United Nations

United Nations
United Nations Organisation des Nations unies Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas

Map showing the Member states of the United Nations [1] This map does not represent the view of its members or the UN concerning the legal status of any country, nor does it accurately reflect which areas' governments have UN representation. Headquarters Official languages Membership Leaders - - - Secretary-General President of the United Nations General Assembly Security Council President Establishment - - United Nations Charter signed Entry into force of Charter Website [2] UN.org 26 June 1945 24 October 1945 Ban Ki-moon Joseph Deiss Juan Manuel Santos and Nstor Osorio International territory in New York City Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish 192 member states

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out

United Nations its missions. There are currently 192 member states, including every internationally recognised sovereign state in the world but the Vatican City. From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive). Other prominent UN System agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea, who attained the post in 2007. The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[3]

History
The League of Nations failed to prevent World War II (19391945). Because of the widespread recognition that humankind could not afford a Third World War, the United Nations was established to replace the flawed League of Nations in 1945 in order to maintain international peace and promote cooperation in solving international economic, social and humanitarian problems. The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization was begun under the aegis of the U.S. State Department in 1939. Franklin D. Roosevelt first coined the term 'United Nations' as a term to describe the Allied countries. The term was first officially used on 1 January 1942, when 26 governments The Chilean delegation signing the UN Charter in San Francisco, 1945 signed the Atlantic Charter, pledging to continue the war effort.[4] On 25 April 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the Charter of the United Nations. The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security CouncilFrance, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United Statesand by a majority of the other 46 signatories. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council, took place in Westminster Central Hall in London in January 1946.[5] The organization was based at the Sperry Gyroscope Corporation's facility in Lake Success, New York, from 19461952, before moving to the United Nations Headquarters building in Manhattan upon its completion. Since its creation, there has been controversy and criticism of the United Nations. In the United States, an early opponent of the UN was the John Birch Society, which began a "get US out of the UN" campaign in 1959, charging that the UN's aim was to establish a "One World Government." After the Second World War, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that aimed at creating the new organization. Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it le machin ("the thing"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between countries.[6]

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Legal basis of establishment

Shortly after its establishment the UN sought recognition as an international legal person due to the case of Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations[7] with the advisory opinion delivered by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The question arose whether the United Nations, as an organisation, had "the capacity to bring an international claim against a government regarding injuries that the organisation alleged had been caused by that state."[8] The Court stated : the Organization was intended to exercise and enjoy, and is in fact exercising and enjoying functions and rights which can only be explained on the basis of the possession of a large measure of international personality and the capacity to operate upon an international plane ... Accordingly, the Court has come to the conclusion that the Organization is an international person. That is not the same thing as saying that it is a State, which it certainly is not, or that its legal personality and rights and duties are the same as those of a State ... What it does mean is that it is a subject of international law and capable of possessing international rights and duties, and that it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringing international claims.[9]

Organization
The United Nations' system is based on five principal organs (formerly sixthe Trusteeship Council suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory);[10] the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice. Four of the five principal organs are located at the main United Nations headquarters located on international territory in New York City. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi. Other UN institutions are located throughout the world. The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish,.[3] The Secretariat uses two working languages, English and French. Four of the official languages are the national languages of the permanent members of the Security Council (the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a de facto official language); Spanish and Arabic are the languages of the two largest blocs of official languages outside of the permanent members (Spanish being official in 20 countries, Arabic in 26). Five of the official languages were chosen when the UN was founded; Arabic was added later in 1973. The United Nations Editorial Manual states that the standard for English language documents is British usage and Oxford spelling, the Chinese writing standard is Simplified Chinese. This replaced Traditional Chinese in 1971 when the UN representation of China was changed from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China.

General Assembly
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations.

United Nations General Assembly hall

United Nations When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration. Conceivably, the one state, one vote power structure could enable states comprising just eight percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds vote (see List of countries by population). However, as no more than recommendations, it is difficult to imagine a situation in which a recommendation by member states constituting just eight percent of the world's population, would be adhered to by the remaining ninety-two percent of the population, should they object.

Security Council
The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations' to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25.[11] The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions.

United Nations Security Council chamber

The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, consisting of 5 permanent membersChina, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United Statesand 10 non-permanent members, currently Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Colombia, Gabon, Germany, India, Lebanon, Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa. The five permanent members hold veto power over substantive but not procedural resolutions allowing a permanent member to block adoption but not to block the debate of a resolution unacceptable to it. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council is rotated alphabetically each month.[12]

Secretariat
The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis. The Charter provides that the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any authority other than the UN. Each UN member country is enjoined to respect the international character of the Secretariat and not seek to influence its staff. The Secretary-General alone is responsible for staff selection. The Secretary-General's duties include helping resolve international disputes, administering peacekeeping operations, organizing international conferences,

The United Nations Secretariat Building at the United Nations headquarters in New York City

United Nations gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives. Key Secretariat offices in this area include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security. Secretary-General The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon, who took over from Kofi Annan in 2007 and will be eligible for reappointment when his first term expires in 2011.[13] Envisioned by Franklin D. Roosevelt as a "world moderator", the position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's "chief administrative officer",[14] but the Charter also states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention "any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security",[15] giving the position greater scope for action on the world stage. The position has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization, and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues.[13]

The current Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon

The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, any member of which can veto,[16] and the General Assembly can theoretically override the Security Council's recommendation if a majority vote is not achieved, although this has not happened so far.[17] There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years, it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states.[17]
Secretaries-General of the United Nations No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name Trygve Lie Dag Hammarskjld U Thant Kurt Waldheim Javier Prez de Cullar Boutros Boutros-Ghali Kofi Annan Ban Ki-moon Country of origin
Norway Sweden [18]

Took office 2 February 1946 10 April 1953 30 November 1961 1 January 1972 1 January 1982 1 January 1992 1 January 1997 1 January 2007

Left office 10 November 1952 18 September 1961 1 January 1972 1 January 1982 1 January 1992 1 January 1997 1 January 2007 Incumbent

Note Resigned Died while in office First Secretary-General from Asia

Burma

Austria Peru

First Secretary-General from the Americas First Secretary-General from Africa

Egypt

Ghana South Korea

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International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.[19] It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law, a private Peace Palace, seat of the International Court of centre for the study of international law. Several of the Court's current Justice at The Hague, Netherlands judges are either alumni or former faculty members of the Academy. Its purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference and ethnic cleansing, among others, and continues to hear cases.[20] A related court, the International Criminal Court (ICC), began operating in 2002 through international discussions initiated by the General Assembly. It is the first permanent international court charged with trying those who commit the most serious crimes under international law, including war crimes and genocide. The ICC is functionally independent of the UN in terms of personnel and financing, but some meetings of the ICC governing body, the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute, are held at the UN. There is a "relationship agreement" between the ICC and the UN that governs how the two institutions regard each other legally.[21]

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, all of which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once a year in July for a four-week session. Since 1998, it has held another meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Viewed separate from the The ECOSOC chamber specialized bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. In addition, ECOSOC is well-positioned to provide policy coherence and coordinate the overlapping functions of the UNs subsidiary bodies and it is in these roles that it is most active.

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Specialized institutions
There are many UN organizations and agencies that function to work on particular issues. Some of the most well-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank and the World Health Organization. It is through these agencies that the UN performs most of its humanitarian work. Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through the WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the work of the WFP) and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, by the UNHCR). The United Nations Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfil its duties.
WFP, IAEA and Specialized agencies of the United Nations Acronyms No. 1 FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Rome, Italy Jacques Diouf Flag Agency Headquarters Head Established in 1945

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

Vienna, Austria

Yukiya Amano

1957

ICAO

International Civil Aviation Organization

Montreal, Canada

Raymond Benjamin Kanayo F. Nwanze

1947

IFAD

International Fund for Agricultural Development

Rome, Italy

1977

5 6

ILO IMO

International Labour Organization International Maritime Organization

Geneva, Switzerland London, United Kingdom

Juan Somava Efthimios E. Mitropoulos

1946 (1919) 1948

7 8

IMF ITU

International Monetary Fund International Telecommunication Union

Washington, D.C., USA Geneva, Switzerland Paris, France

Dominique Strauss-Kahn Hamadoun Tour Irina Bokova

1945 (1944) 1947 (1865)

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Industrial Development Organization Universal Postal Union

1946

10 11

UNIDO UPU

Vienna, Austria

Kandeh Yumkella Edouard Dayan

1967 1947 (1874)

Bern, Switzerland Washington, D.C, USA

12

WB

World Bank

Robert B. Zoellick

1945 (1944)

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8
World Food Programme Rome, Italy Josette Sheeran 1963

13

WFP

14

WHO

World Health Organization

Geneva, Switzerland

Margaret Chan

1948

15

WIPO

World Intellectual Property Organization

Geneva, Switzerland

Francis Gurry

1974

16

WMO

World Meteorological Organization

Geneva, Switzerland Madrid, Spain

Alexander Bedritsky Taleb Rifai

1950 (1873)

17

UNWTO

World Tourism Organization

1974

Membership
With the addition of Montenegro on 28 June 2006, there are currently 192 United Nations member states, including all fully recognized [22] independent states apart from Vatican City (the Holy See, which holds sovereignty over the state of Vatican City, is a permanent observer).[23] The United Nations Charter outlines the rules for membership:
An animation showing the timeline of accession of UN member states, according to the 1. Membership in the United UN. Note that Antarctica has no government; political control of Western Sahara is in Nations is open to all other dispute; and the territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Kosovo peace-loving states that accept are considered by the UN to be provinces of the People's Republic of China and Republic the obligations contained in the of Serbia, respectively. present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. 2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

United Nations Charter, Chapter 2, Article 4,http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/''

Group of 77
The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. There were 77 founding members of the organization, but the organization has since expanded to 130 member countries. The group was founded on 15 June 1964 by the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The first major meeting was in Algiers in 1967, where the Charter of Algiers was adopted and the basis for permanent institutional structures was begun.[24]

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Stated objectives
Peacekeeping and security
The UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. The forces, also called the "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords, are awarded United Nations Medals, which are considered international decorations instead of military decorations. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.[25]

UN peacekeeping missions. Dark blue regions indicate current missions, while light blue regions represent former missions.

The founders of the UN had envisaged that the organization would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible, however the outbreak of the Cold War made peacekeeping agreements extremely difficult because of the division of the world into hostile camps. Following the end of the Cold War, there were renewed calls for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace, as there are several dozen ongoing conflicts that continue to rage around the globe. A 2005 RAND Corp study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace.[26] Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activismmostly spearheaded by the UNhas been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict since the end of the Cold War.[27] Situations where the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also occasionally intervened include the Korean War (19501953), and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Persian Gulf War in 1990. The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions, an issue that stems from the UN's intergovernmental natureseen by some as simply an association of 192 member states who must reach consensus, not an independent organization. Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the 1994 Rwandan Genocide,[28] failed to provide humanitarian aid and intervene in the Second Congo War, failed to intervene in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre and protect a refugee haven by authorizing peacekeepers to use force, failure to deliver food to starving people in Somalia, failure to implement provisions of Security Council resolutions related to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and continuing failure to prevent genocide or provide assistance in Darfur. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, sexual abuse or soliciting prostitutes during various peacekeeping missions, starting in 2003, in the Congo,[29] Haiti,[30] [31] Liberia,[32] Sudan,[33] Burundi and Cte d'Ivoire.[34] In 2004, former Israeli ambassador to the UN Dore Gold criticized what it called the organization's moral relativism in the face of (and occasional support of)[35] genocide and terrorism that occurred between the moral clarity of its founding period and the present day. Gold specifically mentions Yasser Arafat's 1988 invitation to address the General Assembly as a low point in the UN's history.[36] In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament. Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for the creation of them.[37] However, the advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter and immediately halted concepts of arms limitation and disarmament, resulting in the first resolution of the first ever General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction".[38] The

United Nations principal forums for disarmament issues are the General Assembly First Committee, the UN Disarmament Commission, and the Conference on Disarmament, and considerations have been made of the merits of a ban on testing nuclear weapons, outer space arms control, the banning of chemical weapons and land mines, nuclear and conventional disarmament, nuclear-weapon-free zones, the reduction of military budgets, and measures to strengthen international security. The UN is one of the official supporters of the World Security Forum, a major international conference on the effects of global catastrophes and disasters, taking place in the United Arab Emirates, in October 2008. On 5th november 2010 Ivor Ichikowitz, founder and executive chairman of Paramount Group, supported UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moons call for greater support, equipment and training for African peacekeeping forces. Ichikowitz stated that African Union troops should receive the same support as UN personnel.[39]

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Human rights and humanitarian assistance

The pursuit of human rights was a central reason for creating the UN. World War II atrocities and genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations. The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights" and to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues.

Eleanor Roosevelt with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1949

The UN and its agencies are central in upholding and implementing the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A case in point is support by the UN for countries in transition to democracy. Technical assistance in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial structures, drafting constitutions, training human rights officials, and transforming armed movements into political parties have contributed significantly to democratization worldwide. The UN has helped run elections in countries with little or no democratic history, including recently in Afghanistan and East Timor. The UN is also a forum to support the right of women to participate fully in the political, economic, and social life of their countries. The UN contributes to raising consciousness of the concept of human rights through its covenants and its attention to specific abuses through its General Assembly, Security Council resolutions, or International Court of Justice rulings. The purpose of the United Nations Human Rights Council, established in 2006,[40] is to address human rights violations. The Council is the successor to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which was often criticized for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens.[41] The council has 47 members distributed by region, which each serve three-year terms, and may not serve three consecutive terms.[42] A candidate to the body must be approved by a majority of the General Assembly. In addition, the council has strict rules for membership, including a universal human rights review. While some members with questionable human rights records have been elected, it is fewer than before with the increased focus on each member state's human rights record.[43] The rights of some 370million indigenous peoples around the world are also a focus for the UN, with a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples being approved by the General Assembly in 2007.[44] The declaration outlines the individual and collective rights to culture, language, education, identity, employment and health, thereby addressing post-colonial issues that had confronted indigenous peoples for centuries. The declaration aims to maintain, strengthen and encourage the growth of indigenous institutions, cultures and traditions. It also prohibits

United Nations discrimination against indigenous peoples and promotes their active participation in matters that concern their past, present and future.[44] In conjunction with other organizations such as the Red Cross, the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from famine, displaced by war, or afflicted by other disasters. Major humanitarian branches of the UN are the World Food Programme (which helps feed more than 100million people a year in 80 countries), the office of the High Commissioner for Refugees with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries.

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Social and economic development

Millennium Development Goals

eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development.

The UN is involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS, and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are leading institutions in the battle against diseases around the world, especially in poor countries. The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services.32 Un agencies performing tasks on development are coordinating their efforts through the United Nations Development Group or UNDG.[45] The UN also promotes human development through some related agencies, particularly the UNDP.[46] The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF), for example, are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed as separate from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944.[47] The UNDP annually publishes the Human Development Index (HDI), a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors.[48] The Millennium Development Goals are eight goals that all 192 United Nations member states have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.[49] This was declared in the United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000.

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Mandates
From time to time, the different bodies of the United Nations pass resolutions that contain operating paragraphs that begin with the words "requests", "calls upon", or "encourages", which the Secretary-General interprets as a mandate to set up a temporary organization or do something. These mandates can be as little as researching and publishing a written report, or mounting a full-scale peacekeeping operation (usually the exclusive domain of the Security Council). Although the specialized institutions, such as the WHO, were originally set up by this means, they are not the same as mandates because they are permanent organizations that exist independently of the UN with their own membership structure. One could say that original mandate was simply to cover the process of setting up the institution, and has therefore long expired. Most mandates expire after a limited time period and require renewal from the body, which set them up. One of the outcomes of the 2005 World Summit was a mandate (labelled id 17171 [50]) for the Secretary-General to "review all mandates older than five years originating from resolutions of the General Assembly and other organs". To facilitate this review and to finally bring coherence to the organization, the Secretariat has produced an on-line registry of mandates [51] to draw together the reports relating to each one and create an overall picture.[52]

Other
Over the lifetime of the UN, over 80 colonies have attained independence.[53] The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. Through the UN Committee on Decolonization,[54] created in 1962, the UN has focused considerable attention on decolonization. It has also supported the new states that have arisen as a result of self-determination initiatives. The committee has overseen the decolonization of every country larger than 20,000km and removed them from the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, besides Western Sahara, a country larger than the UK only relinquished by Spain in 1975. The UN declares and coordinates international observances, periods of time to observe some issue of international interest or concern. Using the symbolism of the UN, a specially designed logo for the year, and the infrastructure of the United Nations System, various days and years have become catalysts to advancing key issues of concern on a global scale. For example, World Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day and International Year of Deserts and Desertification.

Funding
Top 10 donators to the UN budget, 2011 Member state
United States Japan Germany United Kingdom France Italy Canada China Spain [55]

Contribution (% of UN budget) 22.000% 12.530% 8.018% 6.604% 6.123% 4.999% 3.207% 3.189% 3.177%

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Mexico

2.356% 27.797%

Other member states

The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by their Gross National Income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income.[56] The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a 'ceiling' rate, setting the maximum amount any member is assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments to reflect current global circumstances. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is applied.[56] In addition to the ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any member nation (or 'floor' rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget. Refer to the table for major contributors. A large share of UN expenditures addresses the core UN mission of peace and security. The peacekeeping budget for the 20052006 fiscal year was approximately $5billion (compared to approximately $1.5billion for the UN core budget over the same period), with some 70,000 troops deployed in 17 missions around the world.[57] UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale, but including a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. As of 1 January 2011, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were: the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, China, Canada, Spain and the Republic of Korea.[58] Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget (such as UNICEF, the WFP and UNDP) are financed by voluntary contributions from other member governments. Most of this is financial contributions, but some is in the form of agricultural commodities donated for afflicted populations. Since their funding is voluntary, many of these agencies suffer severe shortages during economic recessions. In July 2009, the World Food Programme reported that it has been forced to cut services because of insufficient funding.[59] It has received barely a quarter of the total it needed for the 09/10 financial year.

Personnel policy
The UN and its agencies are immune to the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries.[60] Despite their independence in matters of human resources policy, the UN and its agencies voluntarily apply the laws of member states regarding same-sex marriages, allowing decisions about the status of employees in a same-sex partnership to be based on nationality. The UN and its agencies recognize same-sex marriages only if the employees are citizens of countries that recognize the marriage. This practice is not specific to the recognition of same-sex marriage but reflects a common practice of the UN for a number of human resources matters. It has to be noted though that some agencies provide limited benefits to domestic partners of their staff and that some agencies do not recognise same-sex marriage or domestic partnership of their staff.

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Reform
Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations, although little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work.[61] There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for different ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly. The UN has also been accused of bureaucratic inefficiency and waste. During the 1990s, the United States withheld dues citing inefficiency, and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog.[62] An official reform programme was begun by Kofi Annan in 1997. Reforms mentioned include changing the permanent membership of the Security Council (which currently reflects the power relations of 1945), making the bureaucracy more transparent, accountable and efficient, making the UN more democratic, and imposing an international tariff on arms manufacturers worldwide.
In 2005, then-Secretary General Kofi Annan published his report In Larger Freedom, a proposal for reform of the UN.

In September 2005, the UN convened a World Summit that brought together the heads of most member states, calling the summit "a once-in-a-generation opportunity to take bold decisions in the areas of development, security, human rights and reform of the United Nations."[63] Kofi Annan had proposed that the summit agree on a global "grand bargain" to reform the UN, renewing the organization's focus on peace, security, human rights and development, and to make it better equipped at facing 21st century issues. The World Summit Outcome Document delineated the conclusions of the meeting, including: the creation of a Peacebuilding Commission, to help countries emerging from conflict; a Human Rights Council and a democracy fund; a clear and unambiguous condemnation of terrorism "in all its forms and manifestations"; agreements to devote more resources to the Office of Internal Oversight Services; agreements to spend billions more on achieving the Millennium Development Goals; the dissolution of the Trusteeship Council, because of the completion of its mission; and, the agreement that individual states, with the assistance of the international community, have the "responsibility to protect" populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity- with the understanding that the international community is prepared to act "collectively" in a timely and decisive manner to protect vulnerable civilians should a state "manifestly fail" in fulfilling its responsibility.[64] The Office of Internal Oversight Services is being restructured to more clearly define its scope and mandate, and will receive more resources. In addition, to improve the oversight and auditing capabilities of the General Assembly, an Independent Audit Advisory Committee (IAAC) is being created. In June 2007, the Fifth Committee created a draft resolution for the terms of reference of this committee.[65] [66] An ethics office was established in 2006, responsible for administering new financial disclosure and whistleblower protection policies. Working with the OIOS, the ethics office also plans to implement a policy to avoid fraud and corruption.[67] The Secretariat is in the process of reviewing all UN mandates that are more than five years old. The review is intended to determine which duplicative or unnecessary programmes should be eliminated. Not all member states are in agreement as to which of the over 7000 mandates should be reviewed. The dispute centres on whether mandates that have been renewed should be examined.[68] Indeed, the obstacles identified in particular, the lack of information on the resource implications of each mandate constituted sufficient justification for the General Assembly to discontinue the mandate review in September 2008. In the meantime, the General Assembly launched a number of new loosely related reform initiatives in April 2007, covering international environmental governance, Delivering as One at the country level to enhance the consolidation of UN programme activities and a unified gender organization. Whereas little was

United Nations achieved on the first two issues, the General Assembly approved in September 2010 the establishment of UN Women as the new UN organization for gender equality and the empowerment of women. UN Women was established by unifying the resources and mandates of four small entities for greater impact and its first head is Ms. Michelle Bachelet, former President of Chile.

15

Effectiveness
Some have questioned whether or not the UN might be relevant in the 21st century.[69] While the UNs first and second Charter mandates require the UN : To maintain international peace and security.... (and if necessary to enforce the peace by) taking preventive or enforcement action,[70] due to its restrictive administrative structure, the permanent members of the Security Council themselves have sometimes prevented the UN from fully carrying out its first two mandates.[71] Without the unanimous approval, support (or minimally abstention) of all 5 of the permanent members of the UN's Security Council, the UN's charter only enables it to "observe", report on, and make recommendations regarding international conflicts. Such unanimity on the Security Council regarding the authorization of armed UN enforcement actions has not always been reached in time to prevent the outbreak of international wars.[71] Even with all of these restraints and limitations in place on the UNs abilities to respond to situations of conflict, still various studies have found the UN to have had many notable successes in the 65 years of its existence. In 1962 UN secretary general U Thant provided valuable assistance and took a great deal of time, energy and initiative as the primary negotiator between Nikita Khrushchev and John F. Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis, thus providing a critical link in the prevention of a nuclear Armageddon at that time.[72] A 2005 RAND Corporation study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as opposed to four out of eight US cases at peace.[73] Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism mostly spearheaded by the UN has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict since the end of the Cold War.[74]

References
[1] "The World Today" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ Cartographic/ map/ profile/ world00. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 18 June 2009. "The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country" [2] http:/ / www. un. org/ [3] "General Assembly of the United Nations Rules of Procedure" (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ ga/ about/ ropga/ lang. shtml). UN Department for General Assembly. . Retrieved 15 December 2010. [4] David, Wilton. "United Nations" (http:/ / www. wordorigins. org/ index. php/ site/ comments/ united_nations/ ). Etymologies & Word Origins: Letter U. WordOrigins.org. . [5] "Milestones in United Nations History" (http:/ / www. un. org/ aboutun/ milestones. htm). Department of Public Information, United Nations. . Retrieved 17 July 2008. [6] Gerbet, Pierre (1995). "Naissance des Nations Unies" (http:/ / www. charles-de-gaulle. org/ pages/ l-homme/ dossiers-thematiques/ 1944-1946-la-liberation/ restaurer-le-rang-de-la-france/ analyses/ naissance-des-nations-unies. php) (in French). Espoir (102). . [7] Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations. ICJ Reports. 1949. p. 178. [8] Lindblom, Anna-Karin, Non-governmental organisations in international law, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2005, p.58 [9] Lindblom, Anna-Karin, Non-governmental organisations in international law, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2005, p.59 [10] "Membership of Principal United Nations Organs in 2005" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2005/ org1436. doc. htm). United Nations. 15 March 2005. . [11] "UN Charter: Chapter V" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080312121137/ http:/ / www. un. org/ aboutun/ charter/ chapter5. htm). United Nations. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. un. org/ aboutun/ charter/ chapter5. htm) on 12 March 2008. . Retrieved 24 March 2008. [12] "UN Security Council Members" (http:/ / www. un. org/ sc/ members. asp). United Nations. . Retrieved 23 February 2011. [13] Office of the Secretary-GeneralUnited Nations (http:/ / www. un. org/ sg/ sgrole. shtml). [14] Charter of the United Nations, Article 97. [15] Charter of the United Nations, Article 99.

United Nations Security Council

United Nations Security Council

United Nations Security Council

(Arabic)

(Chinese) Conseil de scurit des Nations unies (French) (Russian) Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas (Spanish)

UN Security Council Chamber in New York, also known as the Norwegian Room Org type Head Status Established Website Principal Organ Colombia (for April 2011) Active 1946 www.un.org/sc
[1]

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action. Its powers are exercised through United Nations Security Council resolutions. The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946 at Church House, London. Since its first meeting, the Council, which exists in continuous session, has travelled widely, holding meetings in many cities, such as Paris and Addis Ababa, as well as at its current permanent home at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. There are 15 members of the Security Council, consisting of five veto-wielding permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and 10 elected non-permanent members with two-year terms. This basic structure is set out in Chapter V of the UN Charter. Security Council members must always be present at UN headquarters in New York so that the Security Council can meet at any time. This requirement of the United Nations Charter was adopted to address a weakness of the League of Nations since that organization was often unable to respond quickly to a crisis.

United Nations Security Council

Members
Permanent members
The Security Council's five permanent members have the power to veto any substantive resolution:
Country Membership notes Permanent Representative Li Baodong [2] [2]

China France

Republic of China: 1945-1971;

People's Republic of China: 1971present

Provisional Government of the French Republic: 1944-1946; French Fourth Republic: 1946-1958; French Fifth Republic: 1958present. Soviet Union: 19451991; None Russian Federation: 1992present.

Grard Araud

Russia United Kingdom

Vitaly Churkin

[2] [2]

Sir Mark Lyall Grant [2]

United States None

Susan Rice

The five permanent members of the Security Council consisted of France, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the USSR, at the UN's founding in 1946. With the exception of the People's Republic of China (which replaced the Republic of China in 1971), and Russia (which superseded the Soviet Union seat in 1991), the current P5 membership are represented by some of the victorious powers of World War II, along with France, for some reason, and the present Chinese administration, for political expediency. There have been two seat changes since then, although not reflected in Article 23 of the Charter of the United Nations as it has not been accordingly amended: China's seat was originally filled by the Republic of China, but due to the stalemate of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, there have been two states claiming to represent China since then, and both officially claim each other's territory. In Leaders of the five permanent member states at a summit in 2000. Clockwise from 1971, the People's Republic of China was front left: Chinese President Jiang Zemin, U.S. President Bill Clinton, British awarded China's seat in the United Prime Minister Tony Blair, Russian President Vladimir Putin, and French President Jacques Chirac. Nations by UN General Assembly Resolution 2758, and the Republic of China (based in Taiwan) soon lost membership in all UN organizations. Russia, being the legal successor state to the Soviet Union after the latter's collapse in 1991, acquired the originally-Soviet seat, including the Soviet Union's former representation in the Security Council. The five permanent members of the Security Council are also the only countries recognized as nuclear-weapon states (NWS) under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. However, membership of the UN Security Council is not dependent on nuclear weapons status.

United Nations Security Council

Non-permanent members
Ten other members are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms starting on 1 January, with five replaced each year. The members are chosen by regional groups and confirmed by the United Nations General Assembly. The African bloc is represented by three members; the Latin America and the Caribbean, Asian, and Western European and Others blocs by two members each; and the Eastern European bloc by one member. Also, one of the members is an "Arab country," alternately from the Asian or African bloc.[3] Currently, elections for terms beginning in even-numbered years select two African members, and one each within Eastern Europe, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Additionally, the Arab state is represented in this group (Libya within Africa in 2008, Lebanon within Asia in 2010). Terms beginning in odd-numbered years consist of two Western European and Other members, and one within each of Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia, and Africa. The current elected members, with the regions they were elected to represent and their Permanent Representatives, are:

1 January 2010 31 December 2011

Country Regional bloc(s) Permanent Representative Ivan Barbali

Bosnia and Herzegovina Eastern Europe Brazil Gabon Lebanon Nigeria

Latin America and Caribbean Maria Luiza Ribeiro Viotti Africa Asia and Arab group Africa Emmanuel Issoze-Ngondet Nawaf Salam Joy Ogwu

1 January 2011 31 December 2012

Country Colombia Germany India Portugal Regional bloc(s) Permanent Representative

Latin America and Caribbean Nstor Osorio Londoo Western Europe and Other Asia Western Europe and Other Peter Wittig Hardeep Singh Puri Jos Filipe Moraes Cabral Baso Sangqu

South Africa Africa

President
The role of president of the Security Council involves setting the agenda, presiding at its meetings and overseeing any crisis. The President is authorized to issue both presidential statements (subject to consensus among Council members) and notes,[4] [5] which are used to make declarations of intent that the full Security Council can then pursue.[5] The Presidency rotates monthly in alphabetical order of the Security Council member nations' names in English and is currently held by Colombia for the month of April 2011.[6]

United Nations Security Council

Veto power
Under Article 27 of the UN Charter, Security Council decisions on all substantive matters require the affirmative votes of nine members. A negative vote, or veto, also known as the rule of "great Power unanimity", by a permanent member prevents adoption of a proposal, even if it has received the required number of affirmative votes (9). Abstention is not Number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members of the Security [7] regarded as a veto despite the wording Council between 1946 and 2007. of the Charter. Since the Security Council's inception, China (ROC/PRC) has used its veto 6 times; France 18 times; Russia/USSR 123 times; the United Kingdom 32 times; and the United States 82 times. The majority of Russian/Soviet vetoes were in the first ten years of the Council's existence. Since 1984, China and France have vetoed three resolutions each; Russia/USSR four; the United Kingdom ten; and the United States 43. Procedural matters are not subject to a veto, so the veto cannot be used to avoid discussion of an issue. The same holds for certain decisions that directly regard permanent members.

Status of non-members
A state that is a member of the UN, but not of the Security Council, may participate in Security Council discussions in matters by which the Council agrees that the country's interests are particularly affected. In recent years, the Council has interpreted this loosely, allowing many countries to take part in its discussions. Non-members are routinely invited to take part when they are parties to disputes being considered.

Role
Under Chapter Six of the Charter, "Pacific Settlement of Disputes", the Security Council "may investigate any dispute, or any situation which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute". The Council may "recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment" if it determines that the situation might endanger international peace and security. These recommendations are not binding on UN members. Under Chapter Seven, the Council has broader power to decide what measures are to be taken in situations involving "threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, or acts of aggression". In such situations, the Council is not limited to recommendations but may take action, including the use of armed force "to maintain or restore international peace and security". This was the legal basis for UN armed action in Korea in 1950 during the Korean War and the use of coalition forces in Iraq and Kuwait in 1991. Decisions taken under Chapter Seven, such as economic sanctions, are binding on UN members.

United Nations Security Council

The UN's role in international collective security is defined by the UN Charter, which gives the Security Council the power to: Investigate any situation threatening international peace; Recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute; Call upon other member nations to completely or partially interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal, and radio communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; Enforce its decisions militarily, or by any means necessary; Avoid conflict and maintain focus on cooperation. They also recommend the new Secretary-General to the General Assembly.[8]

Then-United States Secretary of State Colin Powell holds a model vial of anthrax while giving a presentation to the United Nations Security Council in February 2003. Foreign ministers and heads of government sometimes appear in the UNSC in person to discuss issues.

The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court recognizes that the Security Council has authority to refer cases to the Court, where the Court could not otherwise exercise jurisdiction.[9] The Council exercised this power for the first time in March 2005, when it referred to the Court the situation prevailing in Darfur since 1 July 2002;[10] since Sudan is not a party to the Rome Statute, the Court could not otherwise have exercised jurisdiction. The Security Council made its second such referral in February 2011 when it asked the ICC to investigate the Libyan government's violent response to the 2011 uprising.

Responsibility to protect
Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity".[11] The resolution commits the Council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict.

Resolutions
The UN Charter is a multilateral treaty. It is the constitutional document that distributes powers and functions among the various UN organs. It authorizes the Security Council to take action on behalf of the members, and to make decisions and recommendations. The Charter mentions neither binding nor non-binding resolutions. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) advisory opinion in the 1949 "Reparations" case indicated that the United Nations Organization had both explicit and implied powers. The Court cited Articles 104 and 2(5) of the Charter, and noted that the members had granted the Organization the necessary legal authority to exercise its functions and fulfill its purposes as specified or implied in the Charter, and that they had agreed to give the United Nations every assistance in any action taken in accordance with the Charter.[12] Article 25 of the Charter says that "The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter". The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs, is a UN legal publication that is published by the Secretariat units concerned in accordance with their operational responsibilities and under the guidance of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Charter Repertory. It says that during the United Nations Conference on International Organization which met in San Francisco in 1945, attempts to limit obligations of Members under Article 25 of the Charter to those decisions taken by the Council in the exercise of its specific powers under Chapters VI, VII and VIII of the Charter failed. It was stated at the time that those obligations also flowed from the authority conferred on the Council under Article 24(1) to act on the behalf of the members while exercising its responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.[13] Article 24, interpreted in this sense, becomes a source of authority which can be drawn upon to meet situations which are not

United Nations Security Council covered by the more detailed provisions in the succeeding articles.[14] The Repertory on Article 24 says: "The question whether Article 24 confers general powers on the Security Council ceased to be a subject of discussion following the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice rendered on 21 June 1971 in connection with the question of Namibia (ICJ Reports, 1971, page 16)".[15] In exercising its powers the Security Council seldom bothers to cite the particular article or articles of the UN Charter that its decisions are based upon. In cases where none are mentioned, a constitutional interpretation is required.[16] This sometimes presents ambiguities as to what amounts to a decision as opposed to a recommendation, and also the relevance and interpretation of the phrase "in accordance with the present Charter".[17] In the preliminary rulings of the "Lockerbie" cases[18] the ICJ held that the provisions of the Montreal Convention could be preempted by Security Council resolutions pursuant to Article 25 and Article 103 of the UN Charter. Article 103 provides that in the event of conflicts with other treaty obligations, the members obligations under the Charter prevail. There is consensus that the treaty-based powers of the Security Council are limited to preemption of other treaties. The UN cannot circumvent peremptory norms and its resolutions are subject to judicial review.[19]
UN Security Council Resolutions Sources: [20] [21] UNBISnet Wikisource

UN Security Council

1 to 100 (19461953) 101 to 200 (19531965) 201 to 300 (19651971) 301 to 400 (19711976) 401 to 500 (19761982) 501 to 600 (19821987) 601 to 700 (19871991) 701 to 800 (19911993) 801 to 900 (19931994) 901 to 1000 (19941995) 1001 to 1100 (19951997) 1101 to 1200 (19971998) 1201 to 1300 (19982000) 1301 to 1400 (20002002) 1401 to 1500 (20022003) 1501 to 1600 (20032005) 1601 to 1700 (20052006) 1701 to 1800 (20062008) 1801 to 1900 (20082009) 1901 to 2000 (2009present)

Security Council Resolutions are legally binding if they are made under Chapter VII (Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression) of the Charter. There is a general agreement among legal scholars outside the organization that resolutions made under Chapter VI (Pacific Settlement of Disputes) are not legally binding.[22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] One argument is that since they have no enforcement mechanism, except self-help, they may not be legally binding.[31] Some States give

United Nations Security Council constitutional or special legal status to the UN Charter and Security Council resolutions. In such cases non-recognition regimes or other sanctions can be implemented under the provisions of the laws of the individual member states.[32] The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs was established because "Records of the cumulating practice of international organizations may be regarded as evidence of customary international law with reference to States' relations to the organizations."[33] The repertory cites the remarks made by the representative of Israel, Mr Eban, regarding a Chapter VI resolution. He maintained that the Security Council's resolution of 1 September 1951 possessed, within the meaning of Article 25, a compelling force beyond that pertaining to any resolution of any other organ of the United Nations, in his view the importance of the resolution had to be envisaged in the light of Article 25, under which the decisions of the Council on matters affecting international peace and security assumed an obligatory character for all Member States. The Egyptian representative disagreed.[34] Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali related that during a press conference his remarks about a "non-binding" resolution started a dispute. His assistant released a hasty clarification which only made the situation worse. It said that the Secretary had only meant to say that Chapter VI contains no means of insuring compliance and that resolutions adopted under its terms are not enforceable. When the Secretary finally submitted the question to the UN Legal Advisor, the response was a long memo the bottom line of which read, in capital letters: "NO SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION CAN BE DESCRIBED AS UNENFORCEABLE." The Secretary said "I got the message."[35] Prof. Jared Schott explains that "Though certainly possessing judicial language, without the legally binding force of Chapter VII, such declarations were at worst political and at best advisory".[36] In 1971, a majority of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) members in the Namibia advisory opinion held that the resolution contained legal declarations that were made while the Council was acting on behalf of the members in accordance with Article 24. The Court also said that an interpretation of the charter that limits the domain of binding decision only to those taken under Chapter VII would render Article 25 "superfluous, since this [binding] effect is secured by Articles 48 and 49 of the Charter", and that the "language of a resolution of the Security Council should be carefully analysed before a conclusion can be made as to its binding effect".[37] The ICJ judgment has been criticized by Erika De Wet and others.[38] De Wet argues that Chapter VI resolutions cannot be binding. Her reasoning, in part states: Allowing the Security Council to adopt binding measures under Chapter VI would undermine the structural division of competencies foreseen by Chapters VI and VII, respectively. The whole aim of separating these chapters is to distinguish between voluntary and binding measures. Whereas the pacific settlement of disputes provided by the former is underpinned by the consent of the parties, binding measures in terms of Chapter VII are characterized by the absence of such consent. A further indication of the non-binding nature of measures taken in terms of Chapter VI is the obligation on members of the Security Council who are parties to a dispute, to refrain from voting when resolutions under Chapter VI are adopted. No similar obligation exists with respect to binding resolutions adopted under Chapter VII... If one applies this reasoning to the Namibia opinion, the decisive point is that none of the Articles under Chapter VI facilitate the adoption of the type of binding measures that were adopted by the Security Council in Resolution 276(1970)... Resolution 260(1970) was indeed adopted in terms of Chapter VII, even though the ICJ went to some length to give the opposite impression.[39] Others disagree with this interpretation. Professor Stephen Zunes asserts that "[t]his does not mean that resolutions under Chapter VI are merely advisory, however. These are still directives by the Security Council and differ only in that they do not have the same stringent enforcement options, such as the use of military force".[40] Former President of the International Court of Justice Rosalyn Higgins argues that the location of Article 25, outside of Chapter VI and VII and with no reference to either, suggests its application is not limited to Chapter VII decisions.[41] She asserts that the Travaux prparatoires to the UN Charter "provide some evidence that Article 25 was not intended to

United Nations Security Council be limited to Chapter VII, or inapplicable to Chapter VI."[42] She argues that early state practice into what resolutions UN members considered binding has been somewhat ambiguous, but seems to "rely not upon whether they are to be regarded as "Chapter VI or "Chapter VII" resolutions [...] but upon whether the parties intended them to be "decisions" or "recommendations" ... One is left with the view that in certain limited, and perhaps rare, cases a binding decision may be taken under Chapter VI".[43] She supports the view of the ICJ that "clearly regarded Chapters VI, VII, VIII and XII as lex specialis while Article 24 contained the lex generalis ... [and] that resolutions validly adopted under Article 24 were binding on the membership as a whole".[44] Those resolutions made dealing with the internal governance of the organization (such as the admission of new Member States) are legally binding where the Charter gives the Security Council power to make them. If the council cannot reach consensus or a passing vote on a resolution, they may choose to produce a non-binding presidential statement instead of a Resolution. These are adopted by consensus. They are meant to apply political pressure a warning that the council is paying attention and further action may follow. Press statements typically accompany both resolutions and presidential statements, carrying the text of the document adopted by the body and also some explanatory text. They may also be released independently, after a significant meeting.

Criticism
It could be argued that the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, who are all nuclear powers, have created an exclusive nuclear club that predominately addresses the strategic interests and political motives of the permanent members; for example, protecting the oil-rich Kuwaitis in 1991 but poorly protecting resource-poor Rwandans in 1994.[45] To promote their national interests, Indian officials have suggested that the number of permanent members be expanded to include non-nuclear powers,[46] or abolishing the concept of permanency altogether.[47] Another criticism of the Security Council involves the veto power of the five permanent nations. The veto power was adopted at the insistence of the Soviet Union after World War II. According to the by-rules of the U.N., a "no" vote by any one permament Security Council member is enough to strike down any given proposal. The "no" vote is the same as a veto. As would be expected, permament members often use this veto power to strike down measures that run contrary to their individual national interests. For example, the People's Republic of China, which, in 1971, replaced the Republic of China as a permanent Security Council member, has vetoed sparingly, but always and only on issues relating to Chinese national interests. In another example, in the first ten years of the U.N.'s existence, Russia was responsible for 79 vetoesmore than half of all the vetoes cast during that periodand cast them to dispute the U.S.'s refusal to admit all of the Soviet Republics as member states of the U.N. In another example of the use of the veto power to advance national interests, between 1982 and today, the U.S. vetoed 32 Security Council resolutions that were critical of Israel, a U.S. ally in the Middle East.[48] Due to the immense power of the veto, permanent members often now meet privately and then present their resolutions to the full council, which some critics characterise as a fait accompli.[49] Other critics and even proponents of the Security Council question its effectiveness and relevance because, in most high-profile cases, there are essentially no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution. During the Darfur crisis, Janjaweed militias, allowed by elements of the Sudanese government, committed violence against an indigenous population, killing thousands of civilians. In the Srebrenica massacre, Serbian troops committed genocide against Bosniaks, although Srebrenica had been declared a UN "safe area" and was even protected by 400 armed Dutch peacekeepers. Other critics call the UN undemocratic, representing the interests of the governments of the nations who formed it and not necessarily the individuals within those nations. The UN Charter gives all three powers of the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches to the Security Council.[50]

United Nations Security Council Another criticism is that the five permanent members of the UN Security Council are five of the top ten largest arms exporting countries in the world.[51] The amount of time devoted to the Israeli-Arab conflict in the UNSC has been described as excessive by some pro-Israel political organizations such as the United Nations Watch[52] and the Anti-Defamation League;[53] , and academics such as Alan Dershowitz,[54] Martin Kramer, and Mitchell Bard. This excessiveness" is partially due to the existence of UN Security Council Resolution number 1322 (2000) of 7 October 2000 [55] that serves the legal basis for a monthly discussion on this protracted conflict.[56] Paragraph 7 stated that invites the Secretary-General to continue to follow the situation and to keep the Security Council informed. In accordance with its general practices [57] , it is considered that this issue has to be dealt on a regular basis (i.e. every month). The resolution was adopted with 14 affirmative votes and one abstention.[58]

Membership reform
There has been discussion of increasing the number of permanent members. The countries who have made the strongest demands for permanent seats are Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan. Japan and Germany are the UN's second and third largest funders respectively, while Brazil and India are two of the largest contributors of troops to UN-mandated peace-keeping missions. This proposal has found opposition in a group of countries called Uniting for Consensus.

Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan asked a team of advisers to come up with recommendations for reforming the United Nations by the end of 2004. One proposed measure is to increase the number of permanent members by five, which, in most proposals, would include Brazil, Germany, India, Japan (known as the G4 nations), one seat from Africa (most likely between Egypt, Nigeria or South Africa) and/or one seat from the Arab League.[60] On 21 September 2004, the G4 nations issued a joint statement mutually backing each other's claim to permanent status, together with two African countries. Currently the proposal has to be accepted by two-thirds of the General Assembly (128 votes). The permanent members, each holding the right of veto, announced their positions on Security Council reform reluctantly. The United States has unequivocally supported the permanent membership of Japan and lent its support to India and a small number of additional non-permanent members. The United Kingdom and France essentially supported the G4 position, with the expansion of permanent and non-permanent members and the accession of Germany, Brazil, India and Japan to permanent member status, as well as an increase the presence by African countries on the Council. China has supported the stronger representation of developing countries and firmly opposed Japan's membership.[61]

The G4 nations: Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan. Most support one another's bids for permanent seats on the Security Council, though [59] are heavily opposed by various member nations of the UN.

Chamber
The designated Security Council Chamber in the United Nations Conference Building, designed by the Norwegian architect Arnstein Arneberg, was the specific gift of Norway. The mural painted by the Norwegian artist Per Krohg depicts a phoenix rising from its ashes, symbolic of the world reborn after World War II. In the blue and gold silk tapestry on the walls and in the draperies of the windows overlooking the East River appear the anchor of faith, the wheat stems of hope, and the heart of charity.[62]

United Nations Security Council

10

References
[1] http:/ / www. un. org/ sc/ [2] List of heads of missions (http:/ / missions. un. int/ protocol/ documents/ HeadsofMissions. pdf)PDF(60.1KB) [3] Malone, David (October 25, 2003). "Reforming the Security Council: Where Are the Arabs?" (http:/ / www. worldpress. org/ Mideast/ 1694. cfm). The Daily Star (Beirut, Lebanon). . Retrieved January 3, 2011. [4] Notes by the president of the Security Council (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ sc/ notes/ PresidentialNotesEng. htm). Retrieved 15 January 2010. [5] UN Security Council: Presidential Statements 2008 (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ sc/ unsc_pres_statements08. htm). Retrieved 15 January 2010. [6] Security Council Presidency in 2011 (http:/ / www. un. org/ sc/ presidency. asp) United Nations Security Council. Retrieved 2 February 2011. [7] Global Policy Forum (2008): " Changing Patterns in the Use of the Veto in the Security Council (http:/ / www. globalpolicy. org/ security/ data/ vetotab. htm)". Retrieved on 25 August 2008. [8] Charter of the United Nations: Chapter V: The Security Council (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ documents/ charter/ chapter5. shtml). Retrieved 15 January 2010. [9] Article 13 (http:/ / www. un. org/ law/ icc/ statute/ 99_corr/ 2. htm) of the Rome Statute. Retrieved on 14 March 2007. [10] United Nations Security Council (31 March 2006). "Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, To Prosecutor of International Criminal Court" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2005/ sc8351. doc. htm). Press release. . Retrieved 14 March 2007. [11] Resolution 1674 (2006) (http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAl. NSF/ 361eea1cc08301c485256cf600606959/ e529762befa456f8852571610045ebef!OpenDocument). [12] See ICJ Advisory Opinion, Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations ICJ-CIJ.org (http:/ / www. icj-cij. org/ docket/ files/ 4/ 1835. pdf) [13] See page 5, The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs, Extracts Relating to Article 25 UN.org. (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ cod/ repertory/ art25/ english/ rep_supp5_vol2-art25_e. pdf#pagemode=none) [14] see The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs, Extracts Relating to Article 24, UN.org. (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ cod/ repertory/ art24. htm) [15] See Note 2 on page 1 of Sup. 6, vol. 3, Article 24 (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ cod/ repertory/ art24/ english/ rep_supp6_vol3_art24_e. pdf). [16] See Repertoire Of The Practice Of The Security Council, introductory note regarding the contents and arrangement of Chapter VIII (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpa/ repertoire/ 46-51/ 46-51_08. pdf). [17] Schweigman, David "The authority of the Security Council under Chapter VII of the UN Charter". 2001. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers: The Hague. [18] Libya v. UK (http:/ / www. icj-cij. org/ docket/ index. php?p1=3& p2=3& code=luk& case=88& k=9c) and Libya v. USA (http:/ / www. icj-cij. org/ docket/ index. php?p1=3& p2=3& code=lus& case=89& k=82). [19] See for example: Hans-Paul Gasser,Collective Economic Sanctions and International Humanitarian Law An Enforcement Measure under the United Nations Charter and the Right of Civilians to Immunity: An Unavoidable Clash of Policy Goals, (1996) 56 ZaRV 880881; T.D. Gill, Legal and Some Political Limitations on the Power of the UN Security Council to Exercise Its Enforcement Powers under Chapter VII of the Charter(1995) 26 NYIL 33, 79; Alexander Orakhelashvili, 'The Impact of Peremptory Norms on the Interpretation and Application of United Nations Security Council Resolutions', The European Journal of International Law Vol. 16 no.1. [20] http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ sc/ [21] http:/ / unbisnet. un. org/ [22] "This clause does not apply to decisions under Chapter VII (including the use of armed force), which are binding on all member states (unlike those adopted under Chapter VI which are of a non-binding nature)." Kchler, Hans. The Concept of Humanitarian Intervention in the Context of Modern Power, International Progress Organization, 2001, ISBN 3900704201, p. 21. [23] "The impact of these flaws inherent to Resolution 731 (1992) was softened by the fact that it was a non-binding resolution in terms of Chapter VI of the Charter. Consquently Libya was not bound to give effect to it. However, the situation was different with respect to Resolution 748 of 31 March 1992, as it was adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter." De Wet, Erika, "The Security Council as a Law Maker: The Adoption of (Quasi)-Judicial Decisions", in Wolfrum, Rdiger and Rben, Volker. Developments of International Law in Treaty Making, Springer, 2005, ISBN 3540252991, p. 203. [24] "There are two limitations on the Security Council when it is acting under Chapter VI. Firstly, recommendations of the Council under Chapter VI are not binding on states." Werksman, Jacob. Greening International Institutions, Earthscan, 1996, ISBN 1853832448, p. 14. [25] "Chapter VI exhorts members to settle such claims peacefully and submit them for mediation and arbitration to the United Nations. Chapter VI, however, is not binding in other owrds, there is no power to compel states to submit their disputes for arbitration or mediation by the United Nations." Matthews, Ken. The Gulf Conflict and International Relations, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 041507519X, p. 130. [26] Within the framework of Chapter VI the SC has at its disposal an 'escalation ladder' composed of several 'rungs' of wielding influence on the conflicting parties in order to move them toward a pacific solution... however, the pressure exerted by the Council in the context of this Chapter is restricted to non-binding recommendations." Neuhold, Hanspeter. "The United Nations System for the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes", in Cede, Franz & Sucharipa-Behrmann, Lilly. The United Nations, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 2001, p. 66.

United Nations Security Council

[27] "The responsibility of the Council with regard to international peace and security is specified in Chapters VI and VII. Chapter VI, entitled 'Pacific Settlements of Disputes', provides for action by the Council in case of international disputes or situations which do not (yet) post a threat to international peace and security. Herein its powers generally confined to making recommendations, the Council can generally not issue binding decisions under Chapter VI." Schweigman, David. The Authority of the Security Council Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 2001, p. 33. [28] "Under Chapter VI the Security Council can only make non-binding recommendations. However, if the Security Council determines that the continuance of the dispute constitutes a threat to the peace, or that the situation involves a breach of the peace or act of aggression it can take action under Chapter VII of the Charter. Chapter VII gives the Security Council the power to make decisions which are binding on member states, once it has determined the existence of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression." Hillier, Timothy, Taylor & Francis Group. Sourcebook on Public International Law, Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1843143801, 1998, p. 568. [29] "Additionally it may be noted that the Security Council cannot adopt binding decisions under Chapter VI of the Charter." De Hoogh, Andre. Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Jan 1, 1996, p. 371. [30] "One final point must be noted in connection with Chapter VI, and that is that the powers of the Security Council are to make "recommendations." These are not binding on the states to whom they are addressed, for Article 25 relates only to "decisions." Philippe Sands, Pierre Klein, D. W. Bowett. Bowett's Law of International Institutions, Sweet & Maxwell, 2001, ISBN 042153690X, p. 46. [31] Magliveras, Konstantinos D. Exclusion from Participation in International Organisations, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1 Jan 1999, p. 113. [32] See National implementation of United Nations sanctions: a comparative study, by Vera Gowlland-Debbas, Djacoba Liva Tehindrazanarivelo, Brill, 2004, ISBN 9004140905; and Recognition and the United Nations, by John Dugard, Cambridge University Press, 1987, ISBN 0949009008. [33] See "Ways and means for making the evidence of customary international law more readily available", Report of the International Law Commission, 1950 (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ ilc/ texts/ instruments/ english/ reports/ 1_4_1950. pdf) [34] Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs, Article 25, Sup. 1, Vol 1, para 59. (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ cod/ repertory/ art25/ english/ rep_supp1_vol1-art25_e. pdf#pagemode=none). [35] Unvanquished: a U.S.-U.N. saga, By Boutros Boutros-Ghali, I.B. TAURIS, 1999, ISBN 186064497X, p. 189. [36] Chapter VII as Exception: Security Council Action and the Regulative Ideal of Emergency (http:/ / www. law. northwestern. edu/ journals/ JIHR/ v6/ n1/ 2/ Schott. pdf), page 56 [37] Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970) (http:/ / www. icj-cij. org/ docket/ files/ 53/ 5594. pdf), Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971 at paragraphs 87116, especially 113: "It has been contended that Article 25 of the Charter applies only to enforcement measures adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter. It is not possible to find in the Charter any support for this view. Article 25 is not confined to decisions in regard to enforcement action but applies to "the decisions of the Security Council" adopted in accordance with the Charter. Moreover, that Article is placed, not in Chapter VII, but immediately after Article 24 in that part of the Charter which deals with the functions and powers of the Security Council. If Article 25 had reference solely to decisions of the Security Council concerning enforcement action under Articles 41 and 42 of the Charter, that is to say, if it were only such decisions which had binding effect, then Article 25 would be superfluous, since this effect is secured by Articles 48 and 49 of the Charter." [38] "The International Court of Justice took the position in the Namibia Advisory Opinion that Art. 25 of the Charter, according to which decisions of the Security Council have to be carried out, does not only apply in relation to chapter VII. Rather, the court is of the opinion that the language of a resolution should be carefully analyzed before a conclusion can be drawn as to its binding effect. The Court even seems to assume that Art. 25 may have given special powers to the Security Council. The Court speaks of "the powers under Art. 25". It is very doubtful, however, whether this position can be upheld. As Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice has pointed out in his dissenting opinion: "If, under the relevant chapter or article of the Charter, the decision is not binding, Article [69/70] 25 cannot make it so. If the effect of that Article were automatically to make all decisions of the Security Council binding, then the words 'in accordance with the present Charter' would be quite superfluous". In practice the Security Council does not act on the understanding that its decisions outside chapter VII are binding on the States concerned. Indeed, as the wording of chapter VI clearly shows, non-binding recommendations are the general rule here." Frowein, Jochen Abr. Vlkerrecht Menschenrechte Verfassungsfragen Deutschlands und Europas, Springer, 2004, ISBN 3-540-23023-8, p. 58. [39] De Wet, Erika. The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council, Hart Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-84113-422-8, pp. 3940. [40] Zunes, Stephen, "International law, the UN and Middle Eastern conflicts". Peace Review, Volume 16, Issue 3 September 2004 , pages 285 292:291. [41] Higgins, Rosalyn. "The Advisory opinion on Namibia*: Which un Resolutions are Binding under Article 25 of the Charter?" International & Comparative Law Quarterly (1972), 21 : 270286:278. [42] Higgins, Rosalyn. "The Advisory opinion on Namibia*: Which un Resolutions are Binding under Article 25 of the Charter?" International & Comparative Law Quarterly (1972), 21 : 270286:279. [43] Higgins, Rosalyn. "The Advisory opinion on Namibia*: Which un Resolutions are Binding under Article 25 of the Charter?" International & Comparative Law Quarterly (1972), 21 : 270286:2812. [44] Higgins, Rosalyn. "The Advisory opinion on Namibia*: Which un Resolutions are Binding under Article 25 of the Charter?" International & Comparative Law Quarterly (1972), 21 : 270286:286. [45] Rajan, Chella (2006). " Global Politics and Institutions (http:/ / www. gtinitiative. org/ documents/ PDFFINALS/ 3Politics. pdf)PDF(449KB)". Frontiers of a Great Transition. Vol. 3. Tellus Institute.

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[46] "India makes strong case for UNSC expansion" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060709065814/ http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ news/ 6640_1544815,001600320005. htm). HindustanTimes.com. 13 November 2005. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ news/ 6640_1544815,001600320005. htm) on 8 September 2007. . [47] "Statement by Canadian Ambassador Allan Rock on Security Council Reform" (http:/ / www. globalpolicy. org/ security/ reform/ statements/ 2005/ 0712canada. htm). Global Policy Forum. 12 July 2005. . Retrieved 8 September 2007. [48] John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt. "The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy" (http:/ / ksgnotes1. harvard. edu/ Research/ wpaper. nsf/ rwp/ RWP06-011). KSG Faculty Research Working Paper Series. Harvard University. . Retrieved 8 September 2007. [49] Empowering the Peoples in their United Nations UN Reform Global Policy Forum (http:/ / globalpolicy. org/ component/ content/ article/ 228/ 32395. html). Retrieved 15 January 2010. [50] Creery, Janet (1994). Read the fine print first: Some questions raised at the Science for Peace conference on UN reform (http:/ / archive. peacemagazine. org/ v10n1p20. htm). Peace Magazine. JanFeb 1994. p. 20. Retrieved on 7 December 2007. [51] Global Issues The arms trade is big business (http:/ / www. globalissues. org/ article/ 74/ the-arms-trade-is-big-business) by Anup Shah. Retrieved 15 January 2010. [52] UN, Israel & Anti-Semitism (http:/ / www. unwatch. org/ site/ c. bdKKISNqEmG/ b. 1359197/ k. 6748/ UN_Israel__AntiSemitism. htm) [53] Israel at the UN: Progress Amid A History of Bias (http:/ / www. adl. org/ international/ Israel-UN-1-introduction. asp) [54] The United Nations Kangaroo "Investigation" of Israeli "War Crimes" (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ alan-dershowitz/ the-united-nations-kangar_b_223424. html) TheHuffingtonPost.com, Inc. [55] http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ 22f8a95e5c0579af052569720007921e?OpenDocument [56] Publications on the Middle East (including Israel/Palestine) (http:/ / www. securitycouncilreport. org/ site/ c. glKWLeMTIsG/ b. 2400795/ ) [57] http:/ / www. hrweb. org/ legal/ unchartr. html [58] UNBISnet (http:/ / unbisnet. un. org:8080/ ipac20/ ipac. jsp?session=1287F009688F6. 294151& menu=search& aspect=power& npp=50& ipp=20& spp=20& profile=voting& ri=& index=. VM& term=1322& matchopt=0|0& oper=AND& x=14& y=10& aspect=power& index=. VW& term=& matchopt=0|0& oper=AND& index=. AD& term=& matchopt=0|0& oper=AND& index=BIB& term=& matchopt=0|0& limitbox_1=VI01+ =+ vi_s& ultype=& uloper==& ullimit=& ultype=& uloper==& ullimit=& sort=) [59] http:/ / www. centerforunreform. org/ node/ 386 [60] "UN Security Council Reform May Shadow Annan's Legacy" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071012131441/ http:/ / voanews. com/ english/ 2006-11-01-voa46. cfm). Voice Of America. 1 November 2006. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. voanews. com/ english/ 2006-11-01-voa46. cfm) on 12 October 2007. . Retrieved 8 September 2007. [61] China opposed UNSC expansion, says WikiLeaks (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ content/ 117168/ china-opposed-unsc-expansion-says. html) [62] UN website.

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Further reading
Lowe, Vaughan, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh and Dominik Zaum, ed (2008). The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/ 9780199583300.do),. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953343-5 (hardback); ISBN 978-0-19-958330-0 (paperback). US edition (http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/ InternationalStudies/?view=usa&ci=9780199583300#Description). On Google (http://books.google.com/ books?id=LBW7AAAAIAAJ&q=United+Nations+Security+Council+and+War&dq=United+Nations+ Security+Council+and+War&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=0DiKTZHyLsaChQepm62kDg&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA). Hurd, Ian (2007). After Anarchy: Legitimacy and Power in the United Nations Security Council. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Matheson, Michael J. (2006). Council Unbound: The Growth of UN Decision Making on Conflict and Postconflict Issues after the Cold War. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace Press. Malone, David (1998). Decision-Making in the UN Security Council: The Case of Haiti. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0198294832. Hannay, David (2008). New World Disorder: The UN After the Cold War An Insiders View. London: I.B. Tauris. Bailey, Sydney D.; Daws, Sam (1998). The Procedure of the UN Security Council (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0198280734. Roberts, Adam; Zaum, Dominik (2008). Selective Security: War and the United Nations Security Council since 1945. Adelphi Paper of International Institute for Strategic Studies, London. 395. Abingdon: Routledge.

United Nations Security Council ISBN9780415474726. ISSN0567-932X.

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External links
UN Security Council (http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/) official site UN Security Council Background (http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_background.html) UN Democracy: hyperlinked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council (http:/ /www.undemocracy.com/) Global Policy Forum UN Security Council (http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/index.htm) Global Policy Forum veto patterns of the Security Council (http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/data/ vetotab.htm) Security Council Report (http://www.securitycouncilreport.org) timely, accurate and objective information and analysis on the Council's activities Center for UN Reform Education objective information on current reform issues at the United Nations (http:// www.centerforunreform.org) Hans Kchler, The Voting Procedure in the United Nations Security Council (http://i-p-o.org/ Koechler-Voting_Procedure-UN_Security_Council.pdf)PDF(238KB) Reform the United Nations website (http://www.reformtheun.org/) tracking developments History of the United Nations (http://www.direct.gov.uk/Gtgl1/GuideToGovernment/InternationalBodies/ InternationalBodiesArticles/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4003089&chk=aPi/oF) UK Government site Who will be the next Secretary General? (http://unsg.org) (French) The different projects of reform (G4, Africa Union, United for consensus) (2006) (http://citron-vert. info/article.php3?id_article=668) UNSC cyberschool (http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/unintro/unintro4.htm)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

United Nations Security Council Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426798462 Contributors: (, 1j1z2, 23prootie, A.h. king, ADM, Aaker, Abc30, Aberdonian99, Abhijitsathe, Acepectif, Achmelvic, Ad.minster, Adun12, Aeon1006, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Aka042, Alanmak, Alansohn, Aldis90, Aldwinteo, Aliazimi, Alkari, Altenmann, Alyssalover, Amoruso, Anarchangel, Anders.Warga, Andre Engels, Andrwsc, Andy Marchbanks, Andy120290, AndyBQ, Andyso, Anetheron589, Angelo De La Paz, Ankitbhatt, AnonMoos, Anonymoues, Anonymous editor, Anotherclown, Antandrus, Anyanghaseyo, Apollo Augustus Koo, Aquintero82, Aranherunar, ArchiSchmedes, Aricci526, Aris Katsaris, Arkangel lucifer, Arthena, Ask123, Astrowob, Athaenara, AtilimGunesBaydin, Aua, Auric04, Avala, AwesomeD00d86, AxelBoldt, Azazelvis, B1mbo, BD2412, Babakathy, Bambuway, BanyanTree, Barfooz, Barte45, Barticus88, BeFi, Bender235, Bevo, Bhawani Gautam, Bidabadi, BignBad, Bkell, Black Kite, Blue-Haired Lawyer, Bobo192, Boborok, Bocaccio70s, BokicaK, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bradv, BritishWatcher, Bryan Derksen, Buffadren, Burschenschafter, Burto88, C.hardin, C0nanPayne, CFM865, CFO, CJ, Canaen, Cantus, Capricorn42, Captain Seafort, Captain Zyrain, Carl Logan, CattleGirl, Cctv10, Cedlaod, Centrx, Ceyockey, Chanakyathegreat, Chaser (away), Chealer, Chenyu, Chick Bowen, Ciadude113, Ciderbarrel, Circeus, Civvi, Ckatz, Ckincaid77, Cliffb, Cloretti, Coat of Arms, Comradspun, Consequentially, Conversion script, CopperMurdoch, Coyinyo, Crouchingdragon090, Curtisfromks, Cybbe, Cybercobra, Cyberevil, Cynical, DJ Clayworth, DOUGHARTUNIAN, DRosenbach, Da Vynci, Dac04, Dan Atkinson, DandanxD, Dandelions, Danielgrad, Danny B-), DarExc, Dark Dragon Sword, Darker Dreams, Darkrai1888, Darz kkg, Davewild, Dblanchard, Deepak, Deeptrivia, Delirium, Denelson83, Derek Ross, Dfrg.msc, Dhatfield, Dickonprior, Dinosaur puppy, Dirtybutclean, Diumlol, Dkis, DocWatson42, Docu, Doidimais Brasil, Dpaajones, DrKiernan, Draicone, Drano, Dravick, Drmies, DunadanLord, Dwarf Kirlston, Dnadan, E Pluribus Anthony, Ed Poor, Ed g2s, Effeietsanders, Efghij, Ekhaya2000, El C, Electrobe, Eleland, Elium2, Elizabeth A, Ellipsis, Emc2, Esn, Euchiasmus, EugeneZelenko, Eumolpo, Evercat, Everyking, EvilSuggestions, Exiletod, Ezeu, F Notebook, FairoozAdams, Fangyuan1st, Fdp10, Felipe Menegaz, Feydey, Flamurai, Foobaz, Forever Dusk, Fozi999, Fredrik, Freedomlinux, FreplySpang, Froztbyte, Funandtrvl, GMMarques, Gabbe, GabrielF, Galoubet, Gary King, Geo0910, Gggh, Gherasim Radu, Gimmetrow, Giraffedata, Glane23, Glen, Gniniv, Gnome de plume, Goatchurch, Godfoster, Golbez, Gonghebi, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, GoonerDP, Graham87, Grant65, Green Giant, Gregbard, Groggy Dice, Grsz11, Guardian Tiger, Gugganij, Guptadeepak, Gurch, Gvw, Gyrostat, Hagerman, Hairy Dude, Hajduk, Happy-melon, Hariva, Harlan wilkerson, Hayabusa future, Hede2000, Hedgeman, Heitordp, Henrygb, Heracletus, Hestemand, Hibernian, Hintha, Holyname, Hu, Huaiwei, I dream of horses, IJA, Idleguy, Ikh, Ikip, Imperator Honorius, InspectorTiger, Instantnood, Inter, Irdepesca572, Iridescent, Ishboyfay, It.wiki:Twilight, Ivirivi00, J.delanoy, J100muller, JJJJust, JLogan, Jan1nad, Jaro7788, JavierMC, Javierito92, Jayjg, Jd027, Jdforrester, JeevanJones, Jeffreystringer, Jerzy, Jhmr, Jiang, Jimoregulus, Jncraton, Joachim2222, JoanneB, Johan Magnus, Johan91, John Lunney, John Smith's, John Z, Johnhousefriday, Jojit fb, Joo-joo eyeball, Joolz, Joowwww, JordanRD, Joriki, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josephf, Joshua, Jpeob, Jrleighton, Jusjih, Just.James, Jy2414, KPalicz, Kaihsu, Kairos, Karam.Anthony.K, Katsplat, Kbh3rd, Kefeso, Keith Edkins, Kellym133, Kelovy, Kendroche, Kennercat, Keoki, Kernigh, Khaighle, Khajidha, Kiatster, Kingnavland, Kingpin13, Kingturtle, Kjetil r, Knopffabrik, Koavf, Koyaanis Qatsi, Krukowski, KuRiZu, Kungfuadam, Kungming2, Kurykh, KwazyUtopia19, Kwazyutopia19, Kydes.m, L.tak, LIU, LOL, La goutte de pluie, LactoseTI, Langhorner, Laurinavicius, Lensi, Leszek Jaczuk, Leungli, Lieu21, Life, Liberty, Property, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Limongi, Little guru, LittleOldMe, Liutianyang0801, LizardJr8, Lockesdonkey, Lokal Profil, Loontm, Lordscissorhand, Lotje, LovesMacs, Lowellian, Lysy, M.C. 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File:Small Flag of the United Nations ZP.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Small_Flag_of_the_United_Nations_ZP.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Collard, Homo lupus, Joowwww, Petar Marjanovic, XcepticZP, 1 anonymous edits File:United Nations Security Council.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:United_Nations_Security_Council.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Patrick Gruban File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370 File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: 555, Bestalex, Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Runningfridgesrule, Samwingkit, Sasha Krotov, Shizhao, Tabasco, Vzb83, Wrightbus, ZooFari, Zscout370, 72 anonymous edits File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zscout370 File:Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: A1, Ahmadi, Alex Smotrov, Alvis Jean, Art-top, BagnoHax, Denniss, EugeneZelenko, F l a n k e r, Fred J, Fry1989, G.dallorto, Garynysmon, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Jake Wartenberg, MaggotMaster, Ms2ger, Nightstallion, Pianist, R-41, Rainforest tropicana, Sebyugez, Solbris, Storkk, Str4nd, Tabasco, ThomasPusch, Toben, Twilight Chill, Zscout370, , 55 anonymous edits File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn, User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370 File:Vladimir Putin at the Millennium Summit 6-8 September 2000-23.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vladimir_Putin_at_the_Millennium_Summit_6-8_September_2000-23.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Presidential Press and Information Office File:Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Kseferovic File:Flag of Brazil.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Brazilian Government File:Flag of Gabon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Gabon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Gabbe, User:SKopp File:Flag of Lebanon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modification done to the colours based on information at Vexilla mundi. File:Flag of Nigeria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jhs File:Flag of Colombia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Germany.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Madden, User:Pumbaa80, User:SKopp File:Flag of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp

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File:Flag of Portugal.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Nightstallion File:Flag of South Africa.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: unknown Contributors: Adriaan, Anime Addict AA, AnonMoos, BRUTE, Daemonic Kangaroo, Dnik, Duduziq, Dzordzm, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Jappalang, Juliancolton, Kam Solusar, Klemen Kocjancic, Klymene, Lexxyy, Mahahahaneapneap, Manuelt15, Moviedefender, NeverDoING, Ninane, Poznaniak, SKopp, ThePCKid, ThomasPusch, Tvdm, Ultratomio, Vzb83, Zscout370, 33 anonymous edits File:UNSC veto.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UNSC_veto.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Polemarchus, user:norm77 File:Powell-anthrax-vial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Powell-anthrax-vial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: United States Government File:G4 Nations.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:G4_Nations.svg License: unknown Contributors: Felipe Menegaz

15

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United Nations Security Council veto power

United Nations Security Council veto power

The United Nations Security Council 'power of veto' refers to the veto power wielded solely by the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and United States), enabling them to prevent the adoption of any 'substantive' draft Council resolution, regardless of the level of international support for the draft. The veto does not apply to procedural votes, which is significant in that the Security Council's permanent membership can vote against a 'procedural' draft resolution, without necessarily blocking its adoption by the Council. The veto is exercised when any permanent member the so-called 'P5' casts a "negative" vote on a 'substantive' draft resolution. Abstention, or absence from the vote by a permanent member does not prevent a draft resolution from being adopted.

Origins of the veto provision

The idea of states having a veto over the actions of international organizations was not new in 1945. From the foundation of the League of Nations in 1920, each member of the League Council, whether permanent or non-permanent, had a veto on any non-procedural issue.[1] From 1920 there were 4 permanent and 4 non-permanent members, but by 1936 the number of non-permanent members had increased to 11. Thus there were in effect 15 vetoes. This was one of several defects of the League that made action on many issues impossible. The UN Charter provision for unanimity among the Permanent Members of the Security Council (the veto) was the result of extensive discussion, including at Dumbarton Oaks (AugustOctober 1944) and Yalta (February 1945).[2] The evidence is that the UK, USA, USSR, and France all favoured the principle of unanimity, and that they were motivated in this not only by a belief in the desirability of the major powers acting together, but also by a hard-headed concern to protect their own sovereign rights and national interest.[3] Truman, who became President of the USA in April 1945, went so far as to write in his memoirs: All our experts, civil and military, favoured it, and without such a veto no arrangement would have passed the Senate.[4] The UNSC veto system was established in order to prohibit the UN from taking any future action directly against its principal founding members. One of the lessons of the League of Nations (191946) had been that an international organization cannot work if all the major powers are not members. The expulsion of the Soviet Union from the League of Nations in December 1939, following its November 1939 attack on Finland soon after the outbreak of World War II, was just one of many events in the League's long history of incomplete membership. It had already been decided at the UN's founding conference in 1944, that Britain, China, the Soviet Union, the United States and, "in due course" France, should be the permanent members of any newly formed Council. France had been defeated and occupied by Germany (194044), but its role as a permanent member of the League of Nations, its status as a colonial power and the activities of the Free French forces on the allied side allowed it a place at the table with the other four.

United Nations Security Council veto power

Article 27
Article 27 of the United Nations Charter states: 1) Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. 2) Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members. 3) Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.[5] Although the 'power of veto' is not explicitly mentioned in the UN Charter, the fact that 'substantive' decisions by the UNSC require "the concurring votes of the permanent members", means that any of those permanent members can prevent the adoption, by the Council, of any draft resolutions on 'substantive' matters. For this reason, the 'power of veto' is also referred to as the principle of 'great Power unanimity'.[6]

The experience of the veto power

The actual use of the veto, and the constant possibility of its use, have been central features of the functioning of the Security Council throughout the UNs history. In the period from 1945 to the end of 2009, 215 resolutions on substantive issues were vetoed, sometimes by more than one of the Permanent Five. The average number of vetoes cast each year to 1989 was over five: since then the average annual number has been just above one. The figures reflect the fact that a Permanent Member of the Security Council can avoid casting a veto if the proposal in question does not in any event obtain the requisite majority. In the first two decades of the UN, the Western states were frequently able to defeat resolutions without actually using the veto; and the Soviet Union was in this position in the 1970s and 1980s. Use of the veto has reflected a degree of diplomatic isolation of the vetoing state(s) on the particular issue. Because of the use or threat of the veto, the Security Council could at best have a limited role in certain wars and interventions in which its Permanent Members were involved for example in Algeria (195462); Suez (1956), Hungary (1956), Vietnam (194675), the Sino-Vietnamese war (1979), Afghanistan (197988), Panama (1989), Iraq (2003), and Georgia (2008). Not all cases of UN inaction in crises have been due to actual use of the veto. For example, re the IranIraq war of 198088 there was no use of the veto, but the UN role was minimal except in its concluding phase. Likewise the limited involvement of the UN in the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan from 2003 onwards was not due to any actual use of the veto. A general lack of willingness to act was the main problem. Since 1990 the veto has been used sparingly. The period from 31 May 1990 to 11 May 1993 was the longest without use of the veto in the history of the UN. Up till the end of 1989 the number of resolutions passed by the Security Council had been 646 an average of about 15 per annum. The figures for the years since then show a peak of Security Council activism in 1993, followed by a modest degree of retrenchment.[7] In 1950 the Soviet Union missed one important opportunity to exercise its veto power. The Soviet government had adopted an "empty chair" policy at the Security Council from January 1950, owing to its discontent over the UN's refusal to recognize the People's Republic of China's representatives as the legitimate representatives of China,[8] and with the hope of preventing any future decisions by the Council on substantive matters. Despite the wording of the Charter (which makes no provisions for passing resolutions with the abstention or absence of a veto-bearing member), this was treated as a non-blocking abstention. This had in fact already become Council practice by that time, the Council having already adopted numerous draft resolutions despite the lack of an affirmative vote by each of its permanent members. The result of the Soviet Union's absence from the Security Council was that it was not in a position to veto the UN Security Council resolutions 83 (27 June 1950) and 84 (7 July 1950) authorising the US-led military coalition in Korea which assisted South Korea in repelling the North Korean attack.[9]

United Nations Security Council veto power

Most common users

Almost half the vetoes in the history of the Security Council were cast by the Soviet Union, with the vast majority of those being before 1965. Since using its first veto in 1946, Russia has been the most frequent user of the veto.[11] Between 1946 and 2007, vetoes were issued on 384 occasions. For that period, usage breaks down as follows:
Number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members of the Security United States has used the veto on [10] Council between 1946 and 2007. 82 occasions, often in support of Israel, between 1946 and 2007.[12] The most recent US veto on the issue of Israel came in 2011[13]

Russia/the Soviet Union has used the veto on 123 occasions, more than any other of the five permanent members of the security council.[14]

Analysis by country
Russia/Soviet Union
In the early days of the United Nations, the Soviet Union commissar and later minister for foreign affairs, Vyacheslav Molotov, said no so many times that he was known as "Mr. Veto". In fact, the Soviet Union was responsible for nearly half of all vetoes ever cast79 vetoes were used in the first 10 years. Molotov regularly rejected bids for new membership because of the U.S.'s refusal to admit the Soviet republics. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia has used its veto power sparingly.

United States
Ambassador Charles W. Yost cast the first U.S. veto in 1970, regarding a crisis in Rhodesia, and the U.S. cast a lone veto in 1972, to prevent a resolution relating to Israel. Since that time, it has become by far the most frequent user of the veto, mainly on resolutions criticizing Israel; since 2002 the Negroponte doctrine has been applied for the use of a veto on resolutions relating to the ongoing Israel-Palestinian conflict. This has been a constant cause of friction between the General Assembly and the Security Council. On the 18th of February 2011, the Obama Administration Vetoed resolutions condemning Israeli settlements.

United Kingdom
The United Kingdom used its Security Council veto power, along with France, to veto a draft resolution aimed at resolving the Suez Canal crisis in 1956. They eventually withdrew after the U.S. instigated an 'emergency special session' of the General Assembly, under the terms of the "Uniting for Peace" resolution, which led to the establishment of the United Nations Emergency Force I (UNEF I), by the adoption of Assembly resolution 1001.[15] The UK also used the veto unilaterally seven times because of Rhodesia.

United Nations Security Council veto power

France
France uses its veto power sparingly. It vetoed a 1976 Resolution on the question of the Comoros independence, when the island of Mayotte was kept in French territory due to the vote of the local population. The threat of a French veto of resolution on the Iraq war caused friction between France and the United States. France subsequently used the threat of a veto to support Morocco's position in the Western Sahara conflict .[16]

China (ROC/PRC)
Between 1946 and 1971, the Chinese seat on the Security Council was the government of the Republic of China (from 1949 on Taiwan) during which its representative used the veto only once (to block the Mongolian People's Republic's application for membership in 1955 because the ROC considered Mongolia to be a part of China). This postponed the admission of Mongolia until 1960, when the Soviet Union announced that unless Mongolia was admitted, it would block the admission of all of the newly independent African states. Faced with this pressure, the ROC relented under protest. After the Republic of China's expulsion from the United Nations in 1971, the first veto cast by the present occupant, the People's Republic of China, was issued in 25 August 1972 over Bangladesh's admission to the United Nations. As of December 2008, the People's Republic of China has used its veto six times; observers have noted a preference for China to abstain rather than veto on resolutions not directly related to Chinese interests.[10]

Veto power reform

Various discussions have taken place in recent years over the suitability of the Security Council veto power in todays world. Key arguments include that the five permanent members no longer represent the most stable and responsible member states in the United Nations, and that their veto power slows down and even prevents important decisions being made on matters of international peace and security. Due to the global changes that have taken place politically and economically since the formation of the UN in 1945, widespread debate has been apparent over whether the five permanent members of the UN Security Council remain the best member states to hold veto power. While the permanent members are still typically regarded as great powers, there is debate over their suitability to retain exclusive veto power.[17] A second argument against retaining the UNSC veto power is that it is detrimental to balanced political decisions, as any draft text needs to be approved of by each permanent member before any draft resolution can possibly be adopted. Indeed, several proposed draft resolutions are never formally presented to the Council for a vote owing to the knowledge that a permanent member would vote against their adoption (the so-called 'pocket veto'). Debate also exists over the potential use of the veto power to provide 'diplomatic cover' to a permanent member's allies . The United States of America has used its veto power more than any other permanent member since 1972, particularly on what it sees as unbalanced draft resolutions condemning the actions or policies of the State of Israel. Advocates of the veto power believe that it is just as necessary in the current geo-political landscape, and that without the veto power, the Security Council would be open to making democratic "majority rules" decisions on matters that have implications at a global level[18] decisions that may well go directly against the interests of a permanent member. Discussions on improving the UN's effectiveness and responsiveness to international security threats often include reform of the UNSC veto. Proposals include: limiting the use of the veto to vital national security issues; requiring agreement from multiple states before exercising the veto; and abolishing the veto entirely. However, any reform of the veto will be very difficult, if not impossible. In fact, Articles 108 and 109 of the United Nations Charter grant the P5 veto over any amendments to the Charter, requiring them to approve of any modifications to the UNSC veto power that they themselves hold: it is highly unlikely that any of the P5 would accept a reform of the UN Charter that would be detrimental to their own national interests.

United Nations Security Council veto power Nonetheless, it has been argued that the current UNSC 'power of veto' is, fundamentally, irrelevant.[19] With the Assembly's adoption of the 'Uniting for Peace' resolution on 3 November 1950, it was made clear by the UN Member states that, according to the UN Charter, the P5 cannot prevent the UN General Assembly from taking any and all action necessary to restore international peace and security, in cases where the UNSC has failed to exercise its 'primary responsibility' for maintaining peace. Such an interpretation sees the UNGA as being awarded 'final responsibility' rather than 'secondary responsibility' for matters of international peace and security, by the UN Charter. Although not couched in the same language, various high-level reports make explicit reference to the 'Uniting for Peace' resolution as providing the necessary mechanism for the UNGA to overrule any vetoes in the UNSC;[20] [21] [22] [23] thus rendering them little more than delays in UN action. The threat of the use of the veto by the P5 has led the UN Security Council to adopt what some commentators have described as unlawful resolutions that violated the UN Charter. For example, UNSC resolution 1422 of 2002, renewed once through resolution 1487 of 2003, aimed at exempting peace-keepers and other military personnel conducting operations authorized by the Security Council from the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC) for a period of 12 months. Resolution 1422 was adopted as a consequence to the US veto on 30 June 2002 to the renewal of the Peace-keeping operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a State Party to the Rome Statute of the ICC.[24] There has been discussion of increasing the number of permanent members. The countries who have made the strongest demands for permanent seats are Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan. Indeed, Japan and Germany are the UN's second and third largest funders respectively, while Brazil, the largest Latin American nation, and India, the world's largest democracy and second most populous country, are two of the largest contributors of troops to UN-mandated peace-keeping missions. This proposal has found opposition in a group of countries called Uniting for Consensus. On 21 September 2004, the G4 nations issued a joint statement mutually backing each other's claim to permanent status, together with two African countries. Any such proposal would involve amendment of the UN Charter, and as such would need to be accepted by two-thirds of the General Assembly (128 votes), and also by all the permanent members of the Security Council.[25]

Notes
[1] League of Nations Covenant, Article 5(1). [2] Edward C. Luck, 'Creation of the Council', in (Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh and Dominik Zaum), ed. The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (http:/ / ukcatalogue. oup. com/ product/ 9780199583300. do), Oxford University Press, 2008., pp. 61-85. [3] See e.g. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 6: Triumph and Tragedy, Cassell, London, 1954, pp. 181-2 and 308-13; Harry S. Truman, Year of Decisions: 1945 (London, 1955), pp. 194-5, 201, and 206-7; Charles de Gaulle, War Memoirs: Salvation 1944-1946 Documents, tr. Murchie and Erskine (London, 1960), pp. 94-5. [4] Truman, Year of Decisions: 1945, p. 207. See also US Department of State: "The United States and the Founding of the United Nations" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ho/ pubs/ fs/ 55407. htm). October 2005. Retrieved 1 March 2012. [5] UN Charter, Article 27, as amended in 1965. Before that date, Articles 27(2) and (3) had specified the affirmative votes of seven members. The change was part of the process whereby the size of the Council was increased from 11 to 15 members. [6] http:/ / www. un. org/ sc/ members. asp [7] For fuller discussion of the origins, uses and effects of the veto power, see Vaughan Lowe et al. (eds.), The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (http:/ / ukcatalogue. oup. com/ product/ 9780199583300. do), pp. 78-82, 135-7, 155-65, and table at 688-705. [8] Malanczuk, P: Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law, Ed. 7, page 375, Routledge, 9999 [9] Wiliam Stueck, 'The United Nations, the Security Council, and the Korean War', in Vaughan Lowe et al. (eds.), The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (http:/ / ukcatalogue. oup. com/ product/ 9780199583300. do), pp. 266-7 and 277-8. [10] Global Policy Forum (2008): " Changing Patterns in the Use of the Veto in the Security Council (http:/ / www. globalpolicy. org/ security/ data/ vetotab. htm)". Retrieved 30 December 2008. [11] Veto database and information (http:/ / www. globalpolicy. org/ security/ membship/ veto. htm) at Global Policy Forum [12] Veto database and information (http:/ / www. globalpolicy. org/ security-council/ tables-and-charts-on-the-security-council-0-82/ use-of-the-veto. html) at Global Policy Forum

United Nations Security Council veto power

[13] "Israeli settlements: US vetoes UNSC resolution" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-middle-east-12512732). BBC News. 19 February 2011. . [14] (http:/ / daccess-ods. un. org/ access. nsf/ Get?Open& DS=A/ 58/ 47(SUPP)& Lang=E) United Nations Documentation at The United Nations [15] http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ sessions/ emergency. shtml [16] North Africa: Western Sahara Conflict - Regional and International Repercussions (http:/ / allafrica. com/ stories/ 201007020756. html) at allafrica.com [17] UN's 'High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change': "A more secure world: our shared responsibility" (http:/ / www. un. org/ secureworld/ ). p.68, 1 December 2004. [18] Can the United Nations Reform (http:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ acad/ intrel/ schles. htm) [19] Hunt, C. " The 'veto' charade (http:/ / www. zmag. org/ content/ showarticle. cfm?ItemID=11353)", ZNet, 7 November 2006. Retrieved 1 March 2008 [20] United Nations General Assembly accessdate=2008-03-01 session 52 (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ A-52-856''Document''& #32;856) [21] International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. " The Responsibility to Protect (http:/ / www. iciss. ca/ menu-en. asp)", ICISS.ca, December 2001. Retrieved 1 March 2008. [22] " A/58/47 Report of the Open-ended Working Group on the Question of Representation on and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council (http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ 58/ documentation/ list0. html)", UN.org, 21 July 2004. Retrieved 1 March 2008. [23] Non-Aligned Movement. " Ministerial Meeting of the Coordinating Bureau of the Non-Aligned Movement (http:/ / www. un. int/ malaysia/ NAM/ MMCOB_FinalDocument. pdf)", UN.int, 2730 May 2006. Retrieved 1 March 2008. [24] http:/ / www. amicc. org/ docs/ PGA_1422ExpertOps. pdf which contains -inter alia- selections of writings of Flavia Lattanzi, Kai Ambos and Claus Kress [25] UN Charter, Articles 108 and 109.

Further reading
Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh and Dominik Zaum, ed. The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/ 9780199583300.do), Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-953343-5 (hardback); ISBN 978-0-19-958330-0 (paperback). US edition. (http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/ InternationalStudies/?view=usa&ci=9780199583300#Description) On Google (http://books.google.com/ books?id=LBW7AAAAIAAJ&q=United+Nations+Security+Council+and+War&dq=United+Nations+ Security+Council+and+War&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=0DiKTZHyLsaChQepm62kDg&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA). David Malone (ed), The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, Colorado, 2004. ISBN 1-58826-240-5 (paperback).

External links
Can You Bypass a U.N. Security Council Veto? (http://www.slate.com/id/2080036/) Slate magazine Security Council veto power usage (http://www.peace.ca/securitycouncilveto.htm) Peace.ca Global Policy Forum (http://www.globalpolicy.org) -- information on use of the veto power Malone, D & Mahbubani, K: "The UN Security Council from the Cold War to the 21st Century" (http://www. un.org/webcast/worldchron/trans934.pdf), UN World Chronicle, 30 March 2004.

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

United Nations Security Council veto power Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425981772 Contributors: 158-152-12-77, Aberdonian99, Aerys, AgentMoulder254, Ambarish, AnonMoos, Athaenara, BD2412, Bibliophylax, Bidabadi, Bidn, BobbyTwentyTwo, Bobbyb373, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bowlhover, Cafzal, CasualObserver'48, Chanueting, Cyberevil, DDD DDD, Dirtybutclean, Dpaajones, ElPax, Escheffel, Flyguy649, Goatchurch, Grenavitar, Grubb, Hairy Dude, Hawstom, Hazel77, Henrygb, Jeff3000, Jeltz, Jenks24, Jiang, John Z, Jon.baldwin, Josephf, Jusjih, Kaicarver, Kellym133, Kermanshahi, Kungming2, Little grape, Lkinkade, Lockesdonkey, Lotje, MainBody, Makeemlighter, Methulah, MichaelBillington, Morwen, Mroduner, Mrzaius, Mystache, NeoJustin, Netsnipe, Nightstallion, Ordisiac, Owen, Pabouk, PaulHanson, Plasma Twa 2, Pokrajac, Polemarchus, Poliphile, Quigley, Random user 8384993, Reenem, RevolverOcelotX, Rich1990, Rickyrab, Roadrunner, Roentgenium111, Roguelancer, Rumping, Russavia, Sansuse, Sijarvis, Skinnyweed, Slc39, Symane, Tango, Tantanjami, The undertow, Unlimited Nature, VegKilla, Wolfe, Wtfunkymonkey, Yaan, ZamorakO o, Zeerak88, Ziggurat, 143 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:UNSC veto.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UNSC_veto.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Polemarchus, user:norm77

License
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Official statistics

Official statistics
Official statistics are statistics published by government agencies or other public bodies such as international organizations. They provide quantitative or qualitative information on all major areas of citizens' lives, such as economic and social development,[1] living conditions,[2] health,[3] education,[4] and the environment.[5] During the 16th and 17th centuries, statistics were a method for counting and listing populations and State resources. The term statistics comes from the Latin status (state) indicating that the origin of the profession related to the needs of governments.[6] The term official statistics simply describes statistics from an organization or institution that officially belongs to the State.[7] According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, official statistics are statistics disseminated by the national statistical system, excepting those that are explicitly not to be official".[8] Of course, governmental agencies at all levels, including municipal, county, and state administrations, may generate and disseminate official statistics. This broader possibility is accommodated by another definition, given by Beimer and Lyberg in 2003[9] "Almost every country in the world has one or more government UNECE Countries in Figures 2007. agencies (usually national institutes) that supply decision-makers and other users including the general public and the research community with a continuing flow of information (...). This bulk of data is usually called official statistics. Official statistics should be objective and easily accessible and produced on a continuing basis so that measurement of change is possible." Official statistics result from the collection and processing of data into statistical information by the government institution responsible for that subject-matter domain. They are then disseminated to stakeholders and the general public. Statistical information allows users to draw a relevant, reliable and accurate picture of the development of the country, compare differences between countries and changes over time. They enable stakeholders and decision makers to be well informed and develop policies for addressing actual development challenges. Official statistics make information on development accessible to the public and therefore assist in the accountability of public decision-making. One use of official statistics is to measure the impact of public policies and highlight the need for development.
Official statistics on France in 2007, published in

Aim
Official statistics provide a picture of a country or different phenomena through data, and images such as graph and maps. Statistical information covers different subject areas (economic, demographic, social etc.). Statistical information serves a variety of uses for monitoring developments in a country as well as provides basic information for decision making, evaluations and assessments at different levels, and - traditionally - governments. Official statistics are a key component of description and comparison of the situation and development of a country. They are also essential for non-material content such as unregistered migration and economic transactions.

Official statistics The goal of national statistical agencies is to produce relevant, objective and accurate[10] statistics so that they keep people and organizations well informed about the aim and its development. They answer the public and users demands for better access to information, assisting good policy and decision-making. In addition, demand by users for more information has significantly increased since computing technologies have greatly helped in dealing with growing volumes of data. In recent years there has been an increasing demand of a broadening range of users to be able to access information sources quickly and easily. The Internet has been one answer to this request that is why statistical agencies have developed their abilities to satisfy more standardized delivery models to meet users' expectations.

Various categories
The Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics were adopted in 1992 by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.[11] According to the first Principle "the official statistical information is an essential basis for development in the economic, demographic, social and environment fields and for mutual knowledge and trade among the states and peoples of the region".[12] Following is a list of the different statistical categories and their subgroups: Demographic statistics concern the evolution of population and migration. They deal with the measurement of undeclared migration or measurement of emigration, migration flows, immigrant population,[13] and foreign-born population. Social statistics provide data on society, on the population and all that surrounds it. Demographic and social statistics include: population and migration, labour, education, health, income and consumption, social protection, human settlements and housing, justice and crime, culture, political and other community activities, time use, living conditions, poverty and cross-cutting social issues, information society. Gender and special population groups statistics reflect the realities of the lives of women and men and policy issues related to gender such as domestic violence, violence against women, gender pay gap[14] as well as elderly, disabled,[15] minority groups. Economic statistics is the branch of statistics that studies the economic activities of a country through macroeconomics statistics, economic accounts, business statistics, globalisation, sectoral statistics, agriculture-forestry-fisheries, energy, mining-manufacturing-construction, transport, tourism, banking-insurance-financial statistics, government finance-fiscal and public sector statistics, international trade and balance of payments, prices, labour cost, science and technology. The category includes econometrics, which is a combination of economics and statistics, whose aim is to analyse the economic relationship. Environmental statistics concerns the environmental field and its variability, especially environment and sustainable development.[16]

Most common indicators used in official statistics

A countrys profile can be summarized using only figures and data classified in different categories. Statistical indicators provide an overview of the social, demographic and economic structure of the country. Moreover, these indicators enable making comparisons between countries on an international scale, with agreements on those indicators. For population, the main indicators are: Total population Population density Population by age Life expectancy at birth and at age 65

Official statistics Foreign born Foreigners in population Total fertility rate Infant mortality

The gender statistics include: Women in labour force Gender pay gap[17] In the employment category: Employment rate Unemployment rate Youth unemployment rate Economic activity rate (women and men) Employment in major sectors: agriculture, industry, services

There are many indicators for the economy: Gross Domestic Product Gross Domestic Product per capita Real GDP growth rate GDP by major economic sectors: agriculture, industry, services Consumer price index[18] Purchasing Power Parity[19] Exchange rate Gross external debt

For trade indicators we find: Exports of goods and services Imports of goods and services Balance of payments[20] Trade balance Major import partners Major export partners

Environment indicators: Land use Water supply and consumption Environmental protection expenditure Generation and treatment of waste Chemical use

For the energy field: Total energy consumption Primary energy sources Energy consumption in transport Electricity consumption Consumption of renewable energy sources

Official statistics

Users
Official statistics are intended for a wide range of users including governments (central and local), research institutions, professional statisticians, journalists and the media, businesses, educational institutions and the general public. There are three types of users: those with a general interest, business interest or research interest. Each of these user groups has different needs for statistical information.

Users with a general interest

Users with a general interest include the media, schools and the general public. They use official statistics in order to be informed on a particular topic, to observe trends within the society of a local area, country, region of the world.

The three user types of official statistics

Users with a business interest

Users with a business interest include decision makers and users with a particular interest for which they want more detailed information. For them, official statistics are an important reference, providing information on the phenomena or circumstances their own work is focusing on. For instance, those users will take some official statistics into consideration before launching a product, or deciding on a specific policy or on a marketing strategy. As with the general interest users, this group does not usually have a good understanding of statistical methodologies, but they need more detailed information than the general users.

Users with a research interest

Users with a research interest are universities, consultants and government agencies. They generally understand something about statistical methodology and want to dig deeper into the facts and the statistical observations; they have an analytical purpose in inventing or explaining interrelations of causes and effects of different phenomena. In this field, official statistics are also used to assess a government's policies. One common point for all these users is their need to be able to trust the official information. They need to be confident that the results published are authoritative and unbiased. Producers of official statistics must maintain a reputation of professionalism and independence. The statistical system must be free from interference that could influence decisions on the choice of sources, methods used for data collection [21], the selection of results to be released as official, and the timing and form of dissemination [21]. Statistical business processes should be transparent and follow international standards of good practice. Statistical programs are decided on an annual or multi-annual basis by governments in many countries. They also provide a way to judge the performance of the statistical system.

Official statistics

Producers at the national level

Official statistics are collected and produced by national statistical institutes (NSIs) or national statistical offices [22] (NSOs), depending on national administrations. They are responsible for producing and disseminating official statistical information, providing the highest quality data. The criteria for quality are: relevance and completeness, timeliness, accuracy, accessibility and clarity, cost efficiency, transparency, comparability and coherence, which are called quality principles. Their role is also to foster statistical literacy among important user groups and the general public. The core tasks of NSOs, for both centralized and decentralized systems, are investing user needs and filtering these for relevance [23]. Then they transform the relevant user needs into measurable concepts to facilitate data collection and dissemination. This is part of the production process. Statistical agencies also determine the resources necessary for the various activities and ensure relevance by keeping permanent networks with various representatives of different types of users. Moreover statistical producers have to anticipate user needs when producing new types of statistics in order to speed up the process. It can be called the "antenna function". Another way to assess the quality of their services is to undertake periodically user satisfaction surveys [24]. Nevertheless, NSOs are usually not the only official and national institutes to produce official statistics. Central banks and some ministries or other central authorities may have statistical functions as well. Together, all producers of official statistics form the statistical system of a country. In some countries, especially those that have a federal structure, producers of official statistics exist also at regional or even municipal levels. The NSO is in charge of the coordination between statistical producers and of ensuring the coherence and compliance of the statistical system to the principles. In countries with less than 25 million inhabitants, the NSO should also have the exclusive responsibility for all household [25][26] surveys and all business surveys for official statistics. This should improve efficiency and ensure confidentiality [21].[27] The NSO has to pay particular attention to ensuring that the information materials, the terminology and the metadata of the statistical results disseminated are coherent and understandable for non-users especially in the case of diverging results compiled from different sources. The NSO also has to decide which ones are the official statistics. Moreover, it ensures the dissemination platforms for all official statistical registers [28] from which contact information for sample surveys [29] is extracted. Finally, the NSO should support and advise other producers of official statistics and organize meetings with all of them. The NSO has a major responsibility as its President/Director General represents the entire system of official statistics, both at the national and at international levels. Statistical producers perform advocacy work on official statistics and can provide advice and services, such as training activities in order to broaden the know-how accumulated in the agency.

Production process
The usual production process of official statistics includes 6 steps: 1. The programming phase starts the process with investigations into the information needs of users (topic of the information needed, its period, accuracy and timeliness [21][30] ). A lot of information is gathered, and then filtered in order to focus on one specific activity. Official statistics can generate results that fulfil a great number of user needs and not only target a unique user group. Filtering allows selecting relevant information. These needs are translated into the best way of collecting data from respondents [31]. 2. The design phase [32][33] is when tests and statistical surveys are designed or redesigned and tested. The first surveys are called pilots [34].[35] Tools and resources are also prepared to conduct the surveys and to implement them fully. This phase includes the definition of the results to be published as official.

Official statistics 3. Data collection through statistical surveys can be done through different processes: by mail, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, internet, sample survey, sampling frame. 4. The processing phase includes data entry, control, coding and editing. This phase is highly IT-dependent; computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) and computer-assisted personal interviewing {CAPI) techniques are really useful in terms of speed. The results and the quality parameters have to be analysed carefully before passing to the next phase. This monitoring can be systematically done by tallying the same phenomenon with other sources at the aggregate level [36].[37] 5. Dissemination is more than the mere release of the results and statistical products such as press releases, electronic dissemination on the Internet or hard-copy publication, to customers. It may include publications related to the topic with more details or analytical content, or may target specific user groups. It includes the generation of additional results for specific user requests such as statistical services. This means that consequently, microdata or the final sets of data have to be stored and well documented for a considerable period. 6. An evaluation of the whole process is necessary to identify and make improvements in efficiency and quality of the process launched by the statistical producer; this helps for the next programming exercise. Sometimes statistical producers can make ad hoc surveys [38] but this is not recommended in the case of official statistics. The methodological information should be used in most of the surveys to obtain relevant results. Another data life-cycle object model for statistical information systems of the European Communities, Eurostat [40] in 2003.
[39]

was developed by the Statistical Office

A proposal for a new generic statistical business process model [41] was submitted in 2007 by Statistics New Zealand [42] and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Secretariat [43] to a joint UNECE/Eurostat/OECD work session on statistical metadata [21][44] and is already used by several official statistical agencies even if it is still being developed. The aim of the generic model is to provide a better basis for the production process, to make it more complete and detailed than the previous model.

Data revision
Even after they have been published, official statistics are often revised. Policy-makers may need preliminary statistics quickly for decision-making purposes, but eventually it is important to publish the best available information, so official statistics are often published in several 'vintages'. The first available version of the data is called real-time data, and subsequent corrected data are called revised data. In order to understand the accuracy of economic data and the possible impact of data errors on macroeconomic decision-making, the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia has published a dataset [45] that records both initial real-time data estimates, and subsequent data revisions, for a large number of macroeconomic series. A similar dataset for Europe [46] has been developed by the Euro-Area Business Cycle Network.

Collection process
There are three main ways to collect data, by surveys, registers and censuses.

Statistical survey or sample survey

A statistical survey or a sample survey is an investigation about the characteristics of a phenomenon by means of collecting data from a sample of the population and estimating their characteristics through the systematic use of statistical methodology. The main advantage is the direct control over data content and the possibility to ask oriented questions. Another advantage is the rapidity of process and publication that is possible with computing techniques like CAPI or CATI.

Official statistics A disadvantage is the high cost and the variable quality of data collected when non-response [21] can cause biases or when respondents are not able or willing to give correct answers. There are various survey methods that can be used such as direct interviewing, telephone, mail, online surveys. The respondents of surveys can be called primary respondents that correspond to individual, households and companies.

Register
A register is a database that is updated continuously for a specific purpose and from which statistics can be collected and produced. It contains information on a complete group of units. An advantage is the total coverage even if collecting and processing represent low cost. It allows producing more detailed statistics than using surveys. Different registers can be combined and linked together on the basis of defined keys (personal identification codes, business identification codes, address codes etc.). Moreover, individual administrative registers are usually of high quality and very detailed. A disadvantage is the possible under-coverage that can be the case if the incentive or the cultural tradition of registering events and changes are weak, if the classification principles of the register are not clearly defined or if the classifications do not correspond to the needs of statistical production to be derived from them. There are different types of registers: Administrative registers [21][47] or records can help the NSI in collecting data. Using the existing administrative data for statistical production may be approved by the public because it can be seen as a cost efficient method; individuals and enterprises are less harassed by a response burden; data security [48] is better as fewer people handle it and data have an electronic format. Private registers such as registers operated by insurance companies and employer organizations can also be used in the production process of official statistics, providing there is an agreement or legislation on this. Statistical registers are frequently based on combined data from different administrative registers or other data sources. For businesses, it is often legally indispensable to be registered in their country to a business register which is a system that makes business information collection easier. It is possible to find agricultural registers and registers of dwellings.

Census
Census is the complete enumeration of a population or groups at a point in time with respect to well-defined characteristics (population, production). Censuses are not subject to an updating process contrary to registers. The information has to be collected at a reference period. The census should be taken at regular intervals [49] in order to have comparable information available. Therefore, most of the time a census is conducted every 5 or 10 years. The data is collected through questionnaires [50] that are either mailed to respondents or completed by an enumerator [51] visiting respondents. It can also be done today by the Internet or by automated telephone interviewing. An advantage is for small areas or sub-units census may be the only information source on social, demographic or economic characteristics. Often, census results provide a basis for sampling frames used in forthcoming surveys. The major disadvantages of censuses are the usually high costs of their planning and implementation. Also, different understandings or interpretations of the terminology used in census questionnaires can be a problem. In 2005, the United Nations Economic and Social Council [52] adopted a resolution urging: "Member States to carry out a population and housing census and to disseminate census results as an essential source of information for small area, national, regional and international planning and development; and to provide census results to national stakeholders as well as the United Nations and other appropriate intergovernmental organizations to assist in studies on population, environment, and socio-economic development issues and programs".[53]

Official statistics Even though different types of data collection exist, the best estimates are based on a combination of different sources providing the strengths and reducing the weakness of each individual source.

Official Statistics presentation

Official statistics can be presented in different ways. Analytical texts and tables are the most traditional ways. Graphs and charts summarize data highlighting information content visually. They can be extremely effective in expressing key results, or illustrating a presentation. Sometimes a picture is worth a thousand words. Graphs and charts usually have a heading describing the topic. There are different types of graphic but usually the data determine the type that is going to be used. To illustrate changes over time, a line graph would be recommended. This is usually used to display variables whose values represent a regular progression. For categorical data, it is better to use a bar graph either vertical or horizontal. They are often used to represent percentages and rates and also to compare countries, groups or illustrate changes over time. The same variable can be plotted against itself for two groups. An example of this is the age pyramid. Pie chart can be used to represent share of 100 per cent. Pie charts highlight the topic well only when there are few segments. Stacked bar charts, whether vertical or horizontal, are used to compare compositions across categories. They can be used to compare percentage composition and are most effective for categories that add up to 100 per cent, which make a full stacked bar chart. Their use is usually restricted to a small number of categories.

Stacked bar chart showing the sectoral contribution to total business services growth, 2001-2005 for members of UNECE.

Tables are a complement to related texts and support the analysis. They help to minimize numbers in the description and also eliminate the need to discuss small variables that are not essential. Tables rank data by order or other hierarchies to make the numbers easily understandable. They usually show the figures from the highest to the lowest. Another type of visual presentation of statistical information is thematic map. They can be used to illustrate differences or similarities between geographical areas, regions or countries. The most common statistical map that is used is called the choropleth map where different shades of a colour are used to highlight contrasts between regions; darker colour means a greater statistical value. This type of map is best used for ratio [54][55] data but for other data, proportional or graduated symbol maps, such as circles, are preferred. The size of the symbol increases in proportion to the value of the observed object.

Release
Official statistics are part of our everyday life. They are everywhere: in newspapers, on television and radio, in presentations and discussions. For most citizens, the media provide their only exposure to official statistics. Television is the primary news source for citizens in industrialized countries, even if radio and newspapers still play an important role in the dissemination of statistical information. On the other hand newspapers and specialized economic and social magazines can provide more detailed coverage of statistical releases as the information on a specific theme can be quite extensive. Official statistics provides us with important information on the situation and the development trends in our society.

Official statistics Users can gather information making use of the services of the National Statistical Offices. They can easily find it on the agency's website. The development of computing technologies and the Internet has enabled users - businesses, educational institutions and households among others- to have access to statistical information. The Internet has become an important tool for statistical producers to disseminate their data and information. People are able to access information online. The supply of information from statistical agencies has increased. Today the advanced agencies provide the information on their websites in an understandable way, often categorized for different groups of users. Several glossaries have been set up by different organizations or statistical offices to provide more information and definitions in the field of statistics and consequently official statistics.

Quality criteria to be respected

The quality criteria of a national statistical office are the following: relevance, impartiality, dissemination, independence, transparency, confidentiality, international standards. There principles apply not only to the NSO but to all producers of official statistics. Therefore, not every figure reported by a public body should be considered as official statistics, but those produced and disseminated according to the principles. Adherence to these principles will enhance the credibility of the NSO and other official statistical producers and build public trust in the reliability of the information and results that are produced.

Relevance
Relevance is the first and most important principles to be respected for national statistical offices. When releasing information, data and official statistics should be relevant in order to fulfil the needs of users as well as both public and private sector decision makers. Production of official statistics is relevant if it corresponds to different user needs like public, governments, businesses, research community, educational institutions, NGOs and international organizations or if it satisfies basic information in each area and citizen's right to information.

Impartiality
Once the survey has been made, the NSO checks the quality of the results and then they have to be disseminated no matter what impact they can have on some users, whether good or bad. All should accept the results released by the NSO as authoritative. Users need to perceive the results as unbiased representation of relevant aspects of the society. Moreover, the impartiality principle implies the fact that NSOs have to use understandable terminology for statistics' dissemination, questionnaires and material published so that everyone can have access to their information. Maribelle

Dissemination
In order to maximize dissemination, statistics should be presented in a way that facilitates proper interpretation and meaningful comparisons. To reach the general public and non-expert users when disseminating, NSOs have to add explanatory comments to explain the significance of the results released and make analytical comments when necessary. There is a need to identify clearly what the preliminary, final and revised results are, in order to avoid confusion for users. All results of official statistics have to be publicly accessible. There are no results that should be characterized as official and for the exclusive use of the government. Moreover they should be disseminated simultaneously.

Official statistics

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Independence
Users can be consulted by NSOs but the decisions should be made by statistical bodies. Information and activities of producers of official statistics should be independent of political control. Moreover, NSOs have to be free of any political interference that could influence their work and thus, the results. They should not make any political advice or policy-perspective comments on the results released at anytime, even at press conferences or in interviews with the media.

Transparency
The need for transparency [56] is essential for NSOs to gain the trust of the public. They have to expose to the public the methods they use to produce official statistics, and be accountable for all the decisions they take and the results they publish. Also, statistical producers should warn users of certain interpretations and false conclusions even if they try to be as precise as possible. Furthermore, the quality of the accurate and timely results must be assessed prior to release. But if errors in the results occur before or after the data revision [21],[57] they should be directly corrected and information should be disseminated to the users at the earliest possible time. Producers of official statistics have to set analytical systems in order to change or improve their activities and methods.

Confidentiality
All data collected by the national statistical office must protect the privacy of individual respondents, whether persons or businesses. But on the contrary, government units such as institutions cannot invoke statistical confidentiality. All respondents have to be informed about the purpose and legal basis of the survey and especially about the confidentiality measures. The statistical office should not release any information that could identify an individual or group without prior consent. After data collection, replies should go back directly to the statistical producer, without involving any intermediary. Data processing implies that filled-in paper and electronic form with full names should be destroyed.

International standards
The use of international standards at the national level aims to improve international comparability for national users and facilitate decision-making, especially when controversial. Moreover, the overall structure, including concepts and definitions, should follow internationally accepted standards, guidelines or good practices. International recommendations and standards for statistical methods approved by many countries provide them with a common basis like the two standards of the International Monetary Fund, SDDS for Special Data Dissemination Standards and GDDS for General Data Dissemination System. Their aim is to guide countries in the dissemination of their economic and financial data to the public. One approved, these standards have to be observed by all producers of official statistics and not only by the NSO.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] United Nations. "Economic and development statistics" http:/ / www. un. org/ esa/ progareas/ stats. html Eurostat-"Comparative EU-Statistics on Income and Living Conditions: Issues and Challenges" http:/ / www. stat. fi/ eusilc/ index_en. html World Health Organization. "World Health Statistics 2008". http:/ / www. who. int/ whosis/ whostat/ 2008/ en/ index. html UNESCO. "Global Education Digest 2007". http:/ / www. uis. unesco. org/ ev. php?ID=7167_201& ID2=DO_TOPIC United Nations Statistical Commission. "Environment statistics" http:/ / unstats. un. org/ unsd/ statcom/ stacom_archive/ brochures/ for%20web/ Brochure%20-%20Environment. pdf [6] [http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=3847 OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Statistics Definition [7] [http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=4350 OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Official statistics Definition [8] OECD. Online Glossary of Statistical Terms http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ index. htm [9] Biemer, Paul and Lyberg Lars (2003). Introduction to Survey Quality Business & Economics Wiley - Hardback [10] See Point 3 in Assessment of the quality in statistics - Eurostat http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ 2000/ 11/ metis/ crp. 2. e. pdf [11] The Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics (http:/ / unstats. un. org/ unsd/ dnss/ gp/ fundprinciples. aspx)

Official statistics
[12] Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ e/ 1992/ 32. e. pdf [13] See Ch. VIII in CES Recommendations for 2010 Censuses http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ ece/ ces/ ge. 41/ 2006/ zip. 1. e. pdf [14] See The gender pay gap - European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions http:/ / www. eurofound. europa. eu/ pubdocs/ 2006/ 101/ en/ 1/ ef06101en. pdf [15] See Chap.V/C/8 - Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses http:/ / unstats. un. org/ unsd/ pubs/ gesgrid. asp?ID=127 [16] International Institute for Sustainable Development http:/ / www. iisd. org/ sd/ [17] See The gender pay gap - European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions http:/ / www. eurofound. europa. eu/ pubdocs/ 2006/ 101/ en/ 1/ ef06101en. pdf [18] Consumer Price Index Manual: Theory and Practice - ILO (http:/ / www. ilo. org/ public/ english/ bureau/ stat/ guides/ cpi/ index. htm) [19] The World Bank International Comparison Program (http:/ / web. worldbank. org/ WBSITE/ EXTERNAL/ DATASTATISTICS/ ICPEXT/ 0,,menuPK:1973757~pagePK:62002243~piPK:62002387~theSitePK:270065,00. html) [20] See Chapter II Balance Payments Manual - IMF http:/ / imf. org/ external/ np/ sta/ bop/ BOPman. pdf [21] http:/ / sdmx. org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2008/ 02/ sdmx_annex4_metadata_common_vocabulary_draft_february_2008. doc [22] http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=4344 [23] http:/ / data. un. org/ Glossary. aspx?q=relevance [24] http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ eurostat/ ramon/ nomenclatures/ index. cfm?TargetUrl=DSP_GLOSSARY_NOM_DTL_VIEW& StrNom=CODED2& StrLanguageCode=EN& IntKey=21237703& RdoSearch=BEGIN& TxtSearch=user%20satisfaction& CboTheme=& IntCurrentPage=1 [25] http:/ / data. un. org/ Glossary. aspx?q=household [26] See paras. 479-483 in CES Recommendations for 2010 Censuses http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ ece/ ces/ ge. 41/ 2006/ zip. 1. e. pdf [27] How Should a Modern National System of Official Statistics Look?, UNECE jan. 2008 http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ applyprinciples. e. pdf [28] http:/ / data. un. org/ Glossary. aspx?q=register [29] http:/ / data. un. org/ Glossary. aspx?q=sample+ survey [30] See Point 4 in Assessment of the quality in statistics - Eurostat http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ 2000/ 11/ metis/ crp. 2. e. pdf [31] http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=4351 [32] http:/ / data. un. org/ Glossary. aspx?q=survey+ design [33] See pp.13-19 in Survey Handbook http:/ / www. uiowa. edu/ ~cqi/ surveybk. pdf [34] http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=3787 [35] See pp.37-38 in Survey Handbook http:/ / www. uiowa. edu/ ~cqi/ surveybk. pdf [36] http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=68 [37] Data and Metadata reporting and Presentation Handbook - OECD http:/ / www. oecd. org/ dataoecd/ 46/ 17/ 37671574. pdf [38] http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=6276 [39] http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ ces/ ac. 71/ 2003/ 16. e. pdf [40] http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ eurostat [41] http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ documents/ 2008. 04. metis. htm [42] http:/ / www. stats. govt. nz/ default. htm [43] http:/ / www. unece. org [44] Terminology on Statistical Metadata UNECE http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ publications/ 53metadaterminology. pdf [45] http:/ / www. philadelphiafed. org/ research-and-data/ real-time-center/ real-time-data/ [46] http:/ / www. eabcn. org/ eabcn-real-time-database [47] See Using a combination of administrative registers and sample surveys instead of a census: dome general remarks and the situation in the Netherlands, A.H. Kroese http:/ / unstats. un. org/ unsd/ censuskb/ attachments/ 2001NLD_RegistersGUIDf2d2b48e535a481bb84b6b817a397066.pdf [48] http:/ / data. un. org/ Glossary. aspx?q=data+ security [49] http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ census/ [50] http:/ / data. un. org/ Glossary. aspx?q=questionnaire [51] http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=3029 [52] http:/ / www. un. org/ ecosoc/ [53] United Nations Economic and Social Council Resolution 2005/13, 2010 World Population and Housing Census Programme http:/ / unstats. un. org/ unsd/ demographic/ sources/ census/ 2010_PHC/ docs/ resolution_A_2005_13. pdf [54] http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ eurostat/ ramon/ nomenclatures/ index. cfm?TargetUrl=DSP_GLOSSARY_NOM_DTL_VIEW& StrNom=CODED2& StrLanguageCode=EN& IntKey=16571685& RdoSearch=BEGIN& TxtSearch=ratio& CboTheme=& IntCurrentPage=1 [55] See paragraph 4.5 in Data and Metadata reporting and Presentation Handbook - OECD http:/ / www. oecd. org/ dataoecd/ 46/ 17/ 37671574. pdf [56] http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ eurostat/ ramon/ nomenclatures/ index. cfm?TargetUrl=DSP_GLOSSARY_NOM_DTL_VIEW& StrNom=CODED2& StrLanguageCode=EN& IntKey=16635185& RdoSearch=BEGIN& TxtSearch=transparency& CboTheme=&

11

Official statistics
IntCurrentPage=1 [57] See Data Review/Data Checking in Glossary of Terms on Statistical Data Editing UNECE http:/ / www. unece. org/ stats/ publications/ editingglossary. pdf

12

Further reading
Giovanini, Enrico Understanding Economic Statistics (http://www.oecd.org/statistics/ understandingeconomicstatistics), OECD Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-92-64-03312-2

Article Sources and Contributors

13

Article Sources and Contributors

Official statistics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416639833 Contributors: Btyner, Casperdc, CommonsDelinker, ECEstats, Free Software Knight, G716, Giftlite, JonHarder, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Kyle1278, Levineps, LilHelpa, Melcombe, Michael Hardy, Reyk, Rinconsoleao, RoyBoy, SethGrimes, Tobyabgreen, Woohookitty, 17 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:UNECE countries in figures 2007 France.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UNECE_countries_in_figures_2007_France.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: UNECE Image:User Types.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:User_Types.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: UNECE Image:ECE weekly 235.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ECE_weekly_235.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: UNECE

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

Official languages of the United Nations

Official languages of the United Nations

The six official languages of the United Nations are: Arabic Chinese (Mandarin) English French Russian Spanish (Castilian)

Description
These languages are used at meetings of various UN organs, particularly the General Assembly (Article 51 of its Rules of Procedure) and the Security Council (Article 41 of its Rules of Procedure). Each representative of a country may speak in one of these six languages, or may speak in any language and provide interpretation into one of the six official languages. The UN provides simultaneous interpretation from the official language into the other five official languages. The six official languages are also used for the dissemination of official documents. Until a document is available in all six official languages, it is not published. Generally, the texts in each of the six languages are equally authoritative. The United Nations has drawn criticism for relying too heavily on English, and not enough on the other five official languages. For example, Spanish-speaking member states formally brought this to the attention of the Secretary-General in 2001.[1] (Then Secretary-General Kofi Annan responded that full parity of the six official languages was unachievable within current budgetary restraints, but he nevertheless attached great importance to improving the linguistic balance.[2] ) Over the last several years, resolutions of the General Assembly have urged the secretariat to respect the parity of the six official languages, especially in the dissemination of public information.[3]
[4]

In several recent resolutions concerning human resources management at the UN, the General Assembly has stressed the need to respect the equality of each of the two working languages of the Secretariat and requested the Secretary-General to ensure that vacancy announcements specify the need for either of the working languages of the Secretariat unless the functions of the post require a specific working language.[5]

History
The Charter of the United Nations, its 1945 constituent document, did not expressly provide for official languages of the UN. The Charter was enacted in five languages (Chinese, French, Russian, English, and Spanish) and provided (in Article 111) that the five texts are equally authentic. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted rules of procedure concerning languages that purported to apply to all the organs of the United Nations, other than the International Court of Justice, setting out five official languages and two working languages (English and French).[6] The following year, the second session of the General Assembly adopted permanent rules of procedure, Resolution 173 (II). The part of those rules relating to language closely followed the 1946 rules, except that the 1947 rules did not purport to apply to other UN organs, just the General Assembly.[7] Meanwhile, a proposal had been in the works to add Spanish as a third working language in addition to English and French. This was adopted in Resolution 262 (III), passed on 11 December 1948.[8] [9]

Official languages of the United Nations In 1968, Russian was added as a working language of the General Assembly so that of the GAs five official languages, four of them (all but Chinese) were working languages.[10] [11] In 1973, the General Assembly made Chinese a working language and added Arabic as both an official language and working language of the GA. Thus all six official languages were also working languages. Arabic was made an official and working language of the General Assembly and its Main Committees, whereas the other five languages had status in all GA committees and subcommittees (not just the main committees). The Arab members of the UN had agreed to pay the costs of implementing the resolution, for three years.[12] [13] [14] In 1980, the General Assembly got rid of this final distinction, making Arabic an official and working language of all its committees and subcommittees, as of by 1 January 1982. At the same time, the GA requested the Security Council to include Arabic among its official and working languages, and the Economic and Social Council to include Arabic among its official languages, by 1 January 1983.[15] As of 1983, the Security Council (like the General Assembly) recognized six official and working languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[16] In the Economic and Social Council, as of 1992, there are six official languages (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish) of which three are working languages (English, French, and Spanish).[17] The UN Secretariat uses two working languages: English and French. All Secretaries-General have had a working knowledge of both languages.

Other proposed languages

The six official languages spoken at the UN are the mother tongue or second language of 2.8 billion people on the planet, nearly half the world population. The six languages are official languages in more than half the states in the world (about one hundred).

Bengali
Being one of the most spoken language in the World ranking 5th or 6th.In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam and Tripura unanimously voted in resolutions calling for Bengali to be made an official UN language.[18] Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina also put forward the proposal during her address to the 64th UN General Assembly Session, arguing that Bengali holds a "singular place as a symbol of people's faith in the power of languages to sustain cultures, and indeed the identity of nations".[19] The Bengali language also has the sixth largest number of native speakers in the world.

Hindustani
According to a 2009 press release from its Ministry of External Affairs, the government of India has been working actively to have Hindi recognized as an official language of the UN.[20] [21] In 2007, it was reported that the government would make immediate diplomatic moves to see the status of an official language for Hindi at the United Nations.[22] However, there has been opposition to this from southern India, where Hindi is not widely spoken.[23] Although it has one of the largest cohorts of spoken languages in the world, Hindustani is not an official language of the UN. The linguistic community is overwhemingly concentrated in the Indian sub-continent and is the most spoken language there, but within its own sub-continent the language faces opposition from states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and to a lesser extent West Bengal in India, who view it as efforts on part of the Indian Government to impose Hindi on them. English remains the link language between Hindi and non-Hindi states to this day in India. The many variants of Hindustani complicate its recognition as an official language.

Official languages of the United Nations

Portuguese
Many Lusophones have advocated for greater recognition of their language, as it is spoken on every continent: Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Equatorial Guinea, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, So Tom and Prncipe, and in Asia Timor-Leste, Macau. Thus, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries demands official status of the language (with 240 million people using the language fluently), while the use of Portuguese is growing strongly with the increase of the Brazilian population. It has also been noted that Portuguese is not an international language, used in diplomacy and business the way that French is.[24] In 2008, the President of Portugal announced that the eight leaders of the CPLP had agreed to take the necessary steps to make Portuguese an official language.[25] This followed a decision by Portugal's legislators to adopt a standardization of Portuguese spelling that leans toward Brazilian Portuguese.[26]

Esperanto
A proposal has been made that Esperanto be adopted as an official UN language, initially as a complement to the current six official languages, with the ultimate goal of making Esperanto the primary language so that only certain documents would be translated into others, thus saving on translation costs.[27] In 1966, the Universal Esperanto Association proposed that the UN solve its language problem by supporting use of Esperanto.[28] Despite these attempts, consideration of adding Esperanto as an official language has never made the UN agenda.[29]

Coordinator for multilingualism

In a 1999 resolution, the General Assembly requested the Secretary-General to appoint a senior Secretariat official as coordinator of questions relating to multilingualism throughout the Secretariat.[30] The first such coordinator was Federico Riesco, appointed on 6 September 2000.[31] [32] Following Riesco's retirement, Miles Stoby of Guyana was appointed Coordinator for Multilingualism, effective 6 September 2001.[33] In 2003, Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Shashi Tharoor as Coordinator for Multilingualism. This responsibility was in addition to Tharoor's role as Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information, head of the Department of Public Information.[34] [35] The current coordinator for multilingualism is Kiyo Akasaka, who is also Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information.[36] [37]

UN specialized agencies
UN independent agencies have their own sets of official languages that sometimes are different from that of the principal UN organs. For example, the General Conference of UNESCO has nine official languages including Hindi, Italian, and Portuguese.[38] The Universal Postal Union has just one official language, French.[39] IFAD has four official languages: Arabic, English, French, and Spanish.[40] [41]

Parallels with other multilingual institutions

The European Union has a strict rule that all of its constituent member nations languages have parity and all documents are translated into these. However, the majority of new members since 1990, notably the Scandinavian and Eastern Europeans, have not insisted on this and have indicated a preparedness to conduct matters in one of the five principal languages of the Western European nations (English, French, German, Italian and Spanish) because most diplomats are fluent in both their home language and at least one of these; there is in fact a marked preference by the newer members for English. The French are the most strenuous advocates for the all-languages parity rule.

Official languages of the United Nations The next largest international grouping after the UN is the Commonwealth of Nations which is exclusively English speaking. All other international bodies in commerce, transport and sport have tended to the adoption of one language as the means of communication. This is usually English, closely followed by French. Regional groups have adopted what is common to other elements of their ethnic or religious background; classical Arabic is usually adopted across Muslim nation groups. Most of non-Muslim Africa is either Francophone or Anglophone because of their imperial past, but there is also a Lusophone grouping of countries for the same reason.

Sources
This article incorporates information from officielles de l'Organisation des Nations unies this version the equivalent article on the French Wikipedia.
[42]

of

References
[1] "Plea to UN: 'More Spanish please'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 1399761. stm). BBC News. 2001-06-21. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [2] "Letter dated 18 June 2001" (http:/ / www. un. org/ documents/ ga/ docs/ 56/ a56176. pdf). 2001-06-18. . Retrieved 2010-01-26. [3] Resolution 63/100 (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N08/ 476/ 79/ PDF/ N0847679. pdf) Questions relating to information (5 December 2008). [4] Resolution 63/306 (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N09/ 506/ 34/ PDF/ N0950634. pdf) Multilingualism (9 September 2009). [5] Resolution A/RES/59/266 (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N04/ 492/ 22/ PDF/ N0449222. pdf) Human resources management (23 December 2004). [6] General Assembly Resolution 2 (I) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ RESOLUTION/ GEN/ NR0/ 032/ 53/ IMG/ NR003253. pdf) Rules of Procedure Concerning Languages, 1 February 1946. [7] "Preparation of Multilingual Treaties: Memorandum by the Secretariat" (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ ilc/ documentation/ english/ a_cn4_187. pdf). 1966. p. 4. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [8] Resolution 262 (III) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ RESOLUTION/ GEN/ NR0/ 044/ 33/ IMG/ NR004433. pdf) [9] "Preparation of Multilingual Treaties: Memorandum by the Secretariat" (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ ilc/ documentation/ english/ a_cn4_187. pdf). 1966. p. 4. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [10] Robert Reford (1968-12-18). "Russian to be included as UN working language" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?nid=2194& dat=19681218& id=NskyAAAAIBAJ& sjid=Y-0FAAAAIBAJ& pg=3900,651877). Ottawa Citizen. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [11] Resolution 2479 (XXIII) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ RESOLUTION/ GEN/ NR0/ 244/ 39/ IMG/ NR024439. pdf) Inclusion of Russian among the working languages of the General Assembly (amendment to rule 51 of the rules of procedure of the General Assembly) and question of including Russian and Spanish among the working languages of the Security Council (21 December 1968) [12] Resolution 3189 (XXVIII) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ RESOLUTION/ GEN/ NR0/ 282/ 61/ IMG/ NR028261. pdf) Inclusion of Chinese among the working languages of the General Assembly and the Security Council (18 December 1973) [13] Resolution 3190 (XXVIII) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ RESOLUTION/ GEN/ NR0/ 282/ 62/ IMG/ NR028262. pdf) Inclusion of Arabic among the official and the working languages of the General Assembly and its Main Committees (18 December 1973) [14] Resolution 3191 (XXVIII) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. un. org/ doc/ RESOLUTION/ GEN/ NR0/ 282/ 63/ IMG/ NR028263. pdf) Inclusion of Chinese among the working languages of the General Assembly, its committees and its subcommittees and inclusion of Arabic aong the official and the working languages of the General Assembly and its Main Committees: amendments to rules 51 to 59 of the rules of procedure of the Assembly [15] Resolution 35/219 (http:/ / www. un. org/ documents/ ga/ res/ 35/ a35r219e. pdf) Use of Arabic in the subsisdiary organs of the General Assembly, in the Security Council and in the Economic and Social Council: amendments to rules 51, 52, 54 and 56 of the rules of procedure of the Assembly (17 December 1980). [16] Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ sc/ scrules. htm) Rules 41 to 47. [17] Rules of Procedure of the Economic and Social Council (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ ecosoc/ about/ pdf/ rules. pdf) rules 32 to 35. [18] Subir Bhaumik (2009-12-22). "Bengali 'should be UN language'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 8425744. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [19] Bhaumik, Subir (2009-12-22). "Bengali 'should be UN language'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 8425744. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2010-05-20. [20] "Hindi in UNO" (http:/ / indiacurrentaffairs. org/ hindi-in-uno/ ). 2009-12-11. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [21] "Government working actively for Hindi as official language of UN: S M Krishna" (http:/ / pibmumbai. gov. in/ scripts/ detail. asp?releaseId=E2009PR1426). 2009-12-10. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [22] "Hindi at UN: India to take action to get official status" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ holnus/ 001200707150321. htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India). 2007-07-15. . Retrieved 2010-01-25.

Official languages of the United Nations

[23] K. Chezhian (2007-09-01). "Hindi in United Nations" (http:/ / www. tamiltribune. com/ 07/ 0901. html). Tamil Tribune. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [24] Larry Rohter (2006-10-23). "At Long Last, a Neglected Language Is Put on a Pedestal" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 10/ 23/ world/ americas/ 23brazil. html?_r=1). New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [25] "Lusophone bloc mobilises to make Portuguese a UN language" (http:/ / www. the-news. net/ cgi-bin/ google. pl?id=979-14). The Portugal News Online. 2008-10-04. . Retrieved 2010-01-26. [26] Barry Hatton (2008-05-17). "Portugal's lawmakers accept Brazilian version of language" (http:/ / seattletimes. nwsource. com/ html/ nationworld/ 2004420767_portuguese17. html). The Seattle Times. . Retrieved 2010-01-26. [27] "International Auxiliary Language: Document presented by the Transnational Radical Party and Esperanto International Federation" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030116054318/ http:/ / www. radicalparty. org/ esperanto/ ins_un. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. radicalparty. org/ esperanto/ ins_un. htm) on 2003-01-16. . Retrieved 2003-01-16. [28] "A Second Language for Everyone" (http:/ / esperanto-usa. org/ eo/ node/ 107). . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [29] Leslie Alan Horvitz (1997-09-29). "Advocates of Esperanto continue to lobby for their lingua franca" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1571/ is_n36_v13/ ai_19801570/ ?tag=content;col1). Insight on the News. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [30] Resolution 54/64 (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ journal/ asp/ ws. asp?m=A/ RES/ 54/ 64) adopted 6 December 1999. [31] Multilingualism: Report of the Secretary-General (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ journal/ asp/ ws. asp?m=A/ 56/ 656) Doc. A/56/656, para. 4.] [32] "Secretary-General Appoints Assistant Secretary-General Federico Riesco Coordinator for Multilingualism" (http:/ / www. unis. unvienna. org/ unis/ pressrels/ 2000/ sga132. html). 2000-09-08. . Retrieved 2010-01-30. [33] Multilingualism: Report of the Secretary-General (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ journal/ asp/ ws. asp?m=A/ 56/ 656) Doc. A/56/656, para. 4.] [34] "Secretary-General Appoints Under-Secretary-General Shashi Tharoor Coordinator for Multilingualism" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2003/ sga834. doc. htm). 2003-03-31. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [35] Resolution 54/64 (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ A-RES-54-64. pdf) Multilingualism (6 December 1999). [36] "United Nations Information Centres Launch Redesigned Website Telling Organization's Story in 130 Languages" (http:/ / www. unis. unvienna. org/ unis/ pressrels/ 2008/ unisinf295. html). 2008-10-24. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [37] "Secretary-General Appoints Under-Secretary Kiyo Akasaka as Coordinator for Multilingualism" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2008/ sga1138. doc. htm). 2008-05-29. . Retrieved 2010-01-25. [38] "Rules of Procedure of the General Conference" (http:/ / unesdoc. unesco. org/ images/ 0018/ 001874/ 187429e. pdf). 2010. ., Rule 54 [39] "Universal Postal Union Languages" (http:/ / www. upu. int/ en/ the-upu/ languages. html). Universal Postal Union. . Retrieved 2010-08-03. [40] "Rules of Procedure of the Governing Council" (http:/ / www. ifad. org/ pub/ basic/ gc/ e/ !05govco. pdf). . Retrieved 2010-08-03., Rule 20 [41] "Rules of Procedure of the Executive Board" (http:/ / www. ifad. org/ pub/ basic/ eb/ e/ !06exboa. pdf). . Retrieved 2010-08-03., Rule 26 [42] http:/ / fr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Langues

External links
Language Log (http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/000854.html) Top UN official stresses need for Internet multilingualism to bridge digital divide (http://www.un.org/apps/ news/story.asp?NewsID=33256&Cr=akasaka&Cr1=)

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Official languages of the United Nations Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424533907 Contributors: AlexanderKaras, AnonMoos, Cast, Colipon, Good Olfactory, Iancaddy, Jmr30, John Paul Parks, Mahmudmasri, Marzolian, Mathew5000, Parijatc07, Pigman, Reinyday, Rui Gabriel Correia, Scriber, Shimgray, Spock of Vulcan, Tessaschwarz, Truthanado, Ulric1313, WhisperToMe, Zollerriia, 33 anonymous edits

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United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

logo of the Convention

Signed December 10, 1982 Location Montego Bay, Jamaica Effective November 16, 1994[1] Condition 60 ratifications Parties 160[2] Depositary Languages Secretary-general of the United Nations Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea at Wikisource

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty, is the international agreement that resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), which took place from 1973 through 1982. The Law of the Sea Convention defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources. The Convention, concluded in 1982, replaced four 1958 treaties. UNCLOS came into force in 1994, a year after Guyana became the 60th state to sign the treaty.[1] To date, 161 countries and the European Community have joined in the Convention. However, it is uncertain as to what extent the Convention codifies customary international law. While the Secretary General of the United Nations receives instruments of ratification and accession and the UN provides support for meetings of states party to the Convention, the UN has no direct operational role in the implementation of the Convention. There is, however, a role played by organizations such as the International Maritime Organization, the International Whaling Commission, and the International Seabed Authority (the latter being established by the UN Convention).

Historical background

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

International Ownership Treaties Antarctic Treaty System Law of the Sea Outer Space Treaty Moon Treaty International waters Extraterrestrial real estate

The UNCLOS replaces the older and weaker 'freedom of the seas' concept, dating from the 17th century: national rights were limited to a specified belt of water extending from a nation's coastlines, usually three nautical miles, according to the 'cannon shot' rule developed by the Dutch jurist Cornelius van Bynkershoek. All waters beyond national boundaries were considered international waters free to all nations, but belonging to none of them (the mare liberum principle promulgated by Grotius). In the early 20th century, some nations expressed their desire to extend national claims: to include mineral resources, to protect fish stocks, and to provide the means to enforce pollution controls. (The League of Nations called a 1930 conference at The Hague, but no agreements resulted.) Using the customary international law principle of a nation's right to protect its natural resources, President Truman in 1945 extended United States control to all the natural resources of its continental shelf. Other nations were quick to follow suit. Between 1946 and 1950, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador extended their rights to a distance of 200 nautical miles to cover their Humboldt Current fishing grounds. Other nations extended their territorial seas to 12 nautical miles. By 1967, only 25 nations still used the old three-mile limit, while 66 nations had set a 12-mile territorial limit and eight had set a 200-mile limit. As of May 28, 2008, only two countries still use the three-mile limit: Jordan and Palau.[3] That limit is also used in certain Australian islands, an area of Belize, some Japanese straits, certain areas of Papua New Guinea, and a few British Overseas Territories, such as Anguilla.

UNCLOS I
In 1956, the United Nations held its first Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I [4]) at Geneva, Switzerland. UNCLOS I resulted in four treaties concluded in 1958: Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, entry into force: 10 September 1964 Convention on the Continental Shelf, entry into force: 10 June 1964 Convention on the High Seas, entry into force: 30 September 1962 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas, entry into force: 20 March 1966

Although UNCLOS I was considered a success, it left open the important issue of breadth of territorial waters.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

UNCLOS II
In 1960, the United Nations held the second Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS II); however, the six-week Geneva conference did not result in any new agreements. Generally speaking, developing nations and third world countries participated only as clients, allies, or dependents of United States or the Soviet Union, with no significant voice of their own.

UNCLOS III
The issue of varying claims of territorial waters was raised in the UN in 1967 by Arvid Pardo, of Malta, and in 1973 the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea was convened in New York. In an attempt to reduce the possibility of groups of nation-states dominating the negotiations, the conference used a consensus process rather than majority vote. With more than 160 nations participating, the conference lasted until 1982. The resulting convention came into force on November 16, 1994, one year after the sixtieth state, Guyana, ratified the treaty. The convention introduced a number of provisions. The most significant issues covered were setting limits, navigation, archipelagic status and transit regimes, exclusive economic zones (EEZs), continental shelf jurisdiction, deep seabed mining, the exploitation regime, protection of the marine environment, scientific research, and settlement of disputes. The convention set the limit of various areas, measured from a carefully defined baseline. (Normally, a sea baseline follows the low-water line, but when the coastline is deeply indented, has fringing islands or is highly unstable, straight baselines may be used.) The areas are as follows: Internal waters Covers all water and waterways on the landward side of the baseline. The coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Foreign vessels have no right of passage within internal waters. Territorial waters Out to 12 nautical miles from the baseline, the coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Vessels were given the right of innocent passage through any territorial waters, with strategic straits allowing the passage of military craft as transit passage, in that naval vessels are allowed to maintain postures that would be illegal in territorial waters. "Innocent passage" is defined by the convention as passing through waters in an expeditious and continuous manner, which is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or the security of the coastal state. Fishing, polluting, weapons practice, and spying are not innocent", and submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the surface and to show their flag. Nations can also temporarily suspend innocent passage in specific areas of their territorial seas, if doing so is essential for the protection of its security.

Sea areas in international rights

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Archipelagic waters The convention set the definition of Archipelagic States in Part IV, which also defines how the state can draw its territorial borders. A baseline is drawn between the outermost points of the outermost islands, subject to these points being sufficiently close to one another. All waters inside this baseline are designated Archipelagic Waters. The state has full sovereignty over these waters (like internal waters), but foreign vessels have right of innocent passage through archipelagic waters (like territorial waters). Contiguous zone Beyond the 12 nautical mile limit there was a further 12 nautical miles or 24 nautical miles from the territorial sea baselines limit, the contiguous zone, in which a state could continue to enforce laws in four specific areas: pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration. Exclusive economic zones (EEZs) These extend from the edge of the territorial sea out to 200 nautical miles from the baseline. Within this area, the coastal nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural resources. In casual use, the term may include the territorial sea and even the continental shelf. The EEZs were introduced to halt the increasingly heated clashes over fishing rights, although oil was also becoming important. The success of an offshore oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico in 1947 was soon repeated elsewhere in the world, and by 1970 it was technically feasible to operate in waters 4000 metres deep. Foreign nations have the freedom of navigation and overflight, subject to the regulation of the coastal states. Foreign states may also lay submarine pipes and cables. Continental shelf The continental shelf is defined as the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margins outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the coastal states baseline, whichever is greater. A states continental shelf may exceed 200 nautical miles until the natural prolongation ends. However, it may never exceed 350 nautical miles from the baseline; or it may never exceed 100 nautical miles beyond the 2,500 meter isobath (the line connecting the depth of 2,500 meters). Coastal states have the right to harvest mineral and non-living material in the subsoil of its continental shelf, to the exclusion of others. Coastal states also have exclusive control over living resources "attached" to the continental shelf, but not to creatures living in the water column beyond the exclusive economic zone. Aside from its provisions defining ocean boundaries, the convention establishes general obligations for safeguarding the marine environment and protecting freedom of scientific research on the high seas, and also creates an innovative legal regime for controlling mineral resource exploitation in deep seabed areas beyond national jurisdiction, through an International Seabed Authority and the Common heritage of mankind principle.[5] Landlocked states are given a right of access to and from the sea, without taxation of traffic through transit states.

Part XI and the 1994 Agreement

Part XI of the Convention provides for a regime relating to minerals on the seabed outside any state's territorial waters or EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zones). It establishes an International Seabed Authority (ISA) to authorize seabed exploration and mining and collect and distribute the seabed mining royalty. The United States objected to the provisions of Part XI of the Convention on several grounds, arguing that the treaty was unfavorable to American economic and security interests. Due to Part XI, the United States refused to ratify the UNCLOS, although it expressed agreement with the remaining provisions of the Convention. From 1983 to 1990, the United States accepted all but Part XI as customary international law, while attempting to establish an alternative regime for exploitation of the minerals of the deep seabed. An agreement was made with other seabed mining nations and licenses were granted to four international consortia. Concurrently, the Preparatory Commission was established to prepare for the eventual coming into force of the Convention-recognized claims by applicants, sponsored by signatories of the Convention. Overlaps between the two groups were resolved, but a

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea decline in the demand for minerals from the seabed made the seabed regime significantly less relevant. In addition, the decline of Socialism and the fall of Communism in the late 1980s had removed much of the support for some of the more contentious Part XI provisions. In 1990, consultations were begun between signatories and non-signatories (including the United States) over the possibility of modifying the Convention to allow the industrialized countries to join the Convention. The resulting 1994 Agreement on Implementation was adopted as a binding international Convention. It mandated that key articles, including those on limitation of seabed production and mandatory technology transfer, would not be applied, that the United States, if it became a member, would be guaranteed a seat on the Council of the International Seabed Authority, and finally, that voting would be done in groups, with each group able to block decisions on substantive matters. The 1994 Agreement also established a Finance Committee that would originate the financial decisions of the Authority, to which the largest donors would automatically be members and in which decisions would be made by consensus.

Signature and ratification

The convention was opened for signature on December 10, 1982 entered into force on November 16, 1994 upon deposition of hte 60th instrument of ratification.[1] The convention is ratified by 160 states (including the Cook Islands and Niue) and the European Union. Countries that have signed, but not yet ratifiedsigned, but not yet ratifieddid not sign ratified (18) Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Colombia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Libya, Liechtenstein, Niger, Rwanda, Swaziland, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, United States. Countries that have not signed (16) Andorra, Azerbaijan, Ecuador, Eritrea, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Peru, San Marino, Syria, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Venezuela and the states with limited recognition. "Territories" that have been excluded by ratifying states ' Aruba (Kingdom of the Netherlands)[6] Non-Voting Member State Vatican City Non-State Observer Palestine Liberation Organization

United States non-ratification

Although the United States helped shape the Convention and its subsequent revisions, and though it signed the 1994 Agreement on Implementation, it has not ratified the Convention.[7] [8]

References
[1] "The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A historical perspective)" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ los/ convention_agreements/ convention_historical_perspective. htm). United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. . Retrieved April 30, 2009. [2] "Chronological lists of ratifications of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ los/ reference_files/ chronological_lists_of_ratifications. htm). United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. January 8, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-02-24. [3] "Table of claims to maritime jurisdiction" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ los/ LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/ PDFFILES/ table_summary_of_claims. pdf). United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. . Retrieved May 1, 2009.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

[4] http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ ilc/ texts/ 8_1. htm [5] Jennifer Frakes, The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise? Wisconsin International Law Journal. 2003; 21:409 [6] "STATUS AS AT : 30-04-2011 12:02:35 EDT CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA" (http:/ / treaties. un. org/ pages/ ViewDetailsIII. aspx?& src=TREATY& mtdsg_no=XXI~6& chapter=21& Temp=mtdsg3& lang=en#9). United Nations. . Retrieved 30 April 2011. [7] Roger Rufe, President of the Ocean Conservancy. Statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, October 21, 2003 (http:/ / foreign. senate. gov/ testimony/ 2003/ RufeTestimony031021. pdf). [8] V Bantz, 'La Question De I'Adhesion Par Les Etats-Unis a La Convention Des Nations Unies Sur Le Droit De La Mer' (2003) 8 Annuaire Du Droit De La Mer 9-54

External links
Text of the treaty (http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm) List of countries that have ratified Law of the Sea Conventions (http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/ chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm) International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (http://www.itlos.org/) Permanent Court of Arbitration - Past and Pending Cases (http://www.pca-cpa.org/showpage. asp?pag_id=1029) Decisions of the World Court Relevant to the UNCLOS (2010) (http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=210& pid=40211) and Contents & Indexes (http://www.uu.nl/nilos/books) United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (http://www.un.org/Depts/los/index.htm) UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/clcs_home. htm) Technical aspects of the UN Law of the Sea (http://www.iho.shom.fr/publicat/free/files/S-51_Ed4-EN. pdf)PDF(4.89 MB) UNEP Shelf Programme, UN organisation set up to assist States in delineating their continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles (370km) (http://www.continentalshelf.org/) UNCLOS Italian Database (http://web.unimc.it/internazionale/sea.htm) EEZ/CS Boundaries Canadian Database (http://www.seaaroundus.org/eez/eez.aspx) VLIZ Maritime Boundaries Database (http://www.vliz.be/vmdcdata/marbound/index.php) SOPAC Maritime Boundaries Database (http://www.sopac.org/tiki-index.php?page=Pacific+Island+ Regional+Maritime+Boundaries+Project)

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426856294 Contributors: 1exec1, Aegis Maelstrom, Alinor, Allstar86, Alma Pater, Almarco, Altenmann, Andy Marchbanks, Ann O'nyme, Athrun Atreides, AtticusX, Avenue, B4hand, BD2412, Baikonur, BarScheeze, BaronLarf, Bcorr, Beum, Bihco, Biruitorul, Blind Adams, Bngrybt, BoH, Bobblewik, Bobbyandck, Bryan Derksen, Carlaude, Carnildo, Cgingold, Chimpex, Cliffparkers, Conversion script, Cromdog, Cybercobra, Cynical, Cyrius, DabMachine, Dadofsam, Dann, Danpong, Deaconorrsucs, Deon Steyn, Dertius, Devahn58, Dillard421, Docu, Doprendek, ERcheck, Earlypsychosis, El C, Epeefleche, Ereunetes, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Fbarabas, Fbarw, G-double, Gela1, Gene Nygaard, Genghiskhanviet, GlobalSolutions, Good Olfactory, Ground Zero, Gurch, HJKeats, Hairy Dude, Haizum, Haydn likes carpet, Henning Blatt, Hephaestos, Hu12, Huangdi, Hugo999, I'll Stop the World, Iceman444k, Informed counsel, Jake Nelson, Jcsmedia, Jdforrester, Jiang, Jimster1999, JodyB, Joe Kress, JoeBaggett, John Vandenberg, Jon Backenstose, Jonathan.s.kt, Jonathunder, Jonel, KTo288, Kaihsu, Karl0905, Kpalion, Kris Schnee, Ktsquare, Kungfuadam, L.tak, Li7in6, LinguistAtLarge, Lockesdonkey, Longhorn04, Lord Voldemort, Lugnad, M benso, MMad, Mahlum, McGeddon, Mcarling, Melchoir, Mellorandrew, Mexicatl, Michidan, Mike bzh, Milesli, Mindmatrix, Mjorgens, Mohsenkazempur, Mormegil, Morrem, MrAWO, N2e, NJJ.Rocher, Nengscoz416, Neutrality, Nicolasdz, Nietulisko, Night Gyr, NimbusWeb, Noah Salzman, Notimefordebate, O.B. Haive, Padraic, Paul A, Petrb, Petri Krohn, Pfainuk, Pinkunicorn, Piotrus, Postdlf, Pytom, R9tgokunks, Raul654, Rcgy, Reisio, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Rlquall, Robertprentice, Rockinthebuick, Rui Silva, Rwendland, Ryanrs, Scriberius, Sgt Pinback, SimonP, Slaciner, Slleong, Socal gal at heart, SonicSynergy, Spark240, Stack, StefanB sv, Talanmartin666, Tamarkot, Telso, Template namespace initialisation script, Tenmei, Teryx, That-Vela-Fella, The Nut, Themfromspace, Therefore, Tompw, Toospaice, Treesinforest, USER16847550, Ultima546, Van helsing, Varlagas, Victor12, Vol de nuit, Warfreak, Wee Curry Monster, Wik, Wikihow21, Wimt, Wknight94, Xiphoris, Yakoo, Yellowdesk, Zhumabek, 250 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:UNCLOS logo.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UNCLOS_logo.png License: unknown Contributors: User:BJBot, User:FairuseBot, User:McGeddon, User:Melesse File:wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: Nicholas Moreau Image:Zonmar-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zonmar-en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Historicair Image:Law of the Sea Convention.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Law_of_the_Sea_Convention.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Alinor at en.wikipedia

License
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United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee

United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee

The Counter-Terrorism Committee is a subsidiary body of the United Nations Security Council. In the wake of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 1373, which, among its provisions, obliges all States to criminalize assistance for terrorist activities, deny financial support and safe haven to terrorist and share information about groups planning terrorist attacks. The 15-member Counter-Terrorism Committee was established at the same time to monitor implementation of the resolution. While the ultimate aim of the Committee is to increase the ability of States to fight terrorism, it is not a sanctions body nor does it maintain a list of terrorist organizations or individuals.[1] The body has been effective in requiring member states to take steps to deny terrorists safe havens, prohibiting the raising or transferring of funds, freezing assets and sharing information about possible terrorists activities. The obligations are generic rather than aimed at any particular group, state or incident. These features have made it easier for member states to accept the work of the Counter-Terrorism Committee. The Counter-Terrorism Committee has under the leadership of Jeremy Greenstock of the United Kingdom, operated with transparency and patience. Working with technical experts the Counter-Terrorism Committee has investigated how particular member states can be helped, such as through model legislation, training or administrative practices to meet their (United Nations Security Council Resolution) 1373 obligations. While the Counter-Terrorism Committee is not a direct capacity provider it does act as a broker between those states or groups that have the relevant capacities and those in the need of assistance.[2] Seeking to revitalize the Committees work, in 2004 the Security Council adopted Resolution 1535, creating the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED) to provide the CTC with expert advice on all areas covered by resolution 1373. CTED was established also with the aim of facilitating technical assistance to countries, as well as promoting closer cooperation and coordination both within the UN system of organizations and among regional and intergovernmental bodies. During the September 2005 World Summit at the UN, the Security Council meeting at the level of Heads of States or Government for just the third time in its history adopted Resolution 1624 concerning incitement to commit acts of terrorism. The resolution also stressed the obligations of countries to comply with international human rights laws.[1] The leaders also resolved to conclude work on the draft comprehensive convention on international terrorism, including a legal definition of terrorist acts, during the sixtieth session of the General Assembly. This achievement would mark the culmination of years of negotiation and debate on various proposals, including those contained in Secretary-General Kofi Annan's report, In Larger Freedom. In this document, he called urgently for the adoption of a definition of terrorism similar to that contained in the report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, which states that the targeting and deliberate killing of civilians and non-combatants cannot be justified or legitimized by any cause or grievance, and that any action intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants, when the purpose of such an act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population or to compel a Government or an international organization to carry out or to abstain from any act cannot be justified on any grounds and constitutes an act of terrorism. Participants in the Summit also welcomed the Secretary-General's speech, delivered in Madrid in March 2005, in which he unveiled a counter-terrorism strategy based on the five Ds dissuade, deny, deter, develop and defend and said that the General Assembly should develop those elements into a comprehensive counter-terrorism strategy.

United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee The entire family of United Nations agencies, funds and programmes remains committed to the global counter-terrorism effort, whether by combating nuclear terrorism and stemming the proliferation of nuclear weapons or providing technical assistance to countries with a view to ratification and implementation of the legal instruments against terrorism.[3]

References
[1] Counter-Terrorism Committee (http:/ / www. un. org/ sc/ ctc/ ) [2] The Security Council. From the Cold War to the 21st Century. David Malone. Rienne Publishers. 2004 [3] Counter-Terrorism Committee : UN Action Against Terrorism (http:/ / www. un. org/ sc/ ctc/ unaction. shtml)

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=420937075 Contributors: Aesopos, Art LaPella, Excirial, Fratrep, Good Olfactory, JaGa, Jeff3000, Katrinenohr, Leolaursen, Midway, Queerbubbles, Rjwilmsi, Woohookitty, 2 anonymous edits

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Foreign relations of India

Foreign relations of India

India has formal diplomatic relations with most nations. As a second most populous country and the world's most-populous democracy and recently has one of the fastest economic growth rates in the world.[1] With the world's tenth largest military expenditures,[2] and eleventh largest economy by nominal rates or fourth largest by purchasing power parity, India is a regional power,[3] and a potential global power.[4] It is India's growing international influence that increasingly gives it a more prominent voice in global affairs.[5] [6] [7] [8] India has a long history of collaboration with several countries and is considered a leader of the developing world.[9] [10] India was one of the founding members of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Asian Development Bank and the G20 industrial nations. India has also played an important and influential role in other international organizations like East Asia Summit,[11] World Trade Organization,[12] International Monetary Fund (IMF),[13] G8+5[14] and IBSA Dialogue Forum.[15] Regional organizations India is a part of include SAARC and BIMSTEC. India has taken part in several UN peacekeeping missions and in 2007, it was the second-largest troop contributor to the United Nations.[16] India is currently seeking a permanent seat in the UN Security Council, along with the G4 nations.[17]

History
Even before independence, the Government of British India maintained semi-autonomous diplomatic relations. It had colonies (such as the Aden Settlement), sent and received full diplomatic missions,[18] and was a founder member of both the League of Nations[19] and the United Nations.[20] After India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined the Commonwealth of Nations and strongly supported independence movements in other colonies, like the Indonesian National Revolution.[21] The partition and various territorial disputes, particularly that over Kashmir, would strain its relations with Pakistan for years to come. During the Cold War, India adopted a foreign policy of not aligning itself with any major power bloc. However, India developed close ties with the Soviet Union and received extensive military support from it. The end of the Cold War significantly affected India's foreign policy, as it did for much of the world. The country now seeks to strengthen its diplomatic and economic ties with the United States,[22] the People's Republic of China,[23] the European Union,[24] Japan,[25] Israel,[26] Mexico,[27] and Brazil.[28] India has also forged close ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations,[29] the African Union,[30] the Arab League[31] and Iran.[32] Though India continues to have a military relationship with Russia,[33] Israel has emerged as India's second largest military partner[30] while India has built a strong strategic partnership with the United States.[22] [34] The Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement, signed and implemented in 2008, highlighted the growing sophistication of the Indo-American relations.[35]

Foreign relations of India

Policy
India's foreign policy has always regarded the concept of neighborhood as one of widening concentric circles, around a central axis of historical and cultural commonalities.[36] The guiding principles of India's Foreign Policy have been founded on Panchsheel, pragmatism and pursuit of national interest. In a period of rapid and continuing change, Diplomatic relations between world states and IndiaIndiaNations that India has relations withNations that have no diplomatic relations with IndiaDisputed areas foreign policy must be capable of responding optimally to new challenges and opportunities. It has to be an integral part of the larger effort of building the nation's capabilities through economic development, strengthening social fabric and well-being of the people and protecting India's sovereignty and territorial integrity. India's foreign policy is a forward-looking engagement with the rest of the world, based on a rigorous, realistic and contemporary assessment of the bilateral, regional and global geo-political and economic milieu. As many as 20 million people of Indian origin live and work abroad and constitute an important link with the mother country. An important role of India's foreign policy has been to ensure their welfare and well being within the framework of the laws of the country where they live.[37]

Role of the Prime Minister

Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, promoted a strong personal role for the Prime Minister but a weak institutional structure. Nehru served concurrently as Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs; he made all major foreign policy decisions himself after consulting with his advisers and then entrusted the conduct of international affairs to senior members of the Indian Foreign Service. His successors continued to exercise considerable control over India's international dealings, although they generally appointed separate ministers of external affairs.[38] [39] [40]

India's second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri (196466), expanded the Office of Prime Minister (sometimes called the Prime Minister's Secretariat) and enlarged its powers. By the 1970s, the Office of the Prime Minister had become the de facto coordinator and supraministry of the Indian government. The enhanced role of the office strengthened the prime minister's control over foreign policy making at the expense of the Ministry of External Affairs. Advisers in the office provided channels of information and policy recommendations in addition to those offered by the Ministry of External Affairs. A subordinate part of the officethe Research and Analysis Wing (RAW)--functioned in ways that significantly expanded the information available to the prime minister and his advisers. The RAW gathered intelligence, provided intelligence analysis to the Office of the Prime Minister, and conducted covert operations abroad. The prime minister's control and reliance on personal advisers in the Office of the Prime Minister was particularly strong under the tenures of Indira Gandhi (196677 and 198084) and her son, Rajiv (198489), who succeeded her, and weaker during the periods of coalition governments. Observers find it difficult to determine whether the locus of decision-making authority on any particular issue lies with the Ministry of External Affairs, the Council of Ministers,

Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh with Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in New Delhi. The Prime Minister, in collaboration with External Affairs Ministry, handles key foreign policy decisions.

Foreign relations of India the Office of the Prime Minister, or the prime minister himself.[41] The Prime Minister is however free to appoint advisers and special committees to examine various foreign policy options and areas of interest.[42] In a recent instance, Manmohan Singh appointed K. Subrahmanyam in 2005 to head a special government task force to study 'Global Strategic Developments' over the next decade.[43] The Task Force submitted its conclusions to the Prime Minister in 2006.[44] [45] The report has not yet been released in the public domain.

Ministry of External Affairs

The Ministry of External Affairs is the Indian government's agency responsible for the foreign relations of India. The Minister of External Affairs holds cabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers. S. M. Krishna is current Minister of External Affairs. The Ministry has two Ministers of State Preneet Kaur and E. Ahamed. The Indian Foreign Secretary is the head of Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and therefore, serves as the head of all Indian ambassadors and high commissioners.[46] Nirupama Rao is the current Foreign Secretary of India.

Overview
India's relations with the world have evolved since the British Raj (18571947), when the British Empire monopolized external and defense relations. When India gained independence in 1947, few Indians had experience in making or conducting foreign policy. However, the country's oldest political party, the Indian National Congress, had established a small foreign department in 1925 to make overseas contacts and to publicize its freedom struggle. From the late 1920s on, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had a long-standing interest in world affairs among independence leaders, formulated the Congress stance on international issues. As a member of the interim government in 1946, Nehru articulated India's approach to the world.[47] play.[48] India's international influence varied over the years after independence. Indian prestige and moral authority were high in the 1950s and facilitated the acquisition of developmental assistance from both East and West. Although the prestige stemmed from India's nonaligned stance, the nation was unable to prevent Cold War politics from becoming intertwined with interstate relations in South Asia. Sardar Swaran Singh was India's foreign minister from 1964 to 1966. In the 1960s and 1970s, India's international position among developed and developing countries faded in the course of wars with China and Pakistan, disputes with other countries in South Asia, and India's attempt to balance Pakistan's support from the United States and China by signing the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971. Although India obtained substantial Soviet military and economic aid, which helped to strengthen the nation, India's influence was undercut regionally and internationally by the perception that its friendship with the Soviet Union prevented a more forthright condemnation of the Soviet presence in Afghanistan. In the late 1980s, India improved relations with the United States, other developed countries, and China while continuing close ties with the Soviet Union. Relations with its South Asian neighbors, especially Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, occupied much of the energies of the Ministry of External Affairs.[49]

Foreign relations of India

In the 1990s, India's economic problems and the demise of the bipolar world political system forced India to reassess its foreign policy and adjust its foreign relations. Previous policies proved inadequate to cope with the serious domestic and international problems facing India. The end of the Cold War gutted the core meaning of nonalignment and left Indian foreign policy without significant direction. The hard, pragmatic considerations of the early 1990s were still viewed within the Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India nonaligned framework of the past, but the disintegration of the Soviet has forged a closer partnership with Western Union removed much of India's international leverage, for which powers. Shown here are Prime Minister relations with Russia and the other post-Soviet states could not Manmohan Singh with US President Barack Obama in 2009. compensate. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India improved its relations with the United States, Canada, France, Japan and Germany. In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel and this relationship grew during the tenures of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) government and the subsequent UPA(United Progressive Alliance) governments.[50] In the mid-1990s, India attracted the world attention towards the alleged Pakistan-backed terrorism in Kashmir. The Kargil War resulted in a major diplomatic victory for India. The United States and European Union recognized the fact that Pakistani military had illegally infiltrated into Indian territory and pressurized Pakistan to withdraw from Kargil. Several anti-India militant groups based in Pakistan were labeled as terrorist groups by the United States and European Union. In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons for the second time (see Pokhran-II) which resulted in several U.S., Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defense minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear program was necessary as it provided a deterrence to potential Chinese nuclear threat. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001.[51] After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Indian intelligence agencies provided the U.S. with significant information on Al-Qaeda and related India has often represented the interests of groups' activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive developing countries at various international contribution to the War on Terrorism, coupled with a surge in its platforms. Shown here are Prime Minister Manmohan Singh with Dmitry Medvedev, Hu economy, has helped India's diplomatic relations with several Jintao and Luiz Incio Lula da Silva during BRIC countries. Over the past three years, India has held numerous joint summit in June, 2009. military exercises with U.S. and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened U.S.-India and E.U.-India bilateral relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and U.S. has more than doubled in the last five years.[52] India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed results. India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed by several countries including France, Russia,[53] the United Kingdom,[54] Germany, Japan, Brazil[55] ,Australia[56] and UAE. [57] In 2004, the United States signed a nuclear co-operation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US argued that India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception, however this has not persuaded other Nuclear Suppliers Group members to sign similar deals with India. During a state visit to India in November 2010, US president Barack Obama announced US support for India's bid for permanent membership to UN Security Council[58] as well as India's entry to Nuclear Suppliers Group, Wassenaar Arrangement, Australia Group and Missile Technology Control Regime.[59] [60]

Foreign relations of India

Strategic partners
India's growing economy, strategic location, friendly foreign policy and large and vibrant diaspora has won it more allies than enemies.[61] India has friendly relations with several countries in the developing world. Though India is not a part of any major military alliance, it has close strategic and military relationship with most of the major powers. Countries considered India's closest include the Russian Federation,[62] Israel,[63] Afghanistan,[64] France, Nepal,[65] Bhutan [66] and Bangladesh.[67] Russia is the largest supplier of military equipment to India, followed by Israel and France.[68] According to some analysts, Israel is set to overtake Russia as India's largest military and strategic partner.[69] The two countries also collaborate extensively in the sphere of counter-terrorism and space technology.[70] India also enjoys strong military relations with several other countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States,[71] Japan,[72] Singapore, Brazil, South Africa and Italy.[73] In addition, India operates an airbase in Tajikistan[74] and signed a landmark defense accord with Qatar in 2008.[75] India has also forged relationships with developing countries, especially South Africa, Brazil,[76] and Mexico.[77] These countries often represent the interests of the developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5, IBSA and WTO. India was seen as one of the standard bearers of the developing world and claimed to speak for a collection of more than 30 other developing nations at the Doha Development Round.[78] [79] India's "Look East" Policy has helped it develop greater economic and strategic partnership with Southeast Asian countries, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. India also enjoys friendly relations with the Persian Gulf countries and most members of the African Union.

Bilateral and regional relations

Neighbours
Afghanistan Bilateral relations between India and Afghanistan have been traditionally strong and friendly. While India was the only South Asian country to recognize the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s, its relations were diminished during the Afghan civil wars and the rule of the Islamist Taliban in the 1990s.[80] India aided the overthrow of the Taliban and became the largest regional provider of humanitarian and reconstruction aid.[64] [81] The new democratically-elected Afghan government strengthened its ties with India in wake of persisting tensions and problems with Pakistan, which was suspected of continuing to shelter and support the Taliban.[64] [81] India pursues a policy of close cooperation to bolster its standing as a regional power and contain its rival Pakistan, which it maintains is supporting Islamic militants in Kashmir and other parts of India.[64] India is the largest regional investor in Afghanistan, having committed more than US$2.2 billion for reconstruction purposes.[82] Bangladesh Both states are part of the Indian subcontinent and have had a long common cultural, economic and political history. India played a crucial part in Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan. In recent years India provides co-operation and assistance during annual natural calamities. India is largest exporter to Bangladesh. Most of differences are of sharing water resources between the two countries such as Ganges , where India diverse Ganges water to Calcutta through Farakka Barrage.

Foreign relations of India Bhutan Historically,there have been close ties with India. Both countries signed a Friendship treaty in 1949, where India would assist Bhutan in foreign relations. On February 8, 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised under the Bhutanese King, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. Whereas in the Treaty of 1949 Article 2 read as "The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations." In the revised treaty it now reads as, "In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other." The revised treaty also includes in it the preamble "Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 strengthens Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation. Tata Power is building a hydro-electric dam. This dam will greatly develop the Bhutanese economy by providing employment, and by selling electricity to India and fulfilling India's burgeoning energy needs. Due to this dam Bhutan's economy grew 20%, the second highest growth rate in the world. Myanmar India was one of the leading supporters of Burmese independence and established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to cultural links, flourishing commerce, common interests in regional affairs and the presence of a significant Indian community in Burma.[83] India provided considerable support when Burma struggled with regional insurgencies. However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Burma led to strains in ties. Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and Burma ordered the expulsion of the Burmese Indian community, increasing its own isolation from the world.[83] [84] Only China maintained close links with Burma while India supported the pro-democracy movement.[83] [85] [86] However, due to geo-political concerns, India revived its relations and recognised the new name of Myanmar in 1993 overcoming strains over drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Burma. Burma is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India. and the proximity of the People's Republic of China gives strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations. The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 miles and some insurgents in North-east India seek refuge in Myanmar. Consequently, India has been keen on increasing military cooperation with Myanmar in its counter-insurgency activities. In 2001, the Indian Army completed the construction of a major road along its border with Myanmar. India has also been building major roads, highways, ports and pipelines within Myanmar in an attempt to increase its strategic influence in the region and also to counter China's growing strides in the Indochina peninsula. Indian companies have also sought active participation in oil and natural gas exploration in Myanmar.In February 2007, India announced a plan to develop the Sittwe port, which would enable ocean access from Indian Northeastern states like Mizoram, via the Kaladan River. India is a major customer of Myanmarese oil and gas. In 2007, Indian exports to Myanmar totaled US$185 million, while its imports from Myanmar were valued at around US$810 million, consisting mostly of oil and gas.[87] India has granted US$100 million credit to fund highway infrastructure projects in Myanmar, while US$ 57 million has been offered to upgrade Myanmarese railways. A further US$27 million in grants has been pledged for road and rail projects.[88] India is one of the few countries that has provided military assistance to the Myanmarese junta.[89] However, there has been increasing pressure on India to cut some of its military supplies to Myanmar.[90] Relations between the two remain close which was evident in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, when India was one of the few

Foreign relations of India countries whose relief and rescue aid proposals were accepted by Myanmar's ruling junta.[91] China Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 Sino-Indian War and continuing boundary disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations. A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, PRC President Jiang Zemin visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building A Chinese container ship unloads cargo at the measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a Jawaharlal Nehru Port in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries is expected to surpass brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified US$60 billion by 2010 making China the single the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from the PRC. [92] largest trading partner of India. However, in June 1999, during the Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between India and the PRC were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from Tibet to India of the 17th Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy and tact. In 2003, India formally recognized Tibet as a part of China, and China recognized Sikkim as a formal part of India in 2004. Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India.[93] The increasing economic reliance between India and China has also bought the two nations closer politically, with both India and China eager to resolve their boundary dispute.[94] They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from WTO's Doha round in 2008[95] to regional free trade agreement.[96] Similar to Indo-US nuclear deal, India and China have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian nuclear energy.[97] However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest Asian investors in Africa[98] and have competed for control over its large natural resources.[99] India and China agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit by Wen Jiabao to India. Maldives India enjoys a considerable influence over Maldives' foreign policy and provides extensive security co-operation especially after the Operation Cactus in 1988 during which India repelled Tamil mercenaries who invaded the country. As founder member in 1985 of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SAARC, which brings together Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the country plays a very active role in SAARC. The Maldives has taken the lead in calling for a South Asian Free Trade Agreement, the formulation of a Social Charter, the initiation of informal political consultations in SAARC forums, the lobbying for greater action on environmental issues, the proposal of numerous human rights measures such as the regional convention on child rights and for setting up a SAARC Human Rights Resource Centre. The Maldives is also an advocate of greater international profile for SAARC such as through formulating common positions at the UN. But the Maldives claims the Indian-administered territory of Minicoy as part of its country, that is inhabited by Muslims. India is starting the process to bring the island country into India's security grid. The move comes after the moderate Islamic nation approached New Delhi earlier this year over fears that one of its island resorts could be taken over by terrorists given its lack of military assets and surveillance capabilities.[100] India is also signing an agreement later this year which includes following things.

Foreign relations of India India will permanently base two helicopters in the country to enhance its surveillance capabilities and ability to respond swiftly to threats. One helicopter from the Coast Guard is likely to be handed over during Antony's visit while another from the Navy will be cleared for transfer shortly. Maldives has coastal radars on only two of its 26 atolls. India will help set up radars on all 26 for seamless coverage of approaching vessels and aircraft. The coastal radar chain in Maldives will be networked with the Indian coastal radar system. India has already undertaken a project to install radars along its entire coastline. The radar chains of the two countries will be interlinked and a central control room in India's Coastal Command will get a seamless radar picture. The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) will carry out regular Dornier sorties over the island nation to look out for suspicious movements or vessels. The Southern Naval Command will overlook the inclusion of Maldives into the Indian security grid. Military teams from Maldives will visit the tri-services Andaman Nicobar Command (ANC) to observe how India manages security and surveillance of the critical island chain. Nepal Relations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic and linguistic identities that overlap the two countries' borders. In 1950 New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil. The 1950 treaty and letters stated that "neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor" and obligated both sides "to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments." These accords cemented a "special relationship" between India and Nepal that granted Nepal preferential economic treatment and provided Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens. Pakistan Despite historical, cultural and ethnic links between them, relations between India and Pakistan have been plagued by years of mistrust and suspicion ever since the partition of India in 1947. The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been the Kashmir conflict. After an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen and Pakistani paramilitary forces, the Hindu Maharaja of the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, and its Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah, signed an Instrument of Accession with New Delhi. The First Kashmir War started after the Indian Army Former Indian PM Nehru with then Pakistani PM entered Srinagar, the capital of the state, to secure the area from the Muhammad Ali Bogra in 1953. invading forces. The war ended in December 1948 with the Line of Control dividing the erstwhile princely state into territories administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and northeastern areas). Pakistan contested the legality of the Instrument of Accession since the Dogra Kingdom has signed a standstill agreement with it. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. India and Pakistan went to war again in 1971, this time the conflict being over East Pakistan. The

Foreign relations of India large-scale atrocities committed there by the Pakistan army led to millions of Bengali refugees pouring over into India. India, along with the Mukti Bahini, defeated Pakistan and the Pakistani forces surrendered on the eastern front. The war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. In 1998, India carried out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests which was followed by Pakistan's Chagai-I tests. Following the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, relations briefly improved. A few months later however, Kashmiri insurgents and Pakistani paramilitary forces, backed by Pakistani Army, infiltrated in large numbers into the Kargil district of Indian Kashmir. This initiated the Kargil conflict after India moved in thousands of troops to successfully flush out the infiltrators. Although the conflict did not result in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, relations between the two reached all-time low which worsened even further following the involvement of Pakistan-based terrorists in the hijacking of the Indian Airlines IC814 plane in December 1999. Attempts to normalize relations, such as the Agra summit held in July 2001, failed. An attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which was blamed on Pakistan, which had condemned the attack[101] caused a military standoff between the two countries which lasted for nearly a year raising fears of a nuclear conflict. However, a peace process, initiated in 2003, led to improved relations in the following years. Since the initiation of the peace process, several confidence-building-measures (CBMs) between India and Pakistan have taken shape. The Samjhauta Express and DelhiLahore Bus service are two of these successful measures which have played a crucial role in expanding people-to-people contact between the two countries.[102] The initiation of SrinagarMuzaffarabad Bus service in 2005 and opening of a historic trade route across the Line of Control in 2008 further reflects increasing eagerness between the two sides to improve relations. Although bilateral trade between India and Pakistan was a modest US$1.7 billion in March 2007, it is expected to cross US$10 billion by 2010. After the Kashmir earthquake in 2005, India sent aid to affected areas in Pakistani Kashmir & Punjab as well as Indian Kashmir.[103] The 2008 Mumbai attacks seriously undermined the relations between the two countries. India alleged Pakistan of harboring militants on their soil, while Pakistan vehemently denies such claims. Relations are currently hampered since India has sent a list of 40 alleged fugitive in various terror strikes to Pakistan, expecting them to be handed over to India. Pakistan, on the other hand, has declared that it has no intentions whatsoever of carrying out their extradition. Sri Lanka Bilateral relations between Sri Lanka and India have been generally friendly, but were affected by the Sri Lankan civil war and by the failure of Indian intervention during the Sri Lankan civil war. India is Sri Lanka's only neighbour, separated by the Palk Strait; both nations occupy a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the Indian Ocean.[104] India-Sri Lanka relations have undergone a qualitative and quantitative transformation in the recent past. Political relations are close, trade and investments have increased dramatically, infrastructural linkages are constantly being augmented, defence collaboration has increased and there is a general, broad-based improvement across all sectors of bilateral cooperation. India was the first country to respond to Sri Lanka's request for assistance after the tsunami in December 2004. In July 2006, India evacuated 430 Sri Lankan nationals from Lebanon, first to Cyprus by Indian Navy ships and then to Delhi & Colombo by special Air India flights. There exists a broad consensus within the Sri Lankan polity on the primacy of India in Sri Lanka's external relations matrix. Both the major political parties in Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the United Nationalist Party have contributed to the rapid development of bilateral relations in the last ten years. Sri Lanka has supported India's candidature to the permanent membership of the UN Security Council.[105]

Foreign relations of India

10

AsiaPacific
Australia The strongest ties between these two states is the commonwealth connection. Cricketing and Bollywood ties also help foster relations as in the frequent travel for games, and, more importantly, the presence of Australian cricketers in India for commercial gain. This was further enhanced with the IPL, and, to a lesser degree, the ICL. Bollywood has also improved ties as with John Howard's visit to Mumbai to increase tourism to Australia.[106] Furthermore, there is a going strategic connection to forming an "Asian NATO" with India, Japan, the US and Australia.[107] The bilateral agreements have worked out for all but the Indo-Australian angle, though this has been hurt by India's refusal to sign the NPT and Australia's consequent refusal to provide India with uranium until the latter do so. The Australian and Indian militaries have already worked well together. Of late the relations between the two countries were jolted, with attacks on Indian Community students in Melbourne, Australia. Indian Government lodged strong protests with the Australian Government. Australian Prime Minister Mr. Kevin Rudd said that "Australia valued its education system and International Students are valued more here in Australia." Mr. Rudd though said that his Govt. has ordered a thorough probe into the attacks and also condemned it in strongest possible terms no significant break through has been achieved.[108] [109] Fiji Fijis relationship with the Republic of India is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its indigenous people and the 44 percent of the population who are of Indian descent. India has used its influence in international forums such as the Commonwealth of Nations and United Nations on behalf of ethnic Indians in Fiji, lobbying for sanctions against Fiji in the wake of the 1987 coups and the 2000 coup, both of which removed governments, one dominated and one led, by Indo-Fijians. Japan India-Japan relations have always been strong. India has culturally influenced Japan through Buddhism. During the Indian Independence Movement, the Japanese Imperial Army helped Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose's Indian National Army. Relations have remained warm since India's independence. Japanese companies, like Sony, Toyota, and Honda, have manufacturing facilities in India, and with the growth of the Indian economy, India is a big market for Japanese firms. The most prominent Japanese company to have a big investment in India is Two Japanese Naval warships took part in automobiles giant Suzuki which is in partnership with Indian Malabar 2007 off India's western coast, one of the automobiles company Maruti Suzuki, the largest car manufacturer in few such multilateral exercises Japan has ever India. Honda is also a partner in "Hero Honda", one of the largest taken part in symbolizing close military cooperation between India and Japan. motor cycle sellers in the world. In December 2006, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Japan culminated in the signing of the "Joint Statement Towards Japan-India Strategic and Global Partnership". Japan has funded some major infrastructure projects in India, most notably the Delhi Metro subway system. Indian applicants were welcomed in 2006 to the JET Program, starting with just one slot available in 2006 and 41 in 2007. Also, in 2007, the Japanese Self Defense Forces took part in a naval exercise in the Indian Ocean, known as Malabar 2007, which also involved the naval forces of India, Australia, Singapore and the United States. In October 2008, Japan signed an agreement with India under which it would grant the latter a low-interest loan worth US$4.5 billion to construct a high-speed rail line between Delhi and Mumbai. This is the single largest overseas project being financed by Japan and reflects growing economic partnership between the two.[110] India is

Foreign relations of India also one of three countries with whom Japan has security pact, the other being Australia and the United States.[111] Laos In recent years, India has endeavoured to build relations, with this small Southeast Asian nation. They have strong military relations, and India shall be building an Airforce Academy in Laos.[112] Indonesia The ties between Indonesia and India date back to the times of the Ramayana,[113] "Yawadvipa" (Java) is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.[114] Indonesians had absorbed many aspects of Indian culture since almost two millennia ago. The most obvious trace is the large adoption of sanskrit into Indonesian language. Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, such as Srivijaya, Medang, Sunda and Majapahit were the predominant governments in Indonesia, and lasted from 200[115] to the 1500s, with the last remaining being in Bali. The example of profound Hindu-Buddhist influences in Indonesian history are the 9th century Prambanan and Borobudur temples. In 1950, the first President of Indonesia Sukarno called upon the peoples of Indonesia and India to "intensify the cordial relations" that had existed between the two countries "for more than 1000 years" Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter Indira Gandhi before they had been "disrupted" by colonial powers.[116] Fifteen years with Sukarno, Megawati Sukarnoputri and Guntur, during stately visit to Indonesia in June later in Djakarta, government-inspired mobs were shouting: "Down 1950. with India, the servant of imperialists" and "Crush India, our enemy. [117] " Yet in the spring of 1966, the foreign ministers of both countries began speaking again of an era of friendly relations. India had supported Indonesian independence and Nehru had raised the Indonesian question in the United Nations Security Council. Today, India has an embassy in Jakarta [118] and Indonesia operates an embassy in Delhi.[119] India regards Indonesia as a key member of ASEAN. Both nations had agreed to establish a strategic partnership.[120] Malaysia India has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in New Delhi. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Asian Union. India and Malaysia are also connected by various cultural and historical ties that date back to antiquity. The two countries are on excellently friendly terms with each other seeing as Malaysia is home to a strong concentration of Indian immigrants.Mahathir bin Mohamad the fourth and longest serving Prime Minister of Malayasia is of Indian origin, his father Mohamad Iskandar, was a Malayalee Muslim (who migrated from Kerala) and his mother Wan Tampawan, was Malay.[121] Philippines Through the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires, Hindu influence has been visible in Philippine history from the 10th to 14th century A.D. During the 18th century, there was robust trade between Manila and the Coromandel Coast of Bengal, involving Philippine exports of tobacco, silk, cotton, indigo, sugar cane and coffee. The Philippines established diplomatic relations with India on 16 November 1949. The first Philippine envoy to India was the late Foreign Secretary Narciso Ramos. Seven years after Indias independence in 1947, the Philippines and India signed a Treaty of Friendship on 11 July 1952 in Manila to strengthen the friendly relations existing between the two

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Foreign relations of India countries. Soon after, the Philippine Legation in New Delhi was established and then elevated to an Embassy.[122] However, due to foreign policy differences as a result of the bipolar alliance structure of the Cold War, the development of bilateral relations was stunted. It was only in 1976 that relations started to normalize when Mr. Aditya Birla, one of Indias successful industrialists, met with then President Ferdinand E. Marcos to explore possibilities of setting up joint ventures in the Philippines. Today, like India, the Philippines is the leading voice-operated business process outsourcing (BPO) source in terms of revenue (US$ 5.7) and number of people (500,000) employed in the sector. In partnership with the Philippines, India has 20 IT/BPO companies in the Philippines. Philippines-India bilateral trade stood at US$ 986.60 million dollars in 2009. In 2004 it was US$ 600 million. Both countries aim to reach US$1 billion by 2010. There are 60,000 Indians living in the Philippines. The Philippines and India signed in October 2007 the Framework for Bilateral Cooperation which created the PH-India JCBC. It has working groups in trade, agriculture, tourism, health, renewable energy and a regular policy consultation mechanism and security dialogue. Singapore India and Singapore share long-standing cultural, commercial and strategic relations, with Singapore being a part of the "Greater India" cultural and commercial region. More than 300,000 people of Indian origin live in Singapore. Following its independence in 1965, Singapore was concerned with China-backed communist threats as well as domination from Malaysia and Indonesia and sought a close strategic relationship with India, which it saw as a counter-balance to Chinese influence and a partner in achieving regional security.[123] Singapore had always been an important strategic trading post, giving Singapore Navy frigate RSS Formidable (68) India trade access to Maritime Southeast Asia and the Far East. steams alongside the Indian Navy frigate INS Brahmaputra (F 31) in the Bay of Bengal. Although the rival positions of both nations over the Vietnam War and Singapore is one of India's strongest allies in the Cold War caused consternation between India and Singapore, their South East Asia. relationship expanded significantly in the 1990s;[123] Singapore was one of the first to respond to India's "Look East" Policy of expanding its economic, cultural and strategic ties in Southeast Asia to strengthen its standing as a regional power.[123] Singapore, and especially, the Singaporean Foreign Minister, George Yeo, have taken an interest, in re-establishing the ancient Indian university, Nalanda University. Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest amongst ASEAN member nations.[123] [124] It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 200506.[123] Its cumulative investment in India totals USD 3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to US 5 billion by 2010 and US 10 billion by 2015.[123] [125] [126] India's economic liberalisation and its "Look East" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from USD 2.2 billion in 2001 to US 910 billion in 2006 a 400% growth in span of five years and to USD 50 billion by 2010.[123] [125] [126] Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade.[123] India's main exports to Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals. More than half of Singapore's exports to India are basically "re-exports" items that had been imported from India.[123] [124]

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Foreign relations of India South Korea The cordial relationship between the two countries extends back to 48AD, when Queen Suro, or Princess Heo, travelled from the kingdom of Ayodhya to Korea.[127] According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly king who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride. After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen, for permission to set out and seek the man, which the king and queen urged with the belief that god orchestrated the whole fate.[128] Upon approval, she set out on a boat, carrying gold, silver, a tea plant, and a stone which calmed the waters.[127] Archeologists discovered a stone with two fish kissing each other, a symbol of the Gaya kingdom that is unique to the Mishra royal family in Ayodhya, India. This royal link provides further evidence that there was an active commercial engagements between India and Korea since the queen's arrival to Korea.[127] Current descendants live in the city of Kimhae as well as abroad in America's state of New Jersey and Kentucky. Many of them became prominent and well-known around the world like President Kim Dae Jung, Prime Minister Jong Pil Kim. The relations between the countries have been relatively limited, although much progress arose during the three decades. Since the formal establishment of the diplomatic ties between two countries in 1973, several trade agreements have been reached. Trade between the two nations has increased exponentially, exemplified by the $530 million during the fiscal year of 19921993, and the $10 billion during 20062007.[129] During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, South Korean businesses sought to increase access to the global markets, and began trade investments with India.[129] The last two presidential visits from South Korea to India were in 1996 and 2006,[130] and the embassy works between the two countries are seen as needing improvements.[131] Recently, there have been acknowledgements in the Korean public and political spheres that expanding relations with India should be a major economical and political priority for South Korea. Much of the economic investments of South Korea have been drained into China;[132] however, South Korea is currently the fifth largest source of investment in India.[133] To the Times of India, President Roh voiced his opinion that cooperation between India's software and Korea's IT industries would bring very efficient and successful outcomes.[130] The two countries agreed to shift their focus to the revision of the visa policies between the two countries, expansion of trade, and establishment of free trade agreement to encourage further investment between the two countries. Korean companies such as LG and Samsung have established manufacturing and service facilities in India, and several Korean construction companies won grants for a portion of the many infrastructural building plans in India, such as the "National Highway Development Project".[133] Tata Motor's purchase of Daewoo Commercial Vehicles at the cost of $102 million highlights the India's investments in Korea, which consist mostly of subcontracting.[133] Taiwan The bilateral relations between India and Taiwan (officially Republic of China) have improved since the 1990s despite both nations not maintaining official diplomatic relations,[86] [133] India recognizes only the People's Republic of China and not the Republic of China's contention of being the legitimate government of territorial China a conflict that emerged after the Chinese Civil War (194549). However, India's economic & Commercial links as well as people-to-people contacts with Taiwan have expanded in recent years.[133]
Chinese Expedition Army (now Republic of China Army) boarding planes for India.

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Thailand

Foreign relations of India India's Look East policy, saw India grow relations with ASEAN countries including Thailand, and Thailand's Look West policy, also saw it grow its relations with India. Both countries are members of BIMSTEC. Indian Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Manmohan Singh, have visited Thailand, which were reciprocated by contemporary Thai Prime Ministers Chatichai Choonhavan, Thaksin Sinawatra, and Surayud Chulanont. In 2003, a Free Trade Agreement was signed between the two countries. India, is the 13th largest investor in Thailand. The spheres of trade are in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, textiles, nylon, tyre cord, real estate, rayon fibres, paper grade pulps, steel wires, and rods. However, IT Services, and manufacturing, are the main spheres. Through Buddhism, India, has culturally influenced Thailand. The Indian epics, Mahabharata, and Ramayana, are popular and are widely taught in schools as part of the curriculum in Thailand. The example can also be seen in temples around Thailand, where the story of Ramayana and renowned Indian folk stories are depicted on the temple wall. Thailand, has become a big tourist destination for Indians. Vietnam India supported Vietnam's independence from France, opposed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and supported unification of Vietnam. India established official diplomatic relations in 1972 and maintained friendly relations, especially in the wake of Vietnam's hostile relations with the People's Republic of China, which had become India's strategic rival.[134] India granted the "Most Favoured Nation" status to Vietnam in 1975[134] and both nations signed a bilateral trade agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on March 8, 1997.[135] In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyen Tan Dung.[136] Bilateral trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the economies of both Vietnam and India.[134] India is the 13th-largest exporter to Vietnam, with exports have grown steadily from USD 11.5 million in 198586 to USD 395.68 million by 2003.[135] Vietnam's exports to India rose to USD 180 million, including agricultural products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods.[137] Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at 2030% per annum to reach USD 1 billion by 2006.[138] [139] Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to rise to USD 2 billion by 2008, 2 years ahead of the official target.[139] [140] India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in information technology, education and collaboration of the respective national space programmes.[136] Direct air links and lax visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.[141] India and Vietnam are members of the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation, created to develop to enhance close ties between India and nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to become a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council and join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).[142] In the 2003 joint declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an "Arc of Advantage and Prosperity" in Southeast Asia;[136] to this end, Vietnam has backed a more important relationship and role between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its negotiation of an Indo-ASEAN free trade agreement.[134] [136] India and Vietnam have also built strategic partnerships, including extensive cooperation on developing nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking.[86] [136] [137]

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Americas
India's commonalities with developing nations in Latin America, especially Brazil and Mexico have continued to grow. India and Brazil continue to work together on the reform of Security Council through the G4 nations while have also increased strategic and economic cooperation through the IBSA Dialogue Forum. The process of finalizing Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay) is on the itinerary and negotiations are being held with Chile.[143] Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva was the guest of honour at the 2004 Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi.[144]

Foreign relations of India

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Argentina Formal relations between both the countries were first established in 1949. India has an embassy in Buenos Aires and Argentina has an embassy in New Delhi. The current Indian Ambassador to Argentina (concurrently acreditted to Uruguay and Paraguay) is Mr. R Viswanathan.

(L-R): Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, President of Argentina, Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner and President Pratibha Patil at Rashtrapati Bhawan.

Brazil A group called the Filhos de Gandhi (Sons of Gandhi) participates regularly in the carnival in Salvador. Private Brazilian organizations occasionally invite Indian cultural troupes. In recent years, relations between Brazil and India have grown considerably and co-operation between the two countries has been extended to such diverse areas as science and technology, pharmaceuticals and space. The two-way trade in 2007 nearly tripled to US$ 3.12 billion from US$ 1.2 billion in 2004. India attaches tremendous importance to its relationship with this Latin American giant and hopes to see the areas of co-operation expand in the coming years.

The Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh with Brazilian President Luiz Incio Lula da [145] Silva in 2006.

Both countries want the participation of developing countries in the UNSC permanent membership since the underlying philosophy for both of them are: UNSC should be more democratic, legitimate and representative the G4 is a novel grouping for this realization. Brazil and India are deeply committed to IBSA (South-South cooperation) initiatives and attach utmost importance to this trilateral cooperation between the three large, multi-ethnic, multi-racial and multi-religious developing countries, which are bound by the common principle of pluralism and democracy. Canada Indo-Canadian relations, are the longstanding bilateral relations between India and Canada, which are built upon a "mutual commitment to democracy", "pluralism", and "people-to-people links," according to the government of Canada. In 2004, bilateral trade between India and Canada was at about C$2.45 billion. However, the botched handling of the Air India investigation and the case in general suffered a setback to Indo-Canadian relations. India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test led to connections between the two countries being frozen, with allegations that India broke the terms of the Colombo Plan. Although Jean Chrtien and Romo LeBlanc both visited India in the late 1990s, relations were again halted after the Pokhran-II tests.

Flag Commander of Western Fleet of Indian Navy while briefing a press conference on a joint Indo-Canadian naval exercise.

Foreign relations of India Colombia Both countries established diplomatic ties on January 19, 1959. Since then the relationship between the two countries has been gradually increasing with more frequent diplomatic visits to promote political, commercial cultural and academic exchanges. Colombia is currently the commercial point of entry into Latin America for Indian companies.[146] Mexico Mexico is a very important and major economic partner of India. Mexico and India, both have embassies in the other country. Octavio Paz worked as a diplomat in India. His book In Light of India is an analysis of Indian history and culture.[147] See also Hinduism in Mexico Paraguay India and Paraguay established diplomatic relations on September 13, 1961. India is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina and an honorary consulate in Asuncion. Since 2005, Paraguay has had an embassy in New Delhi. United States of America Historically, relations between India and the United States were lukewarm following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in the Non-Aligned Movement, and attempted to pursue even-handed economic and military relations with the Soviet Union, although US provided support to India in 1962 during its war with China. For most of the Cold War, the USA tended to have warmer relations with Pakistan, primarily as a way to contain Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. An Indo-Soviet twenty year friendship treaty, signed in 1971, also positioned India against the USA. Cold War era India played a key role in establishing the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Though India pursued close relations with both USA and USSR, it decided not to join any major power bloc and refrained from joining military alliances. India, however began establishing close military relationship with the Soviet Union. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India made considerable changes to its foreign policy. It developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union and started receiving massive military equipment and financial assistance from the USSR. This had an adverse effect on the Indo-USA relationship. The United States saw Pakistan as a counter-weight to pro-Soviet India and started giving the former military assistance. This created an atmosphere of suspicion between India and USA. The USA-India relationship suffered a considerable setback during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan when India openly supported the Soviet Union.

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Foreign relations of India

17

Relations between India and the United States came to an all-time low during the early 1970s. Despite reports of atrocities in East Pakistan, and being told, most notably in the Blood telegram, of genocidal activities being perpetrated by Pakistani forces, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and U.S. President Richard Nixon did nothing to discourage then Pakistani President Yahya Khan and the Pakistan Army. Kissinger was particularly concerned about Soviet expansion into South Asia as a result of a treaty of friendship that had recently been signed between India and the Soviet Union, and sought to demonstrate to the People's Republic of China the value of a tacit alliance with the United States.[148] During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian Armed Forces, along with the Mukti Bahini, succeeded in liberating East Pakistan which soon declared independence. Richard Nixon, then USA President, feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China. In order to demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the USA Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan, routing them through Jordan and Iran,[149] while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan.

President of United States Of America Richard Nixon and Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi in 1971. They had a deep personal antipathy that colored bilateral relations.

When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon sent the USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. The Enterprise arrived on station on December 11, 1971. On 6 December and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed U.S. Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.[150] Though American efforts had no effect in turning the tide of the war, the incident involving USS Enterprise is viewed as the trigger for India's subsequent nuclear program.[151] American policy towards the end of the war was dictated primarily by a need to restrict the escalation of war on the western sector to prevent the 'dismemberment' of West Pakistan.[152] Years after the war, many American writers criticized the White House policies during the war as being badly flawed and ill-serving the interests of the United States.[153] India carried out nuclear tests a few years later resulting in sanctions being imposed by United States, further drifting the two countries apart. In recent years, Kissinger came under fire for comments made during the Indo-Pakistan War in which he described Indians as "bastards."[154] Kissinger has since expressed his regret over the comments.[155] Post Cold War era Since the end of the Cold War, India-USA relations have improved dramatically. This has largely been fostered by the fact that the USA and India are both democracies and have a large and growing trade relationship. During the Gulf War, the economy of India went through an extremely difficult phase. The Government of India liberalized the Indian economy. After the break up of the Soviet Union, India started looking for new allies and tried improving diplomatic relations with the members of the NATO particularly the United States, Canada, France and Germany. In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel.

Foreign relations of India Pokhran tests In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons which resulted in several U.S., Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defence minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear program was necessary as it provided a deterrence to some potential nuclear threat. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001. India has categorically stated that it will never use weapons first but will defend if attacked. The economic sanctions imposed by the United States in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage Indo-American relations. President Bill Clinton imposed wide-ranging sanctions pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act. U.S. sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects in India. The United States encouraged India to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) immediately and without condition. The U.S. also called for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and deployment by both India and Pakistan. The non-proliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries. PostSeptember 11 After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Indian intelligence agencies provided the U.S. with significant information on Al-Qaeda and related groups' activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive contribution to the War on Terrorism has helped India's diplomatic relations with several countries. Over the past few years, India has held numerous joint military exercises with U.S. and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened U.S.-India and E.U.-India bilateral relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and U.S. has more than doubled in the last five years. However, India has not signed the CTBT, or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, claiming the discriminatory nature of the treaty that allows the five declared nuclear countries of the world to keep their nuclear arsenal and develop it using computer simulation testing. Prior to its nuclear testing, India had pressed for a comprehensive destruction of nuclear weapons by all countries of the world in a time-bound frame. This was not acceptable to the USA and other countries. Presently, India has declared its policy of "no-first use of nuclear weapons" and the maintenance of a "credible nuclear deterrence". The USA, under President George W. Bush has also lifted most of its sanctions on India and has resumed military co-operation. Relations with USA have considerably improved in the recent years, with the two countries taking part in joint naval exercises off the coast of India and joint air exercises both in India as well as in the United States.[156] [157] [158] India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed results. India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed by several countries including United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Brazil, African Union nations, USA and recently People's Republic of China. In 2005, the United States signed a nuclear co-operation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US argued that India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception and persuaded other Nuclear Suppliers Group members to sign similar deals with India. On March 2, 2006 India and the USA signed the Indo-U.S. Nuclear Pact on co-operation in civilian nuclear field. This was signed during the four days state visit of USA President George Bush in India. On its part, India would separate its civilian and military nuclear programs, and the civilian programs would be brought under the safeguards of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The United States would sell India the reactor technologies and the nuclear fuel for setting up and upgrading its civilian nuclear program. The U.S. Congress needs to ratify this pact since U.S. federal law prohibits the trading of nuclear technologies and materials outside the framework of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

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Foreign relations of India Indo-USA strategic partnership Indo-USA relations got strategic content in the early 1960s. The rise of China worried the policymakers in Washington. Chinese assertion in Tibet, its role in the Korean War and other such acts concerned Washington. As the relations between India and China deteriorated during late fifties, the Americans found a golden opportunity to take advantage of this situation to promote India as a counterweight to China.[159] But any unidimensional alliance is bound to be short-lived and this alliance was no exception to this general rule. As China ceased to be a headache for the American policymakers by the late sixties, this unidimensional alliance disappeared into thin air.

19

Prime Minister Manmohan Singh with President Barack Obama at the White House.

The end of the Cold War necessitated as well as facilitated the infusion of strategic content to Indo-USA relationsthis time multidimensional. In the post Cold War era, the strategic objectives of India and the USA converges on a number of issues and not just oneas well as the case earlier. These issues include, inter alia, containment of terrorism, promotion of democracy, counter proliferation, freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean, Asian balance of power, etc.[34] One of the very interesting feature of Indo-USA relations of recent times is the changes on the terms of engagement between the two countries on the issue of nuclear proliferation. While earlier, in the USA strategic thinking on nuclear proliferation, India figured mainly because of American concern about latter's nuclear and missile programmes, in the twenty-first century, however, American strategic thinking on the issue of nuclear proliferation has undergone radical reorientation. Now, the Americans are increasingly realising the futility of insisting on a rollback of India's nuclear programme. They, rather, want to leverage India's growing power and influence in favour of their broader nonproliferation and counter proliferation objectives.[160] As promotion of democracy around the world is one of the most important foreign policy objective of the USA, India as the largest democracy of the world-can hardly be ignored by the USA. This is the reason, cooperation in promotion of democracy in the world has become one of the most important facets of Indo-USA relations in recent times. India is a founding member of the 'Community of Democracies' a prominent endeavour of the USA on promotion of democracy. However, India rejected the suggestion of the USA about setting up a Centre for Asian Democracy.[161] Agriculture is another important area of cooperation between India and the USA in present times. Considering the fact that both the nations at present have a vast pool of human resources adept at knowledge economy, it is only natural that the best course such partnership can aim at is harnessing these human resources by concentrating on development and dissemination of agricultural knowledge through research, education and training etc. An initiative to forge such a partnership is the 'India-USA Knowledge Initiative on Agriculture' (KIA).[162] Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was the guest of honor at the first state dinner, which took place on November 24, 2009, of the administration of US President Barack Obama. Obama later visited India from November 69, 2010, signing numerous trade and defence agreements with India. He addressed the joint session of the Indian parliament in New Delhi, becoming only the second US President to do so, and announced that the United States would lend it's support to India's bid for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, signifying the growing strategic dimension of the relationship between the world's two largest democracies.[163]
Embassy of India in Washington, D.C.

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Europe
European Union India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the Union, signing bilateral agreements in 1973, when the United Kingdom joined. The most recent cooperation agreement was signed in 1994 and an action plan was signed in 2005. As of April 2007 the Commission is pursuing a free trade agreement with India.[164] The Union is India's largest trading partner, accounting for 20% of Indian trade. G20 Leaders Summit on Financial Markets and the World Economy in However, India accounts for only 1.8% of Washington, D.C. the EU's trade and attracts only 0.3% of European Foreign Direct Investment, although still provides India's largest source. During 2005 EU-India trade grew by 20.3%.[165] There was controversy in 2006 when the Indian Mittal Steel Company sought to take-over the Luxembourg based steel company, Arcelor. The approach met with opposition from France and Luxembourg but was passed by the Commission who stated that were judging it on competition grounds only.[166] The European Union (EU) and India agreed on September 29, 2008 at the EU-India summit in Marseille, France's largest commercial port, to expand their cooperation in the fields of nuclear energy and environmental protection and deepen their strategic partnership. French President Nicolas Sarkozy, the EU's rotating president, said at a joint press conference at the summit that "EU welcomes India, as a large country, to engage in developing nuclear energy, adding that this clean energy will be helpful for the world to deal with the global climate change." Sarkozy also said the EU and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan pledged to accelerate talks on a free trade deal and expected to finish the deal by 2009. The Indian prime minister was also cautiously optimistic about cooperation on nuclear energy. "Tomorrow we have a bilateral summit with France. This matter will come up and I hope some good results will emerge out of that meeting," Singh said when asked about the issue. Singh said that he was "very satisfied" with the results of the summit. He added that EU and India have "common values" and the two economies are complementary to each other. European Commission President Jos Manuel Barroso, also speaking at Monday's press conference, expounded the joint action plan on adjustments of EU's strategic partnership with India, saying the two sides will strengthen cooperation on world peace and safety, sustainable development, cooperation in science and technology and cultural exchanges. Reviewing the two sides' efforts in developing the bilateral strategic partnership, the joint action plan reckoned that in politics, dialogue and cooperation have enhanced through regular summits and exchanges of visits and that in economy, mutual investments have increased dramatically in recent years, dialogue in macro economic policies and financial services has established and cooperation in energy, science and technology and environment has been launched. Under the joint action plan, EU and Indian would enhance consultation and dialogue on human rights within the UN framework, strengthen cooperation in world peacekeeping mission, fight against terror and non-proliferation of arms, promote cooperation and exchange in developing civil nuclear energy and strike a free trade deal as soon as possible. France, which relies heavily on nuclear power and is a major exporter of nuclear technology, is expected to sign a deal that would allow it to provide nuclear fuel to India. Trade between India and the 27-nation EU has more than doubled from 25.6 billion euros ($36.7 billion) in 2000 to 55.6 billion euros last year, with further expansion to be seen. "We have agreed to achieve an annual bilateral trade

Foreign relations of India turnover of 100 billion euros within the next five years," Singh told reporters. A joint statement issued at the end of the summit said the EU and India would work to reach an agreement on climate change by the end of 2009.[167] United Kingdom Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been through bilateral, as well as through the Commonwealth of Nations framework. Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The British Raj allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other. The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK food from the indian subcontinent are very popular.[168] The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian Cuisine, although no official study reports this.[168] Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. India is the second largest investor in Britain after the US.[169] [170] Britain is also one of the largest investors in India.[171] The Queen's visits to India have been enormously successful along with those by other members of the Royal Family. Britain has also supported India's rise to prominence on the international stage, including advocating a permanent seat on the Security Council.[172] The UK recently gave India a 825 million aid package to help India develop its health and education systems.[167] [173] France France and India established diplomatic relationships soon after India achieved independence in 1947. India's strong diplomatic ties with France resulted in the peaceful cession of Pondicherry to India on November 1, 1954 without any military opposition from France. France, Russia and Israel were the only countries that did not condemn India's decision to go nuclear in 1998.[174] In 2003, France became the largest supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military and economic trade partner. India's permanent member The Indian Air Force has the second largest fleet aspirations in the UN Security Council have found very strong support of France's Mirage 2000H after Arme de l'Air. from former French President Chirac and more recently by the current French President Nicolas Sarkozy. The recent decision by the Indian government to purchase French Scorpne class submarines worth $3 billion USD and 43 Airbus aircraft for Air India worth $2.5 billion USD has further cemented the strategic, military and economic co-operation between India and France. Nicolas Sarkozy visited India in January 2008 and was the Chief Guest of the Republic Day parade in New Delhi. France was the first country to sign a nuclear energy co-operation agreement with India; this was done during Prime Minister Singh's visit, following the waiver by the Nuclear Suppliers Group. During the Bastille Day celebrations on July 14, 2009, a detachment of 400 Indian troops marched along with the French troops as well as the Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh was the guest of honour.[175]

21

Foreign relations of India Italy Despite racial and religious disconnections, India and Italy have enjoyed overall pleasurable and strong relations throughout history. Italy and India are also close economic partners and is home to a large population of Indian immigrants. The chief of India's leading political party, the Indian National Congress, Sonia Gandhi, arguably the most powerful Indian woman, is of Italian descent. Unfortunately at diplomatic level the relations seem not to be always good, an example is the terrible visa situation between the two countries for the past few years, visas of any kind (tourist, business, employment and others) are issued for very short term and after a lot of hurdles for both Indian and Italian nationals. This situation has reduced noticeably the possibility of tourism and business development between the two countries. It is not officially known the reason for the current diplomatic situation. India has an embassy in Rome, a general consulate in Milan. Italy has an embassy in New Delhi, two general consulates (in Mumbai and Calcutta). There are around 100,000 people of Indian Origin living in Italy, meanwhile there are only around 300 Italian citizens residing in India mostly working on behalf of Italian industrial groups. See also Embassy of India in Rome, Indo Italian Germany During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved. The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world. Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visit Germany. Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives. UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries. Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other.[176] Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians. Also of note, during World War 2 an Indian division known as the Tiger Legion was attached to the German Wehrmacht. Greece The first contact between both civilization dates back from Alexander the Great's visit to India and eventual retreat. Alexander's seemingly un-stoppable eastward expansion was halted at the Kingdoms of North-Western of India. 3000 BC and earlier, the Mahabharata talks of Indian warrior Kings' conquest of Greece and the cultural exchange resulting therefrom. In modern time, diplomatic relations between Greece and India were established in May 1950. The new Greek Embassy building in New Delhi was inaugurated on February 6, 2001.

22

Arrival of the first Indian student to Dresden, East Germany, in 1951

Foreign relations of India Turkey Due to controversial issues such as Turkey's close relationship with Pakistan and India's strong relations with Greece and Armenia, relations between the two countries have often been blistered at certain times, but better at others. India and Turkey's relationship alters from unsureness to collaboration when the two nations work together to combat terrorism in Central and South Asia, and the Middle East. India and Turkey are also connected by history, seeing as they have known each other since the days of the Ottoman Empire, and seeing as India was one of the countries to send aid to Turkey following its war of independence. The Indian real estate firm GMR, has invested in and is working towards the modernization of Istanbul's Sabiha Gken International Airport. Other European countries
Country Formal Relations Began Notes

23

Armenia 1992-08-31

See ArmeniaIndia relations The first contacts between both civilizations date back from 2,500 years ago, during the 5th century BC. In modern times, India recognized Armenia on December 26, 1991. See Foreign relations of Belarus

Belarus Bulgaria 1954

See BulgariaIndia relations Bulgaria has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata. [178] Sofia. [177] India has an embassy in

Croatia Cyprus Denmark Estonia 1991-09-09

See Foreign relations of Croatia See Foreign relations of Cyprus See Denmark-India relations See EstoniaIndia relations India's first recognition of Estonia came on 22 September 1921 when the former had just acquired membership in the League of Nations. India re-recognised Estonia on September 9, 1991 and diplomatic relations were established on December 2 of the same year in Helsinki. Neither country has a resident ambassador. Estonia is represented in India by two honorary consulates (in Mumbai and New Delhi). India is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland) and through an honorary consulate in Tallinn.

Finland Georgia Holy See Iceland

See Foreign relations of Finland See Foreign relations of Georgia See Foreign relations of the Holy See See IcelandIndia relations Iceland and India established diplomatic relations in 1972. The Embassy of Iceland in London was accredited to India and the Embassy of India in Oslo, Norway, was accredited to Iceland. However, it was only after 2003 that the [179] two countries have began close diplomatic and economic relationships. In 2003, President of Iceland lafur Ragnar Grmsson visited India on diplomatic mission. This was the first visit by an Icelandic President to India. During the visit, Iceland pledged support to New Delhi's candidature for a permanent seat in the United Nation Security Council thus becoming the first Nordic country to do so. This was followed by an official visit of President [180] of India A. P. J. Abdul Kalam to Iceland in May 2005. Following this a new embassy of Iceland was opened in [179] [181] New Delhi on 26 February 2006. Soon, an Indian Navy team visited Iceland on friendly mission. Gunnar Plsson is the ambassador of Iceland to India. The Embassy's area of accreditation, apart from India includes [182] Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Seychelles, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius and Nepal. India [183] appointed S. Swaminathan as the first resident ambassador to Iceland in March 2008.

Foreign relations of India

24
See India Ireland relations Indo-Irish relations picked up steam during the freedom struggles of the respective countries against a common imperial empire in the United Kingdom. Political relations between the two states have largely been based on socio-cultural ties, although political and economic ties have also helped build relations. Indo-Irish relations were greatly strengthened by the such luminaries as the likes of Pandit Nehru, amon de Valera, Rabindranath Tagore, W. B. Yeats, James Joyce, and, above all, Annie Besant. Politically relations have not been cold nor warm. Mutual benefit has led to economic ties that are fruitful for both states. Visits by government leaders have kept relations cordial at regular intervals.

Ireland

Malta

See IndiaMalta relations Malta opened a High Commission in New Delhi in 2007. Malta also has an honorary consulate in Mumbai. India is represented in Malta through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya and an honorary consulate in Valletta.

Poland

See IndiaPoland relations Historically, relations have generally been close and friendly, characterized by understanding and cooperation on [184] international front.

Romania

[185] India has an embassy in Bucharest. [186] Romania has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata. See also Hinduism in Romania

Russia

See IndiaRussia relations During the Cold War, India and the Soviet Union enjoyed a strong strategic, military, economic and diplomatic relationship. After the collapse of the USSR, India improved its relations with the West but it continued its close relations with Russia. India is the second largest market for Russian arms industry. In 2004, more than 70% on [187] Indian Military's hardware came from Russia, making Russia the chief supplier of arms. India has an embassy in Moscow and two Consulates-General (in Saint Petersburg and Vladivostok). Russia has an embassy in New Delhi and three Consulates-General (in Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai). Since 2000 and the visit of Vladimir Putin in India there have been an Indo-Russian Strategic Partnership.

Serbia

1956

[188] India has an embassy in Belgrade. [189] Serbia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Chennai. See also Hinduism in Serbia [190] Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with India [191] India has an embassy in Ljubljana. Slovenia has an embassy in New Delhi. See also Hinduism in Slovenia Spain has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate in Mumbai. India has an embassy in Madrid and consulates in Barcelona and Tenerife

Slovenia

Spain

Ukraine

See IndiaUkraine relations Diplomatic relations between India and Ukraine were established in January 1992. Indian Embassy in Kiev was opened in May 1992 and Ukraine opened its mission in New Delhi in February 1993. The Consulate General of India in Odessa functioned from 1962 till its closure in March 1999.

West Asia
Arab states of the Persian Gulf India and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf enjoy strong cultural and economic ties. This is reflected in the fact that more than 50% of the oil consumed by India comes from the Persian Gulf countries[192] and Indian nationals form the largest expatriate community in the Arabian peninsula.[193] The annual remittance by Indian expatriates in the region amounted to US$20 billion in 2007.[194] India is one of the largest trading partners of the CCASG with non-oil trade between India and Dubai alone amounting to US$19 billion in 2007.[195] The Persian Gulf countries have also played an important role in addressing India's energy security concerns, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait regularly increasing their oil supply to India to meet the country's rising energy demand. In 2005, Kuwait increased

Foreign relations of India its oil exports to India by 10% increasing the net oil trade between the two to US$4.5 billion.[196] In 2008, Qatar decided to invest US$5 billion in India's energy sector.[197] India has maritime security arrangement in place with Oman and Qatar.[198] In 2008, a landmark defense pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats".[199] There has been progress in a proposed deep-sea gas pipeline from Qatar, via Oman, to India.[200] Bahrain India is a close ally of Bahrain, the Kingdom along with its GCC partners are (according to Indian officials) among the most prominent backers of India's bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council,[201] and Bahraini officials have urged India to play a greater role in international affairs. For instance, over concerns about Iran's nuclear programme Bahrain's Crown Prince appealed to India to play an active role in resolving the crisis.[202] Ties between India and Bahrain go back generations, with many of Bahrain's most prominent figures having close connections: poet and constitutionalist Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh grew up in Bombay, while 17th century Bahraini theologians Sheikh Salih Al-Karzakani and Sheikh Ja`far bin Kamal al-Din were influential figures in the Kingdom of Golkonda[203] and the development of Shia thought in the sub-continent. Bahraini politicians have sought to enhance these long standing ties, with Parliamentary Speaker Khalifa Al Dhahrani in 2007 leading a delegation of parliamentarians and business leaders to meet Indian President Pratibha Patil, opposition leader L K Advani, and take part in training and media interviews.[204] Politically, it is easier for Bahrain's politicians to seek training and advice from India than it is from the United States or other western alternative. In December 2007, the Bahrain India Society was launched in Manama to promote ties between the two countries. Headed by the former Minister of Labour Abdulnabi Al Shoala, the Society seeks to take advantage of the development in civil society to actively work to strengthen ties between the two countries, not only business links, but according to the body's opening statement in politics, social affairs, science and culture. India's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs E Ahmed and his Bahraini counterpart Dr Nazar Al Baharna attended the launch.[205] Egypt Modern Egypt-India relations go back to the contacts between Saad Zaghloul and Mohandas Gandhi on the common goals of their respective movements of independence.[206] In 1955, Egypt under Gamal Abdul Nasser and India under Jawaharlal Nehru became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement. During the 1956 War, Nehru stood supporting Egypt to the point of threatening to withdraw his country from the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1967, following the Arab-Israeli war, India supported Egypt and the Arabs. In 1977, New Delhi described the visit of President Anwar al-Sadat to Jerusalem as a "brave" move and considered the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel a primary step on the path of a just settlement of the Middle East problem. Major Egyptian exports to India include raw cotton, raw and manufactured fertilizers, oil and oil products, organic and non-organic chemicals, leather and iron products. Major imports into Egypt from India are cotton yarn, sesame, coffee, herbs, tobacco, lentils, pharmaceutical products and transport equipment. The Egyptian Ministry of Petroleum is also currently negotiating the establishment of a natural gas-operated fertilizer plant with another Indian company. In 2004 the Gas Authority of India Limited, bought 15% of Egypt Nat Gas distribution and marketing company. In 2008 Egyptian investment in India was worth some 750 million dollars, according to the Egyptian ambassador.[207]

25

Foreign relations of India Iran After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iran withdrew from CENTO and dissociated itself from US-friendly countries, including Pakistan, which automatically entailed improved relationship with the Republic of India. Currently, the two countries have friendly relations in many areas. There are significant trade ties, particularly in crude oil imports into India and diesel exports to Iran. Iran frequently objected to Pakistan's attempts to draft anti-India resolutions at international organizations such as the OIC. India welcomed Iran's inclusion as an observer state in the SAARC regional organization. Lucknow continues to be a major centre of Shiite culture and Persian study in the subcontinent.

26

Seen here is Rabindranath Tagore as a guest of Iran's parliament in the 1930s.

In the 1990s, India and Iran both supported the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan against the Taliban regime. They continue to collaborate in supporting the broad-based anti-Taliban government led by Hamid Karzai and backed by the United States. Iraq Iraq was one of the few countries in the Middle East with which India established diplomatic relations at the embassy level immediately after its independence in 1947.[208] Both nations signed the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" in 1952 and an agreement of cooperation on cultural affairs in 1954.[208] India was amongst the first to recognize the Baath Party-led government, and Iraq remained neutral during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. However, Iraq sided alongside other Persian Gulf states in supporting Pakistan against India during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which saw the creation of Bangladesh.[208] The eight-year long IranIraq War caused a steep decline in trade and commerce between the two nations.[208] During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, India remained neutral but permitted refueling for U.S. airplanes.[208] It opposed U.N. sanctions on Iraq, but the period of war and Iraq's isolation further diminished India's commercial and diplomatic ties.[208] From 1999 onwards, Iraq and India began to work towards a stronger relationship. Iraq had supported India's right to conduct nuclear tests following its tests of five nuclear weapons on May 11 and May 13, 1998.[208] In 2000, the then-Vice President of Iraq Taha Yassin Ramadan visited India, and on August 6, 2002 President Saddam Hussein conveyed Iraq's "unwavering support" to India over the Kashmir dispute with Pakistan.[208] [209] India and Iraq established joint ministerial committees and trade delegations to promote extensive bilateral cooperation.[133] [210] Although initially disrupted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, diplomatic and commercial ties between India and the new democratic government of Iraq have since been normalized.[210]

Foreign relations of India Israel The creation of Israel at the end of World War II was a complex issue. India, along with Iran and Yugoslavia had recommended a single state with Arab and Jewish majority provinces with an aim to prevent partition of historic Palestine and prevent any conflict that might follow based on its own experience during partition.[211] However, the final UN resolution decided to partition historic Palestine into Arab and Jewish states based on religious and ethnic majority which India opposed in the final vote as it did not agree with concept of partition on the basis of religion.[212]

27

Beni-Israel Family at Bombay.

However, due to the security threat from a US aided Pakistan and its nuclear program in the 80s, Israel and India started a clandestine relationship that involved cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies.[213] Israel shared India's concerns about the growing danger posed by Pakistan and nuclear proliferation to Iran and other Arab states.[214] After the end of the Cold War, formal relations with Israel started improving significantly.[63] [215] Since the establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992, India has improved its relation with the Jewish State. India is regarded as Israel's strongest ally in Asia, and Israel is India's second largest arms supplier. India has entertained Israeli Prime Minister in a visit in 2003,[216] and Israel has entertained Indian dignitaries such as Finance Minister Jaswant Singh in diplomatic visits. India and Israel collaborate in scientific and technological endeavors. Israel's Minister for Science and Technology has expressed interest in collaborating with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) towards utilizing satellites for better management of land and other resources. Israel has also expressed interest in participating in ISRO's Chandrayaan Mission involving an unmanned mission to the moon.[217] On January 21, 2008 India successfully launched an Israeli spy satellite into orbit from Sriharikota space station in southern India.[218] Israel and India share intelligence on terrorist groups. They have developed close defense and security ties since establishing diplomatic relations in 1992. Israel is India's second-biggest arms supplier, after Russia. India has bought more than $5 billion worth of Israeli equipment since 2002. In addition, Israel is training Indian military units and discussing an arrangement to give Indian commandos instruction in counter-terrorist tactics and urban warfare.[219] In December 2008, Israel and India signed a memorandum to set up an Indo-Israel Legal Colloquium to facilitate discussions and exchange programs between judges and jurists of the two countries.[220] Lebanon India has a peacekeeping force as part of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). One infantry battalion is deployed in Lebanon and about 900 personnel are stationed in the Eastern part of South Lebanon.[221] The force also provided non-patrol aid to citizens.[222] India and Lebanon have very good relations since the 1950s. Oman IndiaOman relations are foreign relations between India and the Sultanate of Oman. India has an embassy in Muscat, Oman. The Indian consulate was opened in Muscat in February 1955 and five years later it was upgraded to a Consulate General and later developed into a full fledged Embassy in 1971. The first Ambassador of India arrived in Muscat in 1973. Oman established its Embassy in New Delhi in 1972 and a Consulate General in Mumbai in 1976.

Foreign relations of India Saudi Arabia Bilateral relations between India and the Saudi Arabia have strengthened considerably owing to cooperation in regional affairs and trade. Saudi Arabia is the one of largest suppliers of oil to India, who is one of the top seven trading partners and the 5th biggest investor in Saudi Arabia.[223] India and Saudi Arabia are actively cooperating in the field of science and technology. CSIR and the Saudi Arabian Standards Organisation (SASO) have an ongoing programme of technical cooperation (POC) since June 1993. Under this programme, Indian experts in different scientific areas, particularly in the field of measurement and calibration, are deputed to Saudi Arabia on regular basis. Similarly, several Saudi experts and have undergone advanced training in India. National Physical Laboratory has provided expertise and technology for two important SASO projects related to calibration and teleclock system. CSIR and the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) signed a MoU for bilateral cooperation in 1997 and have an ongoing programme of cooperation, particularly in the field of space science, remote sensing and installation of Internet. Recently a three-member delegation from CSIR, NPL and CFTRI visited SASO during January 2004 and both sides agreed to renew the POC.[224]

28

Russia and Central Asia

The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts. The relationship with USSR was tested (and proven) during the 1971 Atal Bihari Vajpayee with Russian president war with Pakistan, which led to the subsequent liberation of Vladimir Putin in 2001. Bangladesh. Soon after the victory of the Indian Armed Forces, one of the foreign delegates to visit India was Admiral S.G. Gorshkov, Chief of the Soviet Navy. During his visit to Mumbai (Bombay) he came on board INS Vikrant. During a conversation with Vice Admiral Swaraj Prakash, Gorshkov asked the Vice Admiral, "Were you worried about a battle against the American carrier?" He answered himself: "Well, you had no reason to be worried, as I had a Soviet nuclear submarine trailing the American task force all the way into the Indian Ocean." [225] Russian Federation India's ties with the Russian Federation are time-tested and based on continuity, trust and mutual understanding. There is national consensus in both the countries on the need to preserve and strengthen India-Russia relations and further consolidate the strategic partnership between the two countries. A Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed between former Russian President and current Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in October 2000.

Foreign relations of India

29

Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defence purchases. Russia, is working for the development of the Kudankulam nuclear plant, that will be capable of Joint Indo-Russian BrahMos nuclear cruise producing 1000 MW of electricity. Gazprom, is working for the missile, has a top speed of Mach 2.8, making it development of oil and natural gas, in the Bay of Bengal. India and the world's fastest supersonic cruise missile. Russia, have collaborated extensively, on space technology. Other areas of collaboration include software, ayurveda, etc. India and Russia, have set a determination in increasing trade to $10 billion. Counter-terrorism techniques are also in place between Russia and India. In 2007 President Vladimir Putin was guest of honour at Republic Day celebration on 26 January 2007. 2008, has been declared by both countries as the Russia-India Friendship Year. Bollywood films are quite popular in Russia. The Indian public sector oil company ONGC bought Imperial Energy in 2008. In December 2008, during President Medvedev's visit, to New Delhi, India and Russia, signed a nuclear energy co-operation agreement. In March, 2010, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed an additional 19 pacts with India which included civilian nuclear energy, space and military co-operation and the final sale of Admiral Gorshkov (Aircraft Carrier) along with MiG-29K fighter jets. Kazakhstan India is working towards developing strong relations with this resource rich Central Asian country. The Indian oil company, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, has got oil exploration and petroleum development grants in Kazakhstan. The two countries are collaborating in petrochemicals, information technology, and space technology. Kazakhstan has offered India five blocks for oil and gas exploration. India and Kazakhstan, are to set up joint projects in construction, minerals and metallurgy. India also signed four other pacts, including an extradition treaty, in the presence of President Prathibha Patil and her Kazakh counterpart Nursultan Nazarbayev. Kazakhastan will provide uranium and related products under the MoU between Nuclear Power Corp. of India and KazatomProm. These MoU also opens possibilities of joint exploration of uranium in Kazakhstan, which has the worlds' second largest reserves, and India building atomic power plants in the Central Asian country. Mongolia The relations between India and Mongolia are still at a nascent stage and Indo-Mongolian cooperation is limited to diplomatic visits, provision of soft loans and financial aid and the collaborations in the IT sector. India established diplomatic relations in December 1955. India was the first country outside the Soviet block to establish diplomatic relations with Mongolia. Since then, there have been treaties of mutual friendship and cooperation between the two countries in 1973, 1994, 2001 and 2004.

Foreign relations of India Seychelles There are many Indians living in Seychelles. The Indian Navy also helps the Seychelles government defend against pirates. Tajikistan Diplomatic relations were established India and Tajikistan following Tajikistan's independence from the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, which had been friendly with India. Tajikistan occupies a strategically important position in Central Asia, bordering Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and separated by a small strip of Afghan territory from Pakistan. India's role in fighting the Taliban and Al-Qaeda and its strategic rivalry with both China and Pakistan have made its ties with Tajikistan important to its strategic and security policies. Despite their common efforts, bilateral trade has been comparatively low, valued at USD 12.09 million in 2005; India's exports to Tajikistan were valued at USD 6.2 million and its imports at USD 5.89 million. India's military presence and activities have been significant, beginning with India's extensive support to the anti-Taliban Afghan Northern Alliance (ANA). India began renovating the Farkhor Air Base and stationed aircraft of the Indian Air Force there. The Farkhor Air Base became fully operational in 2006, and 12 MiG-29 bombers and trainer aircraft are planned to be stationed there. Uzbekistan The countries have some culture in common especially because of deep Turkic and Persian influences in the two countries. India has an embassy in Tashkent. Uzbekistan has an embassy in New Delhi. Uzbekistan has had a great impact on Indian culture mostly due to the Mughal Empire which was founded by Babur of Ferghana (in present-day Uzbekistan) who created his empire southward first in Afghanistan and then in India.

30

Africa
India has had good relationships with most sub-Saharan African nations for most of its history. In the Prime Minister's visit to Mauritius in 1997, the two countries secured a deal to a new Credit Agreement of INR 10.50 crore (US$3 million) to finance import by Mauritius of capital goods, consultancy services and consumer durable from India. The government of India secured a rice and medicine agreement with the people of Seychelles. India continued to build upon its historically close relations with Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Visits from political ministers from Ethiopia provided opportunities for strengthening bilateral cooperation between the two countries in the fields of education and technical training, water resources management and development of small industries. This has allowed India to gain benefits from nations that are generally forgotten by other Western Nations. The South African President, Thabo Mbeki has called for a strategic relationship between India and South Africa to avoid imposition by Western Nations. India continued to build upon its close and friendly relations with Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Indian PM Manmohan Singh with Brazilian Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The President Luiz Incio Lula da Silva and South Minister of Foreign Affairs arranged for the sending of Special Envoys African President Thabo Mbeki. to each of these countries during 199697 as a reaffirmation of India's assurance to strengthening cooperation with these countries in a spirit of South-South partnership. These relations have created a position of strength with African nations that other nations may not possess.[226]

Foreign relations of India Cte d'Ivoire The bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Cte d'Ivoire have considerably expanded in recent years as India seeks to develop an extensive commercial and strategic partnership in the West African region . The Indian diplomatic mission in Abidjan was opened in 1979. Cte d'Ivoire opened its resident mission in New Delhi in September 2004.[227] Both nations are currently fostering efforts to increase trade, investments and economic cooperation.[228] Liberia The bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Liberia have expanded on growing bilateral trade and strategic cooperation. India is represented in Liberia through its embassy in Abidjan (Ivory Coast) and an active honorary consulate in Monrovia since 1984. Liberia was represented in India through its resident mission in New Delhi which subsequently closed due to budgetary constraints.[229] Nigeria India has close relations with this oil rich West African country. Twenty percent of India's crude oil needs are met, by Nigeria. 40000barrels per day (6400m3/d) of oil, is the amount of oil, that India receives from Nigeria. Trade, between these two countries stands at $875 million in 20052006. Indian companies have also invested in manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, iron ore, steel, information technology, and communications, amongst other things. Both India and Nigeria, are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, G-77, and the Non Aligned Movement. The Nigerian President, Olusegun Obasanjo was the guest of honour, at the Republic Day parade, in 1999, and the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, visited Nigeria in 2007, and addressed the Nigerian Parliament. South Africa India and South Africa, have always had strong relations even though India revoked diplomatic relations in protest to the apartheid regime in the mid 20th century. The history of British rule connects both lands. There is a large group of South Africans of Indian descent. Mahatma Gandhi, spent many years in South Africa, during which time, he fought for the rights of the ethnic Indians. Nelson Mandela was inspired by Gandhi. After India's independence, India strongly condemned apartheid, and refused diplomatic relations while apartheid was conducted as state policy in South Africa.

31

The two countries, now have close economic, political, and sports relations. Trade between the two countries grew from $3 million in 19921993 to $4 billion in 20052006, and aim to reach trade of $12 billion by 2010. One third of India's imports from South Africa is gold bullion. Diamonds, that are mined from South Africa, are polished in India. Nelson Mandela was awarded the Gandhi Peace Prize. The two countries are also members of the IBSA Dialogue Forum, with Brazil. India hopes to get large amounts of uranium, from resource rich South Africa, for India's growing civilian nuclear energy sector. Sudan Indo-Sudanese relations have always been characterized as longstanding, close, and friendly, even since the early development stages of their countries.At the time of Indian independence, Sudan had contributed 70000 pounds , which was used to build part of the National Defence Academy in Pune. The main building of NDA is called Sudan Block. The two nations established diplomatic relations shortly after India became known as one of the first Asian countries to recognize the newly independent African country. India and Sudan also share geographic and historical

A meeting of G5 leaders in Berlin, Germany. From left to right: Manmohan Singh of India, Luiz Incio Lula da Silva of Brazil, Felipe Caldern of Mexico, Hu Jintao of China and Thabo Mbeki of South Africa.

Foreign relations of India similarities, as well as economic interests. Both countries are former British colonies, and remotely border Saudi Arabia by means of a body of water. India and Sudan continue to have cordial relations, despite issues such as India's close relationship with Israel, India's solidarity with Egypt over border issues with Sudan, and Sudan's intimate bonds with Pakistan and Bangladesh. India had also contributed some troops as United Nations peacekeeping force in Darfur.

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International organizations
India participates in the following international organisations:[230] ADB Asian Development Bank AfDB African Development Bank (non-regional members) ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN (dialogue partner) BIMSTEC Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multisectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation BIS Bank for International Settlements Commonwealth of Nations CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research (observer) CP Colombo Plan EAS East Asia Summit FAO Food and Agriculture Organization G-15 G-24 G-77 IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ICC International Chamber of Commerce ICRM International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement IDA International Development Association IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFC International Finance Corporation IFRCS International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies IHO International Hydrographic Organization ILO International Labor Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IMO International Maritime Organization IMSO International Mobile Satellite Organization Interpol International Criminal Police Organization IOC International Olympic Committee IOM International Organization for Migration (observer) IPU Inter-parliamentary Union ISO International Organization for Standardization ITSO International Telecommunications Satellite Organization ITU International Telecommunication Union

ITUC International Trade Union Confederation (the successor to ICFTU (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions) and the WCL (World Confederation of Labor)) LAS League of Arab States (observer) MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency

Foreign relations of India MONUC United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo NAM Nonaligned Movement OAS Organization of American States (observer) OPCW Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons PCA Permanent Court of Arbitration PIF Pacific Islands Forum (partner) SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SACEP South Asia Co-opeative Environment Programme SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization (observer) UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDOF United Nations Disengagement Observer Force UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIFIL United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan UNOCI United Nations Operation in Cote d'Ivoire UNWTO World Tourism Organization UPU Universal Postal Union WCL World Confederation of Labor WCO World Customs Organization WFTU World Federation of Trade Unions WHO World Health Organization WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WTO World Trade Organization

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Non-Aligned Movement
Nonalignment had its origins in India's colonial experience and the nonviolent Indian independence struggle led by the Congress, which left India determined to be the master of its fate in an international system dominated politically by Cold War alliances and economically by Western capitalism. The principles of nonalignment, as articulated by Nehru and his successors, were preservation of India's freedom of action internationally through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union; nonviolence and international cooperation as a means of settling international disputes. Nonalignment was a consistent feature of Indian foreign policy by the late 1940s and enjoyed strong, almost unquestioning support among the Indian elite. The term "Non-Alignment" itself was coined by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

United Nations
As a founder member of the United Nations, India has been a firm supporter of the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations, and has made significant contributions to the furtherance and implementation of these noble aims, and to the evolution and functioning of its various specialized programmes. It stood at the forefront during the UN's tumultuous years of struggle against colonialism and apartheid, its struggle towards global disarmament and the ending of the arms race, and towards the creation of a more equitable international economic order. At the very first session of the UN, India had raised its voice against colonialism and apartheid, two issues which have been among

Foreign relations of India the most significant of the UN's successes in the last half century. India exulted in the UN's triumph, and saw in the UN's victory, a vindication of the policy relentlessly pursued by it from its initial days at the world forum. India has been a participant in all its peace-keeping operations including those in Korea, Egypt and Congo in earlier years and in Somalia, Angola and Rwanda in recent years. India has also played an active role in the deliberations of the United Nations on the creation of a more equitable international economic order. It has been an active member of the Group of 77, and later the core group of the G-15 nations. Other issues, such as environmentally sustainable development and the promotion and protection of human rights, have also been an important focus of India's foreign policy in international forums. See more [231]

34

World Trade Organization

Described by WTO chief Pascal Lamy as one of the organization's "big brothers",[232] India was instrumental in bringing down the Doha round of talks in 2008.[233] It has played an important role of representing as many as 100 developing nations during WTO summits.[234]

SAARC
Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism. SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided more divisive political issues, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement to gradually lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled. The Fourteenth SAARC Summit was held during 34 April 2007 in New Delhi.

International disputes
India's territorial disputes with neighboring Pakistan and People's Republic of China have played a crucial role in its foreign policy. India is also involved in minor territorial disputes with neighboring Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives. India currently maintains two manned stations in Antarctica but has made some unofficial territorial claims, which are yet to be clarified. India is involved in the following international disputes:

Bangladesh
6.5km of the border between India and Bangladesh remains to be demarcated. Ongoing discussions with Bangladesh to exchange 162 minuscule enclaves between the two.

Nepal
Kalapani village of India is claimed by Nepal and Nawalparasi district of Nepal is claimed by India. The dispute between India and Nepal involves about 75km2 (29sqmi) of area in Kalapani, where China, India, and Nepal meet. Indian forces occupied the area in 1962 after China and India fought their border war. Three villages are located in the disputed zone: Kuti [Kuthi, 3019'N, 8046'E], Gunji, and Knabe. India and Nepal disagree about how to interpret the 1816 Sugauli treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal, which delimited the boundary along the Maha Kali River (Sarda River in India). The dispute intensified in 1997 as the Nepali parliament considered a treaty on hydro-electric development of the river. India and Nepal differ as to which stream constitutes

Foreign relations of India the source of the river. Nepal regards the Limpiyadhura as the source; India claims the Lipu Lekh. Nepal has reportedly tabled an 1856 map from the British India Office to support its position. The countries have held several meetings about the dispute and discussed jointly surveying to resolve the issue.[235] Although the Indo-Nepali dispute appears to be minor, it was aggravated in 1962 by tensions between China and India. Because the disputed area lies near the Sino-Indian frontier, it gains strategic value.[236]

35

British Indian Ocean Territories

Dispute over the British Indian Ocean Territories and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands with the former colonial powers. India regards these islands as part of its Lakshadweep Indosphere strategy as part of its oceanic vicinity of its sovereignty and a threat to its integrity of its emerging geo-political might, and does not recognise the crown's rule over these "Indian" islands.

Maldives
Dispute over Minicoy Island with Maldives.

Pakistan
The unresolved Kashmir dispute and the status of Kashmir with Pakistan, involving the Siachen Glacier, India claims the disputed territory from Pakistan administered Kashmir. Boundary issues of the Ferozepur and Pathankot with the Government of Pakistan. Dispute over Sir Creek and the maritime boundary regarding the Rann of Kachchh area of India. Water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage). (Indus Water Treaty) Pakistani sponsorship of terrorism in India

People's Republic of China

India claims Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract, as part of Jammu and Kashmir.
Indus and tributaries

China claims most of Arunachal Pradesh, a contested disputed territory of north-east India by not recognising the McMahon Line. Two regions are claimed by both India and China. Aksai Chin is in the disputed territory of Kashmir, at the junction of India, Tibet and Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir. India claims the 38,000-square-kilometre territory, currently administered by China. India also considers the cessation of Shaksam Valley to China by Pakistan as illegal and a part of its territory. Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India in the country's northeast, bordering on Bhutan, Myanmar and China. Though it is under Indian administration, China calls the 90,000-square-kilometre area as South Tibet. Also the boundary between the North Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal with China's Tibet is not properly demarcated with some portions under de-facto administration of India.[237]

Foreign relations of India

36

Look East Policy

In the post cold war era, a significant aspect of India's foreign policy is the Look East Policy. During the cold war, India's relations with its South East Asian neighbours was not very strong. After the end of the cold war, the government of India particularly realised the importance of redressing this imbalance in India's foreign policy. Consequently, the Narsimha Rao government in the early nineties of the last century unveiled the look east policy. Initially it focused on renewing political and economic contacts with the countries of East and South-East Asia. At present, under the Look East Policy, the Government of India is giving special emphasis on the economic development of backward north eastern region of India taking advantage of huge market of ASEAN as well as of the energy resources available in some of the member countries of ASEAN like Myanmar.[238] Look-east policy was launched in 1992 just after the end of the cold war, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. After the start of liberalization, it was a very strategic policy decision taken by the government in the foreign policy. To quote Prime Minister Manmohan Singh "it was also a strategic shift in India's vision of the world and India's place in the evolving global economy". The policy was given an initial thrust with the then Prime Minister Narasimha Rao visiting China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam and Singapore and India becoming a important dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992. Since the beginning of this century, India has given a big push to this policy by becoming a summit level partner of ASEAN (2002) and getting involved in some regional initiatives such as the BIMSTEC and the Ganga Mekong Cooperation and now becoming a member of the East Asia Summit (EAS) in December, 2005.[239]

India ASEAN
India's interaction with ASEAN in the cold war era was very limited. India declined to get associated with ASEAN in the 1960s when full membership was offered even before the grouping was formed.[239] It is only with the formulation of the Look-East policy in the last decade (1992), India had started giving this region due importance in the foreign policy. India became a sectoral dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992, a full dialogue partner in 1995, a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1996, and a summit level partner (on par with China, Japan and Korea) in 2002. The first India-ASEAN Business Summit was held at New Delhi in October 2002. The then Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee addressed this meet and since then this business summit has become an annual feature before the India-ASEAN Summits, as a forum for networking and exchange of business experiences between policy makers and business leaders from ASEAN and India. Four India-ASEAN Summits, first in 2002 at Phnom Penh (Cambodia), second in 2003 at Bali (Indonesia), third in 2004 at Vientiane (Laos) and the fourth in 2005 at Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), have taken place till date. The following agreements have been entered into with ASEAN: Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation (for establishing a FTA in a time frame of 10 years) was concluded in Bali in 2003. An ASEAN-India Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism has been adopted. India has acceded to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in 2003, on which ASEAN was formed initially (in 1967). Agreement on "India-ASEAN Partnership for Peace, Progress and Shared Prosperity" was signed at the 3rd ASEAN-India Summit in Nov 2004. Setting up of Entrepreneurship Development Centres in ASEAN member states Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam. (The one in Laos is already functional) The following proposals were announced by the Prime Minister at the 4th ASEAN-India Summit: Setting up centres for English Language Training (ELT) in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. Setting up a tele-medicine and tele-education network for Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.

Foreign relations of India Organising special training courses for diplomats from ASEAN countries. Organising an India-ASEAN Technology Summit in 2006. Organising education fairs and road shows in ASEAN countries. Conducting an India-ASEAN IT Ministerial and Industry Forum in 2006.

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The ASEAN region has an abundance of natural resources and significant technological skills. These provide a natural base for the integration between ASEAN and India in both trade and investment. The present level of bilateral trade with ASEAN of nearly US $ 18 billion is reportedly increasing by about 25 % per year. India hopes to reach the level of US $ 30 billion by 2007. India is also improving its relations with the help of other policy decisions like offers of lines of credit, better connectivity through air (open skies policy), rail and road links.[239]

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44

External links
Foreign Relations: Ministry of external affairs, Government of India (http://mea.gov.in/secframe.php?sec=fr) Harvard University homepage (http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/17778/indias_foreign_policy. html) India's Foreign Policy, Xenia Dormandy List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and India (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish) (http://www. mrecic.gov.ar/portal/seree/ditra/in.html) Indian embassy in Buenos Aires (http://www.indembarg.org.ar/) Indian embassy in Rome (http://www.indianembassy.it/) Italian embassy in New Delhi (http://www.ambnewdelhi.esteri.it/Ambasciata_NewDelhi) Italian general consulate in Mumbai (http://www.consmumbai.esteri.it/Consolato_Mumbai) Italian general consulate in Calcutta (http://www.conscalcutta.esteri.it/Consolato_Calcutta)

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