REPUBLIK RAKYAT CINA (RRC)

POLITICAL CULTURE: 1. Kinship and Communalism. Secara tradisional merupakan masyarakat kolektif yang berorientasi kelompok. Sgl sesuatu berdasar pada kinship (ikatan kekeluargaan) dan satuan keluarga. Kepala keluarga bertanggung jawab bagi tingkah laku anggota kelompok, yang bisa membawa kehormatan ataupun rasa malu kolektif bagi keluarga.. Sbgan besar persoalan diselesaikan secara lokal dan kepala keluarga bertanggung jawab untuk memberikan hukuman bagi yang bertindak salah. 2. The Importance of Consensus. Radical change has consistently been rejected, delayed, or watered down in the interest of reaching consensus. A traditional preference for gradual and cautious change. 3. The Dominance of the State. The most minimal political activity means regular exposure to propaganda, attendance at meetings, and the regular expression of support for government policy. It has witnessed massive and pervasive political education and indoctrination and a system of government whose policy decisions have reached into the home, the school, the workplace, and every other sphere of human existence. This has created a society that emphasizes the state, the party, and the idea of mass cooperation at the expense of individualism and competition. POLITICAL SYSTEM: 1.China is a unitary state, in which all significant power is centralized in the national govn. Local govn has little independence. 2. All real power lies with the Chinese Communist party . Cabinet and legislature do little more than legitimize the decisions already taken by the party leadership and subscribe to the authority of that leadership. The party has formal political authority (base on its power to appoint and promote government officials) while the govn does the actual work of running the country. 3. Titles are not always What They Seem and There is a Mismatch between Power and Rank. Holding formal office is not a requirement for leadership. 4. There has long been an important supporting role for the military in politics. But now the power and influence of the military has declined. THE CONSTITUTION: The Chinese Constitution describes the system of govn and spells out the programs and policies of the CCP. These programs and policies are further elaborated in the constitution of the CCP itself, which in many ways is more politically significant than the state constitution, is more regularly revised and offers important indicators of new policy directions being taken by Chinas govn. -There have been four state constitutions: the 1954, 1975, 1978 and 1982.

THE EXECUTIVE: STATE COUNCIL -lembaga executif tertinggi (cabinet). Biasanya bertemu 1x/bulan; dipilih oleh the National Peoples Congress dan terdiri dari PM, 12 Wakil PM. Belakangan ini jumlah anggota Kabinet antara 60 -70 orang. The key decisions are made by a small inner cabinet consisting of a premier and a group of vice premiers. The premier is arguably the second most powerful person in China after the leader of the party. In 1982 a decision was made to limit premiers to two consecutive 5 year terms. THE LEGISLATURE: NATIONAL PEOPLES CONGRESS -Theoretically the highest organ of state power. It is unicameral. Its members are elected for 5-year terms, although these can be shortened or lengthened; meets once per year. On paper, it represents the people of China and has the power to make and enforce laws, to amend the constitution, to designate and remove the premier and the state council, and to elect the president of the Supreme Peoples Court. In reality, its powers are limited in several ways: 1. it is huge and unwieldy. Beranggotakan 2970 orang untuk periode 2003 -2008. 2. it is allowed to do little more than discuss and endorse decisions already made by the party. 3.Delegates are only indirectly elected by the people. Voters elect local congresses, which elect county congresses, which elect provincial congresses, which finally elect the NPC. Membership is structured so that workers, peasants, intellectuals, and soldiers have occupational representation, and delegates tend to be appointed as a reward for exemplary work and public service. 4. Congresses meet only briefly, for one session of 2 to 3 weeks every year (March to April). During meetings, delegates can question senior government ministers, submit motions, make suggestions, and raise questions about govn policy, but there is obviously a limit to what can be achieved. 5. Unlike liberal democaracies legislature, where most of the real work is done in specialist committees, the NPC has no committees. This denies delegates the opportunity to become specialists or to spend time working through the details of legislative proposals and party policy. Its huge size, short sessions, and lack of real power suggests that the NPC is simply a rubber stamp for the party, but it has not always accepted the pary line; it has been known occasionally to criticize the party leadership, and particularly since the mid1980s, has not always been unanimous on votes. STANDING COMMITTEE of the NPC: When the NPC is in recess, its work is carried out by a Standing Committee; elected by the NPC; meets twicw per month; consists of a chairman, several vice chairs, and senior members of Congress. Keanggotaannya berkisar 135 orang. The powers of the

Committee have changed over time, but they now include the right to declare and enforce martial law, oversee NPC elections, supervise the work of the State Council and Supreme Peoples Court, appoint and remove members of the State Council on the recommendation of the premier when the NPC is not in session, and serve as the interim NPC when Congress is not in session. It also runs a series of specialist committees dealing with issues such as foreign affairs, finance and education. THE CHINESE HEAD of STATE: China ha a presidency (and a vice presidency), but the significance of the post has waxed and waned depending on the other positions held by the incumbent. The presidency was usually held by a semiretired former leader of China, but in the 1990s, Jiang Zemin held both the presidency and the job of general secretary of the communist party, as does Hu Jintao today. This combination has made both men more like the president of the US in the sense that they have both carried out political and nonpolitical jobs at the same time. -The powers of chairman and vice chairman were revised by the 1982 constitution when new posts of president and vice president of China were created. Both positions are filled for a maximum of two 5 -year terms by a vote of the Standing Committee of the NPC. THE JUDICIARY: SUPREME PEOPLES COURT: China has a dual judicial system consisting of local peoples court answering to a Supreme Peoples Court and to a Supreme Peoples Procuratorate. The judiciary and law enforcement agencies exist less to protect individual righta than to enforce party and state policies and regulations. Justice is administered through a system of more than 3,000 peoples courts at the district, county, municipal and provincial levels. All these answer to the Supreme Peoples Court, which is accountable in turn to the NPC. The President of the Supreme Court is elected by the NPC, and its other members are appointed by the NP Standing Committee. -The Procuratorate traces its roots to Chinese imperial days and to the Napoleonic civil code. A procurator is a monitor who reviews the work of govn bodies, making sure they observe the constitution and deciding whether cases should be brought to trial. SUBNATIONAL GOVERNMENT: Because it is a unitary state, all effective political power in China rests with the national government and the leadership of the party. Local govn has little if any real power or independence. -The most important local govn units are the provinces, or sheng (22 in all), four major municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing and Tianjin), two Special Administrative Regions (Hong Kong and Macao), and five autonomous regions for ethnic minorities -Provincial govn in China is roughly equivalent to state govn in the US, except that all provincial leaders are appointed by central govn -Below the provinces are 210 perfectures (diqu), 2080 rural counties (xian) and nearly 290 municipal districts and townships (shi)

THE PEOPLES LIBERATION ARMY Has been involved in few foreign military excursion, being used instead as a means of extending and consolidating internal political control. It has been working as an extension of the party and the government.. Since the end of 1980s, the party leadership has tried to reduce the influence of the army by delegating powers of internal security to other agencies, reducing the number of military men in Politburo, cutting the size of the PLA, and playing down the armys role as the guardian of socialist ideological purity. The tension between the party and the military remains, however. REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION: Voting is a small and relatively insignificant part of political participation in China. Voters elect only the members of their local peoples congresses, the schedule of elections is regularly changed and the party system is dominated by the CCP. ELECTIONS AND THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM: Pemilih (18 thn) hanya sekali terlibat dalam pemilihan langsung, that of delegates to county and district congresses. Every other election above the local level is indirect; members of county or district congresses elect delegates to provincial congresses for 5 year terms. These delegates in turn elect delegates to the NPC for 5 year terms. Election in postrevolutionary China have been sporadic, with a few as 2 years and as many as 13 years between them. The entire electoral process is overseen by the CCP. Until 1980, only one candidate was put forward for each office, so the party effectively determined the outcome of every election. Election were little more than exercises in building consen sus, with agreement on candidates being decided in advance by the party and the election itself functioning simply as a rubber stamp. Electoral law was changed in 1980. It allows multiple candidates in elections, a more open nomination process, and the use of secret ballots. The party has been known to interfere in the outcome of elections by actively supporting its preferred candidates, unpopular local party officials have occasionally lost reelection POLITICAL PARTIES: There is only one significant political party the Chinese Communist Party. It is the source of all political power, controls all other political organizations, plays a key role in deciding the outcome of elections, and dominates both state and government. Policy changes through changes in the balance of power within the leadership of the party. The dominant role of the party is symbolized by the Chinese flag, which consists of one large gold star and four small stars on a red background; the four smaller stars represent the four major classes (peasants, workers, petty bourgeoisie, and owners of enterprises) and the large star represents the party. Strictly speaking, China is a multiparty system because there are eight other sanctioned democratic parties and groups with alternative policy platforms, including the Democratic League and the National Construction Association. However, they have very members tens of thousands and are really little more than professional associations. One of the few direct challenges to CCP rule came in 1998 with the launch

of the China Democracy party, which was quickly closed down by the govn and its members arrested. The CCP in 2003 had a membership of 64 million. It remains elitist since only about 7 % of the adult population are members. Once admitted, a member is expected to perform tasks set by the party; study the works of Marx, Lenin and Mao; reject factionalism or personal gain; be loyal; undertake self criticism; and generally set a good example. Party strategy and policies constitute the party line: the principal guide to the direction of Chinese politics. Party politics is ultimately driven by factionalism, clientelism and the establishment of personal ties and networks The Party Structure:At the lowest level are about 3.5 million primary party organizations, formed wherever there is a minimum of three full party members. They can be formed in the workplace or local neighborhood or within units of the Peoples Liberation Army, and each has a committee elected for 3 year terms. Primary party organizations, the major point of contact between the party and the masses, are overseen in turn by provincial and county level party organizations. These have committees elected for 5 year terms, have considerable power over economic activities, and have responsibility for convening provincial and county party comgresses. Organizationally, the national party consists of five major bodies: 1. NATIONAL PARTY CONGRESS: Theoretically, the National Party Congress is the highest organ. It meets once every 5 years. The 1982 party constitution still allows meetings to be convened early or postponed under extraordinary circumstances. Congresses are usually convened in Beijing, are attended by more than 2,000 delegates, and meet for no more than 2 weeks. Given their size and the rarity of their meetings, they have time to do little more than rubber stamp party policies and decisions. The most recent Congress met in 2002. In theory, delegates are selected at lower party level; in practice, allocations are engineered by the party leadership to ensure representation of the military and the central party; often at the cost of seats for representatives from the provinces. Normally, the National Party Congress does little more than hear a report by the chairman of the party, hear another report on changes to the constitution, and more significantly elect members to the Central Committee, although all it really does is confirm a list already drawn up by the party leaders. Nonetheless, balloting and politicking have occasionally produced changes in the list and there are now more candidates than there are posts for party positions. Generally, however, the Congress has little significant power. 2. CENTRAL COMMITTEE: the major governing body of the party. Althoug it rarely initiates or introduces policies, it must approve the policies of the leadership. Beranggotakan 200 orang dewasa ini. The Committee usually meets annually for varying periods, during which time it elects members of the Politburo and the Standing Committee of the Politburo. 3. CENTRAL SECRETARIAT: Membantu Politburo; Sekretariat beranggotakan sampai 12 orang; bertemu 2x/minggu; memberikan dukungan administrative; memainkan peranan penting dalam

mengembangkan kebijakan; mengevaluasi pilihan2 bagi pengangkatan posisi2 militer, partai dan negara yang penting; diangkat oleh the Standing Committee of the Politburo. 4. POLITICAL BUREAU (POLITBURO): Ultimate party power/political power lies in the Politburo of the CCP and most notably in the Standing Committee of the Politburo; meets about once a month to initiate and discuss party policy, takes collective responsibility for its decisions. It is within this small group of about 18 to 28 people that power and the leadership of China is negotiated, given, and taken away. 5. STANDING COMMITTEE of the POLITBURO: When the Politburo is not in session, the party is run by a Standing Committee of six or seven members. This meets about twice per week and constitutes the most powerful and senoior group of individuals in the entire Chinese political system. At the head of this group sits the general secretary of the party POLITICAL LEADERSHIP: The govn of communist countries, such as China, can seem enormously complex, especially when all is not as it seems, when labels and titles do not always accurately identify the people and institutions with real power, and when the formal flowcharts do not really capture the essence of the decision making system. The key to making sesnse of all this is to appreciate three key points: -personal relationship are a more important indicator of who has power in China than formal titles -leadership and the distribution of power depend on political maneuvers among a small group of people at the apex of the party (mainly the Stranding Committee of the Politburo) -The driving force behind Chinese politics in recent decades has been the struggle between reformists and conservatives Power in China is based on around factions, which are based less on ideological differences than on personal relationship. Power is also based on the particular leadership skills of perhaps no more than two or three people and on the abilities of these leaders to keep control, a process that involves regular purges of rivals and opponents MASS ORGANIZATIONS: In theory, China subscribes to the Leninist principle of democratic centralism (every level of govn elects the next highest level and is in turn accountable to the level below) and to the idea of the mass line (whereby the masses are allowed to present their ideas to the party and to oversee the implementation of policy with a view to keeping leaders in touch with their followers). In practice, govn is heavily centralized, and the mass line is used as much as a method of control as of keeping in touch with public opinion. Mass organizations are really the only channel through which govn and people can interrelate. Mass organizations superficially look much like interest groups in liberal democracies, they serve a more direct role in the process of political education. They are based around democratic centralism and are exploited by the party as transmission belts for party policy, as a means of mobilizing the masses to win support for party policies.