signal, are used in greenhouses for transporting crops to the packing house and returning empty containers to the pickers. A multi-purpose transportation system, which travels along a monorail mounted on the greenhouse structure, is used where conditions permit. Both systems are labor saving.

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Research & Development

Agriculture today is largely based on research and development (R&D). Modern agriculture faces many challenges, such as market competition, declining water availability and quality, environmental concerns, and availability and cost of human labor. All these require ongoing innovation and close cooperation with the scientific community. The particular challenges facing agriculture in Israel, such as limited availability of arable land and water resources, as well as high labor costs, also act as stimulants for increased research and development. Israel is among the worlds leaders in allocation of financial resources to research and development. Some $90 million are invested annually in R&D, representing 3% of the agricultural GNP. As a result of this research effort, Israeli agriculture has become a model for efficient use of water, land and human labor, accompanied by record yields of high-quality products. National priorities for research are set every year by the Chief Scientists National Steering Committee for agricultural R&D. For each section/branch, there is an experts panel that decides on priorities and monitors the achievements of the research activities. Approximately 50-60% of agricultural research is carried out by the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, which is the research arm of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. The ARO consists of seven professional research and support institutes: Horticulture; Field Crops; Livestock; Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences; Plant Protection; Storage and Post-Harvest Technology; and Agricultural Engineering. Research is also conducted at academic institutions, such as the Hebrew University of Jerusalems Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the Technions Department of Agricultural Engineering, Ben-Gurion University in the Negev, and Tel Aviv University. Additional activities in applied research are carried out at regional R&D centers. These were established in order to meet the unique climate, soil conditions, and other needs of each particular region. The regional R&D centers, reflecting government policy for developing the nations agriculture in peripheral areas of national priority, are located mainly in the north and south of the country, in the Jordan Valley, and in the Negev and Arava deserts.

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Most of the research is funded by public sources, and its results are open to the agricultural community. The government and other public sources contribute approximately $50 million annually to the ARO and the Chief Scientists Fund, whose establishment resulted in a significant increase in agricultural R&D investment. Other international public sources contribute some $12 million annually, including binational research funds with the USA and the Netherlands, as well as the research funds of the EU, after Israel joined this framework. Farmers organizations on national and regional levels contribute about $8 million annually, collected through a levy on their production. The private business sector invests an estimated $20 million annually. The investment is directed to products in which investors can assure their ownership of the intellectual property rights. Most of this research is conducted by companies that produce pesticides, fertilizers, seeds, plastics, irrigation equipment, and related products. This agricultural input industry is also applying the results of the aforementioned public research. Private-sector investment has increased in recent years, and its share in national research efforts has grown, for the benefit of Israeli agriculture and expansion in export of inputs.

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Biotechnology
Emerging biotechnologies, which have undergone a dramatic development over the last twenty years, promise to break through the constraints of conventional methodologies and provide complementary procedures and products. Below is a description of some current studies in major areas of agricultural biotechnology. " Plant biotechnology with a focus on major crops " Microbial agribiotechnology: plant pest control; use of beneficial microorganisms (for biofertilization and improved root growth) " Environmental biotechnology: use of plants for bioremediation " Livestock biotechnology: breeding and genetic manipulations (for improved growth, milk and egg production); DNA marker-assisted selection " Aquatic and marine biotechnology Some of the major research projects related to these areas of biotechnology are described below. " Crop improvement-breeding and selection for traits of yield and quality: mapping of disease-resistant genes; molecular analysis of flower pigmentation; improving the quality and shelf-life of tomatoes; generating functional food with antioxidants to provide healthier products by genetic engineering of vegetables; introduction of new horticulture traits to flowers and trees; generating plants expressing drought and salinity-responsive genes to render them more resistant to extreme environmental stresses " Plant pest control: control of phytopathogenic fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and insects " Cell and tissue culture: rapid clonal propagation; germplasm conservation; scalingup of micropropagation of ornamental plants, using optimized bioreactors; acclimatization of micropropagated plants; clonal propagation of forest trees " Use of beneficial microorganisms for improving plant growth and biofertilization " Recycling of agricultural and other wastes: lignin degradation; biodegradation of xenobiotics, pesticides, and herbicides; biofiltration and absorption of toxic chemicals and industrial wastes " Development of seedless cultivars; production of hybrid seeds and flowering control in tomato, pepper, melon, cucumbers, and strawberries as well as detection of pestresistant genes and markers; use of transgenic breeding to render plants resistant to viruses such as TYLCV and CMV " Characterization of new genes and their regulators to combat biotic and abiotic stresses in plants along with study of molecular markers for breeding of vegetable crops, field crops, fruit trees, and ornamentals " Biological control of post-harvest diseases of fruit and vegetables; regulation of natural pest-resistance of the avocado fruit; molecular-physiological studies of fruit ripening and softening

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Biotechnology R&D is aimed at meeting the following challenges of Israels agriculture: " Production of high-quality, improved plant and animal germplasm, such as state-of-the-art propagation material and high-tech gene packages for the horticulture and livestock sectors " Efficient use of biopesticides and biofertilizers for integrated pest control and environmentally-safe use of chemicals " Introduction of new concepts into agriculture, such as the use of plants as bioreactors to produce valuable pharmaceutical or edible vaccines All these areas of biotechnology d e a l with food, nutrients and pharmaceutical production and the quality of agricultural products. The common denominator is the attempt to regulate the genes responsible for specific qualitative or quantitative tr aits. Agr icultur al biotechnologies are making new inroads, thereby both overcoming the constraints of conventional breeding and cultivation procedures, and providing complementary procedures.

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Post-Harvest Technologies
There is a growing requirement in agricultural markets for high quality produce, which is free of pests, pathogens and pesticides.The main objective of the Institute for Technology and Storage of Agricultural Products in the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) is to solve current and anticipated problems of post-harvest agriculture in Israel, in order to enable the marketing of such high quality produce. Many post-harvest developments are the result of requests by the local food industry and related bodies. Others are the result of anticipated industry needs. Some of the developments are related to the protection of both locally-produced and imported dry agricultural products, and the preservation of fodder for livestock. Post-harvest research concentrates on protection, preservation, treatment, processing, storage and transportation of fresh, dried and processed foods.This research is conducted under disciplines that include physiology, physics, chemistry and biochemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, and entomology. The research activities related to post-harvest science of fresh produce are concerned mainly with maintaining the quality of fresh fruits, vegetables, and floral and ornamental products after harvest, in order to improve marketability for export. Special efforts are being devoted to finding and developing alternatives to chemical methods for the control of post-harvest pathogens and pests. These alternatives include the reinforcement of host resistance, biological control and applications of physical treatments. The basic research projects deal with physiological, pathological, biochemical and molecular aspects of fruits and vegetables after harvest. Various fresh fruits (citrus, tropical, subtropical, deciduous), vegetables (leafy, root and others) and fresh herbs grown in Israel are the subjects of the following fields of study:
" " " "

Post-harvest physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology Control of post-harvest rot causing fungi and bacteria, and study of host-parasite interactions Post-harvest technologies, such as handling, disinfection, waxing, packaging, cooling, degreening, fumigation and gassing Optimal export and storage conditions

Israels post-harvest activities are carried out in cooperation with other ARO units, with the Agricultural Extension Service, growers, farmers organizations and agriculture-related companies in Israel, and with counterpart institutes overseas.

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Agricultural Extension Service

Background and Concept The Agricultural Extension Service of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development played a vital role in the early days of agricultural development in Israel. It provided training to the inexperienced farmers, most of them new immigrants, enabling them to attain advanced agriculture using the limited resources at their disposal. Over the years, agriculture was developed through a rapid transfer of practical information from research to the field and the farmer. Work teams were set up around the country, providing a skilled and competent nationwide training system. This training system has become a central factor in the professional advancement of agriculture in competitive market conditions. It promotes the production of quality agricultural output and increases the ability to exploit the relative advantages of the countrys different regions, both for the export and local market. As a result, agricultural extension and research have become an integral part of Israels agricultural infrastructure. The Agricultural Extension Service serves public and private interests. Its primary function is to provide professional advisory services to Israeli farmers. It also provides advisory services to the various departments in the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and determines agrotechnological norms. Structure and Organization The Agricultural Extension Service has about 230 staff members. A third, mostly subjectmatter specialists, work at ministry headquarters in Beit Dagan, near Tel Aviv. Most of the other staff are extension personnel who provide advisory services in six regions around the country. There are fourteen professional departments, specializing in the various branches of agricultural production. These are complemented by depar tments which provide professional support, such as crop protection, field service for irrigation and fertilization, farm management and production economics, and mechanization and technology. Each department is responsible for its own nationwide team of extension workers. The Service is financed by two sources: government funds (80%) and non-government sources, mainly production and marketing boards (20%). Israel is one of the countries that provide free extension services to its farmers, although some supplementary advisory packages are provided upon specific request in exchange for payment. The Role of the Service The Agricultural Extension Service has five main areas of activity: " Individual consultation for farmers " Field laboratory-services " Short- and long-term training courses for farmers " Generation of practical know-how through field tests and observations " Professional publications, recorded documentation, CDs, videos and presentations The Service maintains a close relationship with the entities that constitute the classic triangle extension-research-farmer - through field experiments and R&D. The agricultural input manufacturers which regard the Service as an objective and reliable factor that is able to promote the introduction of innovative technologies for their benefit can be added to this triangle. Israeli agriculture, extension, and research, combined with the input manufacturers, can be regarded as components in a nationwide laboratory in which innovative agricultural technologies are studied and developed.
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The Agricultural Extension Service uses computer technologies to develop training for farmers. Extension personnel receive information and provide recommendations using digital cameras and other computercontrolled equipment. The Service holds distance learning courses using special software, the Internet, and its website (www.shaham.moag.gov.il), which includes extensive professional information. Activities and Professional Tasks The Agricultural Extension Ser vice constitutes a hub of agricultural know-how gathered from different sources: agricultural research conducted in academic institutions in Israel and abroad; know-how created by R&D, both in the Service itself and in regional experiment stations; and collaboration with private agricultural input suppliers. The Service converts all this know-how into recommendations for the farmers, with the aim of improving their competence. It has recently experienced a revolution in computer technology, which facilitates knowhow transfer to the farmers and improves i n t e r- a n d e x t r a - o r g a n i z a t i o n a l communications. The Service focuses on subjects which are beneficial to the general public. Examples of these include: Water management: Promotion of watersaving technologies, recycling water and use of poor-quality water Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Promotion of IPM with the aim of creating environment-friendly agriculture. In Israel, about 100,000 ha of horticulture are under an IPM regime, reducing pesticide use by thirty to forty percent Quality agricultural production: Adaptation of agricultural production to comply with quality-management criteria, achieving high-standard produce that meets consumer demands, including food-safety requirements

Labor-saving technologies: Promotion of labor-saving technologies in all agricultural branches Environment-friendly issues: Promotion of ecologically-oriented agriculture, by recycling marginal water for irrigation and adapting the livestock branch to environmental requirements Diversifying varieties and species: Diversification of varieties and species for agricultural production, using innovative extension methods Professional support in peripheral areas: Support for farmers in peripheral areas where agriculture is a key economic factor Since the inception of Israels international agricultural cooperation program about fifty years ago, the Agricultural Extension Service has taken an active and key role in providing trained and skilled human resources and expertise for these activities in and for developing countries.

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International Agricultural Cooperation

Israel places great emphasis on international cooperation with developing countries in a wide range of areas, encompassing training, demonstration project development, joint research, know-how transfer and exchange of experts. The hallmark of the international cooperation program is Israels own professional and operational achievements, and experience in agriculture, rural development and human-capacity building. International cooperation is implemented primarily on a government-to-government basis, as well as with international organizations, institutes and NGOs. In this context, over the past five decades, the State of Israel, under the auspices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs International Cooperation Division (MASHAV) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Developments Center for International Agricultural Development Cooperation (CINADCO), has been actively involved in formulating and conducting international cooperation programs. These programs are based on international agricultural training courses in Israel and on-the-spot courses overseas, and joint agricultural research projects, as well as development of various demonstration-oriented agricultural projects. In the framework of the training activities, CINADCO publishes and produces a wide range of professional and development-oriented materials in five languages. Technical assistance to public and private sector agricultural initiatives is supported through agribusiness advisory centers to enhance agricultural development and economic growth. Courses and Workshops in Israel and Overseas In Israel, CINADCO's Training Division plans, organizes and implements international agricultural training activities, conducted in English, Arabic, Spanish, French and Russian. The training programs are held for about 2,000 participants annually, who come to study and explore a wide range of development and specialized agricultural subjects. These subjects include irrigation, tree crops, horticulture, poultry production, dairy, sheep and goats, beekeeping, agro-ecology, farm management, agribusiness, marketing, development of arid zones, livestock management in warm climates, and topics linked to agricultural extension and agri-support services. The international overseas training program, more commonly known as on-the-spot or mobile courses, is an impor tant development component and an integral par t of CINADCOs overall training program and professional project-support activities carried out with the developing host countries. Each year CINADCO organizes some 80 to 100 in-country mobile courses in specialized agricultural subjects, conducted by Israeli specialists and development experts. Projects Agricultural development and demonstration-oriented project activities are an important and integral part in CINADCOs professional and operational agenda. Various demonstration project models have been developed to suit different agricultural and rural conditions. The prime concept in most cases is a bottom-up development approach of practical operations at an integrated demonstration site, located at the actual field level. Such

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demonstration farm models, supported by Israeli long-term expert assignments at the project site and short-term consultancies, have been established in different countries, including China, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Hungar y, India, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Malawi, the Philippines, Poland, Romania, Senegal, Swaziland, Thailand, Uzbekistan, and others. The demonstration farm that has been established in China utilizes Israeli agritechnologies, combined with know-how and inputs to enhance production quality and market-driven development. The farm also serves as a center where host-country nationals can be trained and experience practical and professional aspects of the farm operations. In Africa, demonstration-cum-training farms have been established in arid areas in Kenya, Eritrea, Senegal and Zimbabwe to demonstrate the advantages of appropriate technologies, focusing on irrigation, crop diversification, improved production practices and agribusiness development at field level. In Latin America, projects include livestock and dairy development, as well as special projects to assist in the rehabilitation of rural areas devastated by natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes. The main effort is centered on the transfer of advanced technology for water conservation and efficiency, introduction of new crops and varieties, and enhancement of public and pr ivate development initiatives. Israel has also initiated projects to combat desertification and develop arid-zone agriculture in West Africa, Indias Rajasthan desert area, Chinas Gansu and Xianjiang provinces, northern Chile and neighboring Middle East countries. Israel is involved in agro-ecological projects at reducing the use of chemicals through Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems, and controlling

depletion of the ozone layer by developing methyl-bromide alternatives. Courses and seminars have been held on this subject in several countries in Africa, Latin America, Russia, CIS and Asia. Israels international cooperation in agriculture is conducted in conjunction and co-financing with other donor countries, and CINADCO is seeking to expand networking with other international organizations to overcome world development problems. The Research Division in CINADCO is engaged in coordination of research cooperation programs with developing countries.The activities are carried out with the participation of experts and scientists from the host countries.

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Desert Agriculture
Desert Agriculture in Israel More than sixty per cent of Israel is subject to semi-arid and arid conditions and may be classified as desert. Nevertheless, since the establishment of the State in 1948, these areas have played an important role in the country's agricultural and economic growth due to the developing of innovative farming methods and techniques suitable for arid zone agriculture. At present, more than forty per cent of the country's greenhouse- and open field-grown vegetables and field crops and ninety per cent of the exported melons come from the Arava and Negev desert. In the arid south, fruits, including dates, and citrus are also among the leading crops, cover 12,600 hectares (2001 figures) . In addition, recent advances have been made with greenhouse and open-field flowers, grapes for wine , olives for oil, beef cattle , ostriches for meat, and aquaculture . As elsewhere in Israel, close cooperation exists between the farming and research communities in the south. The fruits of this cooperation may be seen in the resulting yields. Some examples: New citrus varieties produce between 50-100% higher yields than traditional ones; olive trees drip irrigated with brackish water achieve per-hectare oil yields which are six times higher than in the traditional rainfed groves in other parts of the country; fish farmers in the Arava and Negev expect to produce 2,000 tons annually in the coming years; and beef cattle are fed fodder and ostriches consume alfalfa grown with recycled br ackish water obtained from fish cultivation International Cooperation Since the late 1950s, Israel has been sharing its agricultural expertise with scores of countries. A little more than a decade ago, in the midst of one of the periodic cycles of drought and famine that bring Africa to the headlines, researchers of the Institute for Agriculture and Applied Biology, a unit of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, asked themselves how to promote the approach they had used in efforts to green the desert in Israel. This approach centers on the wide-scale introduction, domestication and evaluation of plant species from around the world, in order to determine which, if any, could play a role given Israel's agroecological situation. The concrete result of the brain-storming session was the initiation of the International Program for Arid Land Crops, more commonly known as IPALAC. The programs goal is to share this approach with nations who might benefit from it. IPALAC was officially recognized by UNESCO, which began funding its activities in 1996. During the early stages, activities were divided essentially into two: the organization of workshops in Israel, where the impact of the introduction and domestication work could be viewed firsthand, and regional workshops in Africa, where specific ideas for new crop-based development might be undertaken.

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IPALAC's second phase was to begin implementing two specific projects that emerged during that preliminary phase, one called Dates for the Sahel, and a second which evolved into what is now called the Sahelian Eco-Farm (SEF), and which is described below. It was also during this phase that MASHAV (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Center for International Cooperation) and the Government of Finland became major financial supporters of IPALAC. The SEF is a production system for rainfed agriculture which was designed to overcome a range of obstacles simultaneously. These problems include soil erosion, loss of fertility, and low and erratic rainfall. The SEF is based on growing a number of multi-purpose perennial species - providing a range of goods and services - in a single field. Traditional and new annual crops are cultivated between the rows of trees. During its first full season, the SEF generated about $600 per hectare, while a typical millet field of the same size produced about $50. Furthermore, while the millet field mines resources, the SEF enriches the land. The African Market Garden (AMG) is another project that was introduced by IPALAC to Niger in francophone West Africa. The AMG is an intensive agricultural system for smallholders, designed for plots of about 500 m2 each. This system incorporates modern low-pressure drip irrigation technology, a crop mix of annuals and perennials (with the date palm playing a central role), and an operating system which allows farmers to follow a set of simple steps which results in fertigating their fields based on scientific principles. The AMG model is intended to produce fresh fruit and vegetables for the farmers family, and for sale in the local market. In many cases, where fields are currently irrigated by people using water cans, the irrigation system can pay for itself in one or two seasons, based on savings in labor costs and increased yields of better quality produce. Modern Israel agriculture is input intensive. However, less than 40 years ago, fields were still being plowed with animal traction, so the transformation from traditional to high-tech agriculture has been accomplished in a relatively short period. This alone should be a source of inspiration for our colleagues from arid and developing areas, knowing what can be accomplished when the determination is there.

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The Israel Export & International Cooperation Institute

The Israel Export and International Cooperation Institute (IEICI) is the primary organization which facilitates trade ties, joint ventures, and strategic alliances between overseas and Israeli companies. It is responsible for promotion of all forms of Israels exports, and provides comprehensive, professional trade information, advice, contacts and promotional activities to Israeli companies, and complementary services to business executives, commercial groups, and trade delegations from abroad. The Institute is a non-profit organization, founded in 1958 as the Israel Export Institute by the Israel government and the private sector. The Institute today comprises 2,600 member companies representing more than 90% of Israels manufacturing exports, excluding defense and diamond exports. It promotes Israels external trade through international initiatives, exporters service programs, and advising the government on trade issues. The Institute is governed by a board of directors representing the Manufacturers Association of Israel, the Export Trading Companies of the Federation of Israeli Chambers of Commerce, the Kibbutz Industry Association, the Ministry of Industry and Trade, the Ministry of Finance, and elected member companies. Professional Services and International Projects Division and the Agrotechnology Department Successful bids for international tenders for agrotechnology and infrastructure projects and services require close coordination between entities offering the tenders, financing agencies, and suppliers. The Division works closely with the World Bank and other international financial institutions to help Israeli companies participate in tenders issued by UN-affiliated organizations. The Agrotechnology Department in the Professional Services and International Projects Division cooperates with 180 companies from the following sectors: greenhouses, dairy, poultry, aquaculture, water and irrigation, seeds, mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. Increasingly, Israeli agrotechnology companies are joining forces and supplying turnkey projects for both crop and livestock development programs. Multiple skills, talents and experiences are harnessed to provide solutions which integrate soil, water, additives, plant and livestock varieties, equipment and structures. The results are measured in improved yields produced at lower costs, which are beneficial to all parties in a resource-stressed world.

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The IEICIs Role in Promoting Bilateral Business Cooperation The IEICI plays a key role in promoting cooperation between foreign and Israeli agrobusiness executives and companies. The Institute organizes participation of Israeli companies in exhibitions in other countries, arranges business delegations to foreign markets, and distributes a wide range of information and publications on business-scene, investment and trade opportunities.

For overseas companies, the Institute provides information about the latest Israeli agrotechnologies for agricultural projects, helps to establish contact with leading Israeli companies in the field and assists in planning a productive business trip to Israel.

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Acknowledgements
We wish to express our thanks and appreciation to the following people who contributed to the writing of the chapter texts and provided photographs: Introduction Floriculture Vegetables Fruit Citrus Field Crops Organic Farming Cattle Poultry Sheep and Goats Aquaculture Beekeeping Irrigation and Water Management Fertilizers and Fertigation Dr. Arie Regev and Dr. Arieh Sheskin Dov (Duby) Wolfson Omar Zeidan Hanan Bazak and Tommy Sigler Isaac Bar-Zakay Igal Flash Uri Adler Dr. Israel Flamenbaum Yitzhak Malka Dr. Elisha Gootwine Chaim Anjioni Yeshayahu Stern and Tammy Erann-Soussan Dr. Albert Avidan and Asher Azenkot Yoram Eisenstadt and Dr. Albert Avidan Agricultural Engineering Research and Development Biotechnology Post-Harvest Technologies Agricultural Extension Service International Agricultural Cooperation Desert Agriculture Israel Export and International Cooperation Institute Seeds Greenhouses Crop Protection Dr. Eyal Vardi Itzhak Seker-Esquira Joel Drishpoun and Reuben Ausher Dr. Boaz Zion Prof. Dan Levanon Prof. Yedidya Gafni Dr. Shlomo Navarro Moshe Goren Zvi Herman Arnie Schlissel Ronit Golovaty

We would also like to thank Raphael Sternlicht, Planning Authority, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, for updating and verifying the statistical data. The Editorial Board Dr. Arie Regev, Director Bezalel Yannai, Deputy Director Foreign Relations Department Israel Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Yitzhak Kiriati, Director Ronit Golovaty, Executive, Department of Agrotechnology International Projects and Professional Services Division Israel Export and International Cooperation Institute For further information, please contact: Dr. Arie Regev Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development P. O. Box 30 Beit Dagan 50250, Israel Tel.: 972-3-9485571 Fax: 972-3-9485870 e-mail: regeva@moag.gov.il Mrs. Ronit Golovaty Israel Export and International Cooperation Institute 29 Hamered Street Tel Aviv 68125, Israel Tel.: 972-3-5142907 Fax: 972-3-5142985 e-mail: golovaty@export.gov.il

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