Land Contamination & Reclamation, 7 (3), 1999

1999 EPP Publications

The Soils of the Ibadan Metropolis: Nature and Characteristics

A. Gbadegesin and M. A. Olabode

Abstract
In this study, a gradient analysis of topsoil properties from the rural through suburban to the urban zones was carried out to investigate the differences in the soils of the urban and rural areas of lbadan in south western Nigeria. The coefficient of variation (CV) and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques were used to examine the degree of variation and compare the mean values of soil physical and chemical properties in the three zones. Generally, the levels of most of the soil properties are higher in the urban than in the other two zones. However, the levels of only nine out of the 18 soil properties analysed differ significantly at P>0.05. In addition, the urban soils have greater variability and are thus less predictable than the rural or suburban soils. The paper discusses the implications of this for the classification of urban soils.
Key words: Ibadan, soil physical and chemical properties, soil classification

INTRODUCTION Studies on the nature and characteristics of urban soils started a few decades ago notably in Europe and North America. Hitherto, soil scientists have been primarily concerned with soil as a basis for agriculture and food production. In most African countries south of the Sahara, research into the physical and chemical properties of soils are still being focused towards the requirements of farming and forestry. This is understandable given the fact that most of these countries are still developing and are therefore more concerned with the provision of food, shelter and clothing for the people. However, the degree to which our accumulated knowledge of relatively undisturbed rural and agricultural soils can be applied to the disturbed urban and sometimes suburban environments in which more than half of the population of countries south of the Sahara now lives and come into contact with daily is questionable. This is because urban areas differ from rural ones in both the scale and intensity of human

Received February 1999; accepted April 1999 Authors Adeniyi Gbadegesin and M.A. Olabode, Department of Geography, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

impacts (Barret 1987). For instance, the continuous cycle of construction, use and renewal of urban structure leads to higher rates of change in many elements of the environment than is common in non-urban environments. Perhaps one major effect of human activity on the urban environment is the concentration of various substances in the soil. The concentration may arise as a result of deliberate dumping of harmful substances as the by-products of manufacturing, deposition of contaminants from polluted air and the transportation of contaminants from streets and sidewalks to the soil (Sartor and Boyd 1974).Thus, there are various modes of concentration and a wide range of types of contaminants that can be found in urban areas. In fact, analyses of the characteristic features of urban soils in parts of Europe and North America revealed that differences do occur between the physical, chemical and biological constitution of soils in the urban environment and those in a more natural rural situation (Purves 1977; Carey 1979; Craul 1985, 1992; Barret 1987; Bridges 1989a,b; Hollis 1991 and Thornton 1991). In addition, in a study of man-induced soil changes in areas adjacent to metallurgical plants in the former Soviet Union, Fedorishchak (1978) noted sulphate accumulation, a decrease in organic matter content, the inclusion of large amounts of anthropogenic material, the accumulation of heavy metals and an unusually diverse soil pattern because of physical dis209

Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 7 / Number 3 / 1999

turbance. In most cases, it has been noted that urban soils have enhanced amounts of metallic elements which are of higher concentrations than those of agricultural soils and may be toxic to plants (Carey 1979), or potentially dangerous to animals and human beings (Purves 1977). The wider problems of toxic metals in the soil and plants of urban England were reported by Davies et al. (1978), and the significance of the uptake of metals by vegetables and flowers in urban gardens studied by Davies and Ginnever (1979) and Davies and White (1981). Other studies of urban soils relate the presence of toxic metals in urban garden soils and household dusts to human health (Welsh Office 1983; Davies et al. 1985). For its classification, the revised legend for the FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World includes urban soils at its highest level of classification. A class of anthrosols, defined as soils in which human activities have resulted in profound modifications to the original soil characteristics, through removal or disturbance of surface horizons, addition of organic materials, cuts and fills, etc. covers urban soils. Furthermore, Hollis (1991) identified some of the soil properties which are likely to be required for a useful classification of urban soils. However, it is pertinent to note that relatively few studies have been carried out in developing countries on the nature and characteristics of urban soils. This is partly due to the fact that urbanisation is a post independence phenomenon in most countries south of the Sahara. However, the percentage of the population in urban centres has been on the increase since most of the countries gained independence from their colonial masters. For example, while only 15% of Africans lived in urban centres in 1950, the percentage increased to 31% in 1990 and according to Brown and Jacobson (1990), by the year 2000, almost half (48%) of Africans are expected to be residing in urban centres. Given this high rate of urbanisation, there is no doubt that many modifications must have occurred to the original soil characteristics of some of these urban centres through human activities and that more will occur as more settlements become urbanized in the next millennium. The basic questions therefore are: are there differences in the characteristics of soils in the urban and rural environments of developing countries like those found in the industrialised world, and what are the nature and characteristics of these differences? These are the issues examined in this paper which compares the physical and chemical characteristics of soils in the Ibadan metropolis with those of its hinterland. In addition, the paper examines the issue of metallic elements concentration in the soils of an indigenous African urban centre and those of industr210

ialised countries using cities for which data are available in Great Britain as examples.

THE STUDY AREA The Ibadan metropolis, located on longitude 3.56E and latitude 7.23N was founded as a war camp in 1829. Since then, the population, which was estimated to be 175 000 in 1911, has increased to about 2 million as at the last census in 1991. The growth of Ibadan can, according to Ayeni (1994), be attributed to its location and accessibility in relation to the older Yoruba cities of Abeokuta, Oyo, Ijebu-Ode and Ile-Ife as well as a point for bulk-breaking of most of the agricultural produce from the other south-western, and virtually all the northern, states of the country. Although industrialization was not the basis for the early growth, in recent years, it has become a contributing factor. According to Onyemelukwe and Alokan (1994) modern manufacturing firms increased from only six in 1950 to 218 in 1989. The metropolis enjoys the characteristic West African monsoon climate, marked by a distinct seasonal shift in the wind pattern. Between March and October, the area is under the influence of the moist maritime south-west monsoon winds while the dry season occurs normally from November to February when the dry dust-laden winds blow from the Sahara desert. The mean annual temperature for the metropolis is about 26.6C while the mean annual rainfall over the metropolis varies between 1250 mm and 1290 mm. The major rock types found in the area are the Basement complex rocks of Precambrian age. A detailed analysis of this rock type by Akintola (1994) indicates that it can be further subdivided into the metasedimentary series comprising mainly quartzites and migmatites complex comprising banded gneisses, augen gneisses and migmatites. According to DHoore (1964), the soils of the Ibadan metropolis belong to the major soil group of ferruginous tropical soils and, as noted by Smyth and Montgomery (1962), the soils of the Ibadan region can be further classified into four soil associations. All the four soil associations can be used for producing food crops such as cassava and maize but only one of these, the Egbeda soil association can, according to Aweto (1994), be profitably used for producing tree crops such as cocoa and kola.

The Soils of the Ibadan Metropolis: Nature and Characteristics

METHODOLOGY A gradient analysis of soil conditions from the rural, agricultural through suburban to the urban zones approach was used to examine the differences in the properties of the urban and rural soils of the study area. The study was carried out along the Oyo-Ibadan axis of the metropolis (Olabode 1996). Three sampling zones, the rural agricultural zone (RAZ) located between the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and Moniya village; the suburban zone (SUZ) located between Ojoo and Orogun quarters and the urban zone (UZ) located between Bodija and Mokola quarters were delimited on a base map of lbadan (Ibadan NE, sheet 261 NE). From each zone five sampling plots of about 1 ha in size were randomly located. The land use in all the plots in RAZ is arable farming; in SUZ, a mixture of fallow lands and residential land use dominates while UZ is a combination of residential land use with and without gardens and waste dump sites. Ten soil samples were collected per sampling plot in each zone from the top soils only. The soil samples were normally air-dried, hand ground, passed through a 2 mm sieve and analysed for some of the potentially diagnostic properties for the classification of urban soils identified by Hollis (1991). The soil properties are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) depth of disturbed or replaced material; depth of topsoil; water holding capacity; bulk density; pH determined potentiometrically in 0.1 M calcium chloride solution using a soil to solution ratio of 1:2 (Peech 1965); organic carbon by the chromic acid digestion method (Walkley and Black 1934); total nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method; exchangeable calcium, potassium and sodium by flame photometry and magnesium by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. extractable copper, lead and zinc concentrations determined on solutions extracted from the soil samples by hot concentrated nitric acid. The concentrations were then determined by extraction with EDTA and analysis carried out using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer with standard laboratory methods and quality control.

coefficient of variation (CV) of soil properties from the RAZ, SUZ and UZ of the study area. The tables reveal that the mean level of the depth of the disturbed zone (DDZ) in the UZ is about 15 times that of the rural zone and twice that of the SUZ. This complements Bridges (1989a) observation that disturbance of the soil profile is the most obvious difference between rural and urban soils. In the urban areas, soil profile disturbance usually occurs due to construction activity when the upper horizons of the soils are removed by builders, often by bulldozers before building commences. On completion of construction, some top soils are replaced, often from another building site, thus introducing a sharp discontinuity between the new top soil and what remains of the subsoil of the original soil. Similarly, the bulk density value for the UZ is the highest for the three zones, being 1.5 times that of RAZ and 1.3 times that of SUZ. The high bulk density value is, according to Craul and Klein (1980), due to the fact that most conditions present in the urban situation tend to destroy soil structure, and increase bulk density. The mean value of 1.62g/cm3 obtained for the UZ of the Ibadan metropolis compares favourably with what is obtained for urban centres such as Philadelphia and Washington, DC in the USA (Bockheim 1974; Short et al. 1986). The mean values of the water holding capacity of the soils of the three zones range between 43 and 51% while the mean depth of topsoil (DOT) in the RAZ is the highest for the three zones being almost 2.5 times that of the soils of the UZ. The mean pH values of the soils in the three zones range between 6.2 and 6.6 indicating that the soils are mildly acidic to neutral in reaction. Unlike pH which has fairly uniform values in the three zones (CV< 15%), the CV for available phosphorus of the soils in RAZ and UZ is notably high indicating variation in land use management in the two zones. Such variation could be due to addition of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) fertilizers to increase crop yield in RAZ and use of sewage sludge by some urban vegetable and flower growers commonly found along the major roads in the metropolis. Of the exchangeable cations, the CV for the exchangeable potassium of between 63 and 91% is the highest in the three zones. This, as explained earlier, could be due to variations in the application of artificial fertilizers, especially the NPK type, in the study area. It is pertinent to note the low mean values and high values of base saturation in all the soils of the three zones. This, according to DHoore (1964), Aweto (1994) and Gbadegesin (1989), is one of the major differentiating characteristics of ferruginous tropical soils. The zinc content of the soils in the UZ is about four times that of RAZ and
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(f) (g) (h)

(i)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Tables 13 show the mean, standard deviation and the

Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 7 / Number 3 / 1999

Table 1. Summary of physical and chemical properties of soils in RAZ Soil property DDZ (cm) DOT (cm) Bulk density (g/cm3) WHC (%) pH Organic carbon (%) Total nitrogen (%) Available phosphorus (mg kg-1) Exchangeable Ca2+ (meq/100g) Exchangeable magnesium (meq/100g) Exchangeable sodium (meq/100g) Exchangeable potassium (meq/100g) Exchange acidity (meq/100g) Cation exchange capacity (meq/100g) Base saturation (%) Manganese (mg kg-1) Copper (mg kg-1) Zinc (mg kg-1) Lead (mg kg-1) Range 0.50-3.50 12.00-16.00 0.88-1.20 39.96-51.60 5.50-7.30 1.43-1.91 0.13-0.17 4.82-72.34 0.31-0.90 0.73-2.18 0.11-0.21 0.04-0.28 0.24-1.20 2.51-3.81 68.75-93.70 75.3-104.8 0.50-2.10 6.20-11.70 1.72-4.52 Mean 1.78 14.20 1.08 46.30 6.28 1.71 0.15 29.06 0.60 1.62 0.14 0.11 0.53 2.99 82.22 88.46 1.06 9.18 3.32 Standard deviation (+/-) 1.15 1.48 0.12 5.58 0.69 0.22 0.02 27.37 0.22 0.64 0.04 0.10 0.39 0.98 9.57 14.29 0.61 2.73 1.12 Coefficient of variation (%) 64.61 10.42 11.11 12.05 10.99 12.87 13.33 94.18 36.67 39.51 28.57 90.91 73.59 32.78 11.64 16.15 57.55 29.74 33.74

RAZ = Rural/agricultural zone; DDZ = Depth of disturbed zone; DOT = Depth of topsoil; WHC = Water holding capacity

Table 2. Summary of physical and chemical properties of soils in SUZ Soil property DDZ (cm) DOT (cm) Bulk density (g/cm3) WHC (%) pH Organic carbon (%) Total nitrogen (%) Available phosphorus (mg kg-1) Exchangeable Ca2+ (meq/100g) Exchangeable magnesium (meq/100g) Exchangeable sodium (meq/100g) Exchangeable potassium (meq/100g) Exchange acidity (meq/100g) Cation exchange capacity (meq/100g) Base saturation (%) Manganese (mg kg-1) Copper (mg kg-1) Zinc (mg kg-1) Lead (mg kg-1) Range 6.20-20.50 8.00-14.00 0.99-1.54 37.22-50.21 5.90-6.60 0.82-1.53 0.07-0.40 2.83-5.14 0.27- 0.51 0.72-1.25 0.08-0.10 0.02-0.07 0.24-0.32 1.41-2.80 77.30-91.43 29.00-71.80 0.60-1.40 2.40-5.20 2.89-6.71 Mean 13.96 10.60 1.24 43.08 6.22 1.14 0.15 4.16 0.39 0.98 0.09 0.03 0.26 2.06 87.59 52.58 1.00 3.72 4.41 Standard deviation (+/-) 5.74 2.19 0.23 5.47 0.35 0.26 0.14 0.91 0.09 0.25 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.76 5.85 15.33 0.32 1.08 1.48 Coefficient of variation (%) 41.12 20.66 18.55 12.70 5.63 22.81 93.33 21.88 23.08 25.51 11.11 66.67 15.39 36.89 6.68 29.16 32.00 29.03 33.56

SUZ = Suburban zone; DOT = Depth of topsoil; DDZ = Depth of disturbed zone; WHC = Water holding capacity

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The Soils of the Ibadan Metropolis: Nature and Characteristics

Table 3. Summary of physical and chemical properties of soils in UZ Soil property DDZ (cm) DOT(cm) Bulk density (g/cm3) WHC (%) pH Organic carbon (%) Total nitrogen (%) Available phosphorus (mg kg-l) Exchangeable calcium (meq/100g) Exchangeable magnesium (meq/100g) Exchangeable sodium (meq/100g) Exchangeable potassium (meq/100g) Exchange acidity (meq/100g) Cation exchange capacity (meq/100g) Base saturation (%) Manganese (mg kg-1) Copper (mg kg-1) Zinc (mg kg-1) Lead (mg kg-1) Range 15.9-38.5 4.00-8.00 1.05-2.18 47.62-61.28 5.10-7.60 1.47-2.83 0.13-0.26 20.58-180.04 0.44-2.27 0.62-1.90 0.10-0.90 0.04-0.21 0.16-0.64 1.71-5.96 71.93-97.32 43.00-179.6 0.60-1.30 5.00-111.6 3.51-5.62 Mean 27.00 6.00 1.62 51.80 6.62 2.32 0.20 92.05 1.05 1.73 0.32 0.11 0.42 3.68 83.65 94.24 0.96 36.94 4.77 Standard deviation (+/-) 9.65 2.00 0.49 5.49 0.99 0.78 0.06 63.09 0.75 0.90 0.32 0.07 0.18 1.55 9.61 51.81 0.30 42.95 0.97 Coefficient of variation (%) 35.74 33.33 30.25 10.60 14.96 33.62 30.0 68.54 71.43 52.02 100.0 63.64 42.86 42.12 11.49 54.98 31.25 116.27 20.34

UZ = Urban zone; DDZ = Depth of disturbed zone; DOT = Depth of topsoil; WHC = Water holding capacity Table 4. Results of ANOVA test to compare the mean values of soil properties in the three zones Soil property DDZ (cm) DOT (cm) WHC (%) Bulk density (g/cm3) pH Organic carbon (%) Available phosphorus (mg kg-1) Total nitrogen (%) Exch. calcium (meq/100g) Exch. magnesium (meq/100g) Exch. sodium (meq/100g) Exch. potassium (meq/100g) Exch. acidity (meq/100g) Cation exchange capacity (meq/ 100g) Base saturation (%) Manganese (mg kg-1) Copper (mg kg-1) Zinc (mg kg-1) Lead (mg kg-1) RAZ (mean values) 1.78 14.20 46.30 1.08 6.28 1.71 29.06 0.15 0.60 1.62 0.14 0.11 0.53 2.99 82.22 88.46 1.06 9.18 3.32 SUZ (mean values) 13.96 10.60 43.08 1.24 6.22 1.14 4.16 0.15 0.39 0.98 0.09 0.03 0.26 2.06 87.59 52.58 1.00 3.72 4.41 UZ (mean values) 27.00 6.00 51.80 1.62 6.62 2.32 92.05 0.20 1.05 1.73 0.32 0.11 0.42 3.68 83.65 94.24 0.96 36.94 4.77 Calculated F-value 18.75 23.00 3.20 3.88 0.49 7.33 6.51 0.06 2.80 1.87 2.03 0.46 1.54 2.55 0.47 2.45 0.79 12.57 1.95 Level of significance 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.05 NS 0.01 0.01 NS 0.05 NS NS NS NS 0.05 NS NS NS 0.01 NS

RAZ = Rural/agricultural zone; SUZ = Suburban zone; UZ = Urban zone; DDZ = Depth of disturbed zone; DOT = Depth of topsoil; WHC = Water holding capacity

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Table 5. Heavy metals in some British urban and Ibadan metropolis soils (mg kg-1) Urban centre Edinburgh (Purves and Mackenzie 1969) Clwyd (Maskall and Thornton 1993) Swansea (Bridges 1993) Derbyshire (Maskall and Thornton 1993) Welsh soils (Page 1984) *London *Newcastle-upon-Tyne *Leeds *Stoke-on-Trent Ibadan metropolis * = after Thornton and Jones (1984) na = not available Lead 5.3 1334.0 210.0 3001.0 93.0 41.0 84.0 69.0 22.4 4.77 Copper 51.9 70.0 58.0 9.0 19.0 na na na na 0.96 Zinc 16.0 392.0 124.0 24.5 81.0 156.2 65.0 55.4 27.6 36.94

almost ten times those found in the soils of the SUZ. The relatively high zinc content of the soils of the urban zone suggests that contributions from other sources such as the local tyre mending industries normally located along major roads in the city, apart from the parent materials cannot be ruled out. Similarly, the lead content of the soils in the UZ, though relatively low when compared with the values obtained for cities in the industrialised world, is nevertheless, about 1.5 times the values found in the rural zone. On the whole, when compared with the other two zones, there is greater variation in soil properties in the urban zone, possibly as a result of the effects of human activities on the soils. The impact could be a direct one on the urban soil profiles through the removal or replacement of soil materials or indirectly as a result of local physical and chemical alteration of the topsoil. The variability apart from making the pattern of soil properties less predictable in the urban zone, also has two important consequences for the classification of urban soils. These are the need to make a clear distinction between disturbed and undisturbed soils preferably at a higher level in the case of hierarchical classification system; and, the need to take care of the variation through detailed soil sampling and small scale mapping in order to establish useful soil patterns (Hollis 1991). Comparison between the soils in the three zones In an attempt to ascertain whether the differences observed between the zones are statistically significant, a further analysis of the data was carried using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) method. The results obtained are shown in Table 4 and the variation between the zones for the soil properties that differ significantly at P>0.01 between the three zones shown
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graphically in Figures 15. The table shows that the soils of the three zones differ markedly at P>0.01 in those soil properties that can be used to differentiate between natural and disturbed soils (DDZ and DOT) and those important for the maintenance of soil structure and nutrient balance (organic carbon and available phosphorus). The advantage of the former, apart from being important diagnostic soil properties for the classification of urban soils, is that they can be directly measured in the field. Other soil properties such as the bulk density, the water holding capacity, exchangeable calcium and the CEC also differ significantly between the zones at P>0.05. However, unlike the results obtained for cities in the industrialised world, only zinc, of the three heavy metals measured in this study, differs significantly between the zones at P>0.01. The levels of the other two metals in the urban zone do not differ significantly from those of the rural and suburban zones, even at P>0.05. This is the issue examined in the next section. Heavy metals in the urban soils of developed and developing nations Heavy metals are compounds that contain the elements of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, or zinc (Craul 1992). Soils become contaminated by these metals as a result of deliberate dumping of waste products containing the metals, storage of ores or through air and water pollution, as well as direct application of compounds containing the metals to soil. Since these activities are more predominant in the urban area than the rural zones it is expected that soils in urban areas will contain higher levels of heavy metals than those in the rural areas. This to a large extent is true of urban soils in the devel-

The Soils of the Ibadan Metropolis: Nature and Characteristics

Figure 1. Variation in DDZ from RAZ to UZ

Figure 2. Variation in DOT from RAZ to UZ

Figure 3. Variation in OC from RAZ to UZ

Figure 4. Variation in AP from RAZ to UZ

Figure 5. Variation in Zn from RAZ to UZ

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oped world. This is because a comparison of the results obtained for the urban soil of the Ibadan metropolis in the present study with those of the western world tend to suggest that the level of soils contamination in the urban centres of developing countries is insignificant. As shown in Table 5, the mean values of copper, lead and zinc for the urban soils of the city of Ibadan are in all cases less than 30% of what has been obtained for the cities of London, Leeds, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Swansea in Great Britain. The low levels of the heavy metals observed in the present study could possibly be due to the fact that in most indigenous African urban centres, food items are still being preserved using biodegradable materials as against the use of metal alloys in the industrialised cities. In addition, lead accumulation in the soils from exhaust gases of petrol engines is low because of the use of non-leaded petrol especially in Nigeria.

CONCLUSION Any conclusion from this study given its pilot nature especially as far as heavy metals contamination of urban soils in developing countries are concerned can only be tentative. Nevertheless, some preliminary remarks may be in order even if further investigation from a more comprehensive study may subsequently be required. First, the urban soils of Ibadan like those of other urban centres in the world, have distinct physical and chemical characteristics from the rural/agricultural soils. This is with respect to such soil properties as depth of disturbed zone; depth of topsoil; bulk density; organic carbon; available phosphorus; exchangeable calcium and cation exchange capacity. For instance, the man-made surface layer produced by mixing, covering or contamination of the original natural soil by non-soil materials in the urban area is about 30 cm thicker than what is obtained in the rural zone. In addition, the deliberate attempts by urban residents of Ibadan to increase the fertility of the soils through the addition of artificial and organic manure is probably responsible for the higher values of some of the nutrient elements in the urban area. This practice creates a growth medium for the cultivation of vegetables and flowers in the urban zone. According to Akum (1994), urban gardening is becoming widespread in most Nigerian urban centres because it is a valuable source of fresh produce and a leisure pastime for urban residents. Secondly, there is greater and less predictable spatial variation of soil properties in the urban than in the rural zones possibly due to greater human activities in the former. Thus for the classifica216

tion of urban soils, detailed soil sampling and small-scale mapping will be required in order to establish urban soil patterns. Thirdly, when compared with the urban soils of developed countries, the levels of heavy metals (Cu, Pb and Zn) in the soils of the study area suggest that the soils of urban Ibadan may be regarded as uncontaminated at present. However, urban planners and environmentalists must not be complacent with the present situation because, as urbanisation increases the tendency to consume western products and imbibe western cultures, the result may be an increase in heavy metal contamination of the soil. In addition, in an attempt to boost the cultivation of fresh vegetables and flowers in urban areas, the use of amenity soils from various sources (e.g. sewage sludge) to increase the fertility of urban soils may lead to the transfer of heavy and toxic metals to urban areas. Furthermore, the recent government policy of liberalisation with regard to the importation of petrol into the country may, if unchecked, result in the dumping of leaded petrol for consumption by motorists. This may in the long run enhance the concentrations of lead derived from vehicle exhausts in amenity soils used for growing vegetables and flowers in urban centres.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the Swedish Institute for appointing the first author as a Guest Researcher at the Tema Institute, Linkping University, Sweden. The paper was written during the authors fellowship period in Sweden. The Swedish Institute provided the fund for the fellowship.

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