CLOVE

Introduction:
The clove, Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill et. Perry, belongs to the family Myrtaceae. The species is indigenous to certain volcanic islands of North Molucca, in the eastern part of Indonesia, where cultivated varieties and wild forms are found, that is Ternate, Tidore, Motir, Makian and Bacan, and the western part of Irian Jaya, where a considerable wild population occurs. The common synonyms are Caryophyllus aromatica L., Eugenia aromatica Kuntze, E. Caryophyllata Thunb. and E. Caryophyllus (Sprengel) Bullock & Harrison. Area and production of clove in India for the period 1995 to 2005 are indicated.There was a marginal increase in the area under cultivation from 2270 to 2528 ha over these years, whereas production decreased from 2455 to 1815 t. Tanzania, Indonesia, Madagascar, Cameroon and Sri Lanka are the major clove-exporting countries. In recent years, world production of clove has averaged around 80,000 t a year. Indonesia is the worlds largest producer at 50,00060,000 t per annum. It is used mainly in the preparation of

kretek cigarettes. Singapore is the entrepot for the clove trade. Saudi Arabia, the USA, France and India are the major importing countries. The tree is of medium size, fine, evergreen, reaching up to 20min height and varies in its canopy shape from cylindrical to pyramidal, depending on the variety. The tree can live up to 100 years and there are individual records of trees over 350 years old in Ternate. The trunk diameter can reach 30 cm in mature plants. The leaves are opposite, oblong obovate in shape, bright pinks in newly-formed leaves which turn to dark green when mature. The inflorescent is a terminal, with flowers borne in clusters, varying in flower numbers from 15 to 50, depending on variety and cultural practices. The flower is a hermaphrodite with a fleshy hypanthiumthat is surmounted by the sepals. The colour of unopened buds at the young stage is usually green, turning to flushed pink when they reach their full size, at which time they are ready for harvest. At that stage the stamens are still inside and covered by the petals which form the head of the dried cloves. Early picking or overripe buds will produce lower quality clove bud. The tree is grown primarily for the unopened flower buds which are dried to produce the familiar spice of commerce. The main products of clove are: whole or ground clove buds. essential oils, produced from clove buds, stem and leaf. clove oleoresins. Whole or ground clove contains 15 to 20% by weight of volatile oil. The major components of clove bud oil are eugenol 7095%, eugenol acetate up to 17% and 1215% -caryophyllene. For clove stem oil (the flower stem contains 57% oil by weight), the principal component is still eugenol 9095%, others being eugenol acetate and caryophyllene at lower amounts. Clove leaf oil (comprising up to 3% oil by weight) is a rather lower quality oil than the former and is less expensive, with the principal component being eugenol 80 88%.

Cultivation (Clove):
Bown (2001) suggests fertile, sunny, well-drained soils, zone 10, minimum temp 1518C (5964F). Cloves are propagated by seeds which germinate in 1214 days, with up to 90% germination, but some may take as long as 45 weeks. After that, germination quickly diminishes. When planting seeds, pulp of the mature fruit should be washed off and then planted with radicle downward and upper half exposed above the soil. Seeds should be planted ca. 20 cm apart each way in a shaded area. Bown (2001) suggests seed sowing at 27C (81F). Green cuttings in early summer, and nearly ripe cuttings in summer, are also useful. Watering and shade should be reduced when seedlings are about one year old to harden them. Plants should be outplanted in the field when 1524 months old, spaced ca. 7 7 m. Interplanting with banana or cassava provides shade and some return in the years before the cloves bear. Sometimes, seeds are sown in nurseries and seedlings transplanted to a location in the shade of older clove trees when old trees are apparently about to die (DAD).

From planting until bearing takes 47 years, with full bearing age at ca. 20 years. Tree may then bear for about 100 years. When buds turn reddish brown, they are ready for harvesting. They are picked carefully by hand, as branches are very brittle. If left unpicked, a fruit, called mother of cloves, develops. Flower buds are dried four to five days on cement floors or drying mats. There may be two harvests per year, JulyOctober and DecemberJanuary. An average tree yields more than 3 kg dried cloves per year, but yields of 18 kg are not uncommon. Clove stems, stalks, leaves, fruit, and buds are used for distilling oil of cloves. It takes 11,00015,000 cloves to make 1 kg spice. Cloves yield from 1421% of volatile oil, high in eugenol.

Processing: Main uses in food processing:

The use of clove in whole or ground form is mainly for domestic culinary purposes and as a flavouring agent in the food industry. Clove can also be used as food. Whole cloves are seldom used in food processing as they are not a ready source of flavour. In some cases, whole clove is inserted into ham and baked apples, and for pickles. Usually only small amounts, perhaps as many as five whole cloves are used for pickling sauce blend, for meat such as corned beef and stews. In the food industry, cloves are often used in the form of ground, extracted essential oils or oleoresin in a small amount because of their intense flavour. The advantages of using ground cloves is that they retain a considerable degree of their original stability during storage and are better able to withstand high-temperature processing (e.g. baking) than many of the extracted processed products. Oleoresin is preferred over other clove products, because it contains both volatile essential oil as well as non-volatile resinous material, which accounts for the flavour mimicking the original ground spice. Oleoresin also has low risk of bacterial contamination. Food products which use clove are mainly curry powder, sauces and baked foods. According to Farrell (1990) curry powder uses 2% (mild) to 3% (sweet) by weight of ground clove buds, meat sauces 0.37%clove ground or 0.111%clove oil, food seasonings such as Bologna seasoning A, B and C use 0.39% ground clove, 0.07% clove oil, and 0.45% clove oil, respectively. Chili sauce uses 0.025% oil, mustard 0.111% and 0.222% ground clove in Dijon and Dusseldorf, respectively, tomato ketchup uses 0.139% clove oil, whereas sausages (Sweet Italian) use 0.111% ground clove (Farrell 1990). The highest average maximum use level reported for cloves is 0.236% in condiments and relishes, and 0.06%clove stemoil and 0.078%clove bud oleoresin in alcoholic beverages. Clove leaf oil is not suitable for food flavouring because of its harsher note, and does not reproduce the genuine clove flavour. It is mainly produced for production of eugenol and caryophyllene (Weiss 1997). Eugenols have flavour and antiseptic properties, therefore they have been used in soaps, detergents, toothpaste, perfumery and pharmaceutical products. Maximum use levels of bud and stem oils are 0.15% and 0.25% in soaps, 0.7% and 1.0%in perfumery. The major use of clove is, however, in the manufacture of kretek cigarettes in Indonesia which accounts for more than 90% of Indonesian clove production.

Dried clove bud:

Clove buds are harvested when they have reached their full size and the colour has turned reddish. After being harvested, the buds are separated fromthe stems, by hand or thresher machine. The thresher machine produced by the Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops (RISMC), Indonesia, with 1 hp electric power could separate 76 kg fresh clove bud/hour. Immediately after separation, the buds are dried under the sun or using an artificial dryer. The colour and oil content of artificially dried cloves are not significantly different from sun dried.

Storage:
Dried whole clove bud is usually packed in gunny bags and should be stored in a clean, dry room with good ventilation. This way of storing should not cause any significant changes except loss of sheen. Storage usually causes loss of oil by evaporation, the rate depending on the physical condition of the spice, mainly the moisture content of the products, temperature and relative humidity during storage (Purseglove et al. 1981). The essential oil and eugenol acetate content of whole clove decreased slightly after storing for six months, while eugenol content increased. Loss of volatile oil during storage from whole clove is relatively slow compared to ground clove. Ground clove is more sensitive to high ambient temperature and moisture content which can change its stability and flavour value. Moisture content and temperature storage of ground clove should fall within 810%, and 1015%, respectively, with relative humidity 5565%. Poor storage conditions could cause more loss of volatile oil, mould growth and development of musty flavour and odour (Reineccius 1994). Storage can also change the composition of carbon dioxide extracted clove bud. Reduction in caryophyllene content is 11% at 0 1C, while at ambient temperature reduction of CO2 extracted oil is higher (up to 18%) compared to commercially distilled oil (only up to 13%) (Gopalakhrisnan 1994). Moreover eugenol content increased after storage, whereas eugenol acetate remained fairly constant.

Ground clove:
Ground clove is produced by milling and/or grinding of the dried clove buds. The process is usually conducted at low temperature (2535C) to prevent the loss of valuable volatile constituents during processing. Various techniques such as pre-chilling, water cooling or refrigeration of the grinding chambers have been developed to minimize the heat formed during processing. The results are powder with several degrees of fineness, depending on the nature of the spice, the ultimate application and the country. For extraction and distillation, coarsely ground material are accepted, while for direct use in food seasonings, a finer product is required. To obtain a very fine clove powder a two step procedure is usually conducted; the buds are firstly reduced to a very coarse powder by passage through a slow speed breaker or cutter mill, then they are ground to the desired fineness. The United States requires finer powder than the United Kingdom.

Clove oil:
Depending on the raw material, three kinds of oil are produced. The yield and quality of the oils are influenced by origin, variety, quality of raw materials, pre-treatment before distillation, distillation method, and post-distillation treatment. Clove buds and stem are comminuted before distillation to break the oil cell and widen the surface so that the oil can be released more easily from the cells. Clove leaf does not need pre-treatment as it is already in thin form. The materials are distilled using water and steam or steam distillation for between 8 and 24 hours. The highest yield derived from high quality clove bud (20% oil content) is 17%. In the United Kingdom, the finest oil is obtained by water distillation containing 8589% eugenol. According to Gildemeister and Hoffimer, cited by Guenther (1950), the distillation of whole clove bud produces clove oil with high eugenol content, and specific gravity above 1.06. Comminuted clove buds produce clove oil with a slight lower eugenol content, and specific gravity lower than 1.06, because evaporation of the oil occurred during comminution. To prevent evaporation, distillation of comminuted material should be done immediately. Belcher (1965) stated that the eugenol content of the oil is dependent on the time taken to distill the charge. Rapid distillation produces oil with eugenol content far higher than that normally found in commercial practice. Commercially CO2 can be used to extract clove bud oil at subcritical condition using extraction conditions of 5080 bar pressure and temperature 0 to 10C. This method is used as an alternative to steam distillation. The oil product has better characteristics, i.e. no solvent residue, no off notes, more top notes, more back notes, better solubility and concentration of aromatic components. Clove stem oil of Indonesian clove, using water and steam distillation, yield 56% with eugenol content 9098%, variation in yield and eugenol content dependent on distillation time (Nurdjannah et al. 1990). According to Purseglove et al. (1981), in Zanzibar, distillation using stainless steel steam stills, which hold 680 kg of steam for 16 hours yielded 57% of almost water white oil. The colour darkens to yellow, sometimes violet-tinted, as the oil ages. Clove leaf oil is usually produced from dried fallen leaf (in Indonesia) or fresh leaf after trimming the upper part of the clove tree (in Zanzibar). The oil may vary considerably in composition but eugenol content is usually 8088%, with low eugenyl acetate and high content of caryophyllene. Distillation of leaf in a 100 l still capacity for eight hours yielded 3.5% oil with total eugenol content 76.8% (water content 712%).

Oleoresin:
Clove oleoresin prepared by solvent extraction of clove bud, yielded about 1822% oleoresin (9092% volatile components) using benzene and 2231% using alcohol (Weiss 1997). Ground clove is extracted by suitable solvent(s) then evaporated or distilled to obtain oleoresin. According to Somaatmadja (1981) ethanol is a very safe solvent because it is not toxic. Oleoresin is an extremely concentrated product, containing all the flavouring ingredients soluble in the particular solvent used, so that much closer to the original clove

odour and flavour (Heat 1973). Oleoresin can also be produced by supercritical CO2 extraction, which is conducted at 200300 bar pressure at 5080C. In sit fractionation is possible at 80100 bar and temperature 050C. This could extract all the soluble components of oleoresin in a similar way to organic solvent extraction. Theproduct is free of solvent residue(s), and can be further fractionated to produce oil. Solvent(s) extraction is, however, more cost effective than supercritical extraction .

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The composition of the clove varies according to the agroclimatic conditions under which it is grown, processed and stored. The dried clove bud contains carbohydrates, fixed oil, steam-volatile oil, resins, tannins, proteins, cellulose, pentosans and mineral elements. Carbohydrates comprise about two-thirds of the weight of the spice (Purseglove et l., 1981). The dried dark and flower buds also contain nutrients like proteins, minerals, vitamins, etc. Nutrient composition of 100 g of clove is 61% of clove is carbohydrates, 20% is fat and the rest is contributed by secondary metabolites, vitamins and minerals. Cloves are an excellent source of manganese, a very good source of dietary fibre, vitamin C, vitamin K and -3 fatty acids and a good source of calcium and magnesium. Volatile oil can be extracted from the leaf, stem and buds of clove. Volatile oil is present in oval cavities, two or three rows below the epidermis. The major component of the volatile oil is a phenol, namely eugenol. Phenolic activity is greater at the outer glandular regions of the hypanthium than in the inner aerenchymatous spongy tissue.

Structure of Eugenol

FTIR Spectrum of Clove

HPLC Graph of Clove

Clove yields three types of volatile oil oil extracted from the leaves, the stem and the buds. These oils differ considerably in yield and quality. The yield and composition of the oil obtained are influenced by its origin, season, variety and quality of raw material, maturity at harvest, pre- and post-distillation treatments and method of distillation. The chief component of the oil is eugenol.

Functional properties:
It appears that clove contains fat and carbohydrate in high concentration and has relatively high food energy. Clove has long been used in traditional medicine, particularly to aid digestion, cure stomach disorders and in pain relief (Rosengarten 1969; Rumphuis 1741). Some of these therapeutic properties have been investigated, particularly the role of eugenol as an antiseptic. Clove oil has been used successfully for inflamed oral and pharyngeal mucous and for topical anesthesia in dentistry. RISMC has also successfully made balm with clove oil as the active ingredient which is used for soothing pain caused by rheumatism (Nurdjannah et al. 1997). The oil is also a potent bactericide, nematicide and fungicide. It is believed that clove has antioxidant properties, which can neutralize free radicals associated with cancer. Antioxidant content varies depending on the type of clove product. Ground clove contains 1.8%, while in soluble fraction 1.4% (petroleum ether soluble fraction) and 1.7% (alcohol soluble fraction). Shahidi et al. (1995) reported that the antioxidant activity of ground clove, ginger, oregano, sage and thyme in meat lipids was concentration dependent, but clove was most effective, followed by sage and then rosemary. Ginger and thyme exerted the weakest effect.

Medicinal and P armacological Uses:

Indias traditional Ayurveda healers have used cloves since ancient times to treat respiratory and digestive ailments. Like many culinary spices, cloves help relax the smooth muscle lining of the digestive tract and eating cloves is said to be aphrodisiac. Aqueous extract of clove flower bud inhibits immediate hypersensitivity in rats by inhibition of histamine release from mast cells in vivo and in vitro. Cloves are more often used to assist the action of other herbal remedies rather than alone. When not available, allspice is substituted. It is spicy, warming, stimulant, anodyne, anaesthetic (topical), antiemetic, antigriping (added to other herbs), vermifuge, uterine stimulant, stomachic, aromatic, carminative, antiseptic, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antispasmodic, expectorant, aphrodisiac and promotes salivation and digestive juices. The oil is expectorant, anaesthetic, emmenogogue; it affects the kidney, spleen and stomach and has preservative properties. Tea made from clove bud (other herbs/spices can be used or added to cloves, such as allspice, bay, cinnamon and marjoram) has been used to relieve bronchitis, asthma, coughs, a tendency to infection, tuberculosis, altitude sickness, nervous stomach, nausea, diarrhoea, flatulence, indigestion, dyspepsia and gastroenteritis. In Chinese medicine cloves are used as a kidney tonic (especially for impotence associated with deficient yang), to warm the body, increase circulation and as a digestive aid. They are also used for nausea, vomiting, flatulence, hiccups, stomach chills, fever, caries,

toothache, cholera, colic, cracked nipples, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, halitosis (chewing on the whole clove), unusual uterine bleeding, nasal polyps and impotence. The root is used for a weaker effect. The oil is employed for diarrhoea, halitosis, hernia, nausea and toothache. Ethanolic extract (50%) of clove produced a significant and sustained increase in the sexual activity of normal male rats, without any conspicuous gastric ulceration or adverse effects. Thus, the resultant aphrodisiac activity of the extract lends support to claims for its traditional usage in sexual disorders. In traditional Chinese medicine it is used to treat indigestion, diarrhoea, hernia, ringworm and other fungal infections. In Ayurveda, cloves are used to treat respiratory and digestive ailments, flatulence, nausea and vomiting. The medieval German herbalists used cloves as part of an antigout mixture. Clove is believed to have a cooling effect on the stomach. A paste of clove was applied to the forehead for relief from colds. It has powerful local antiseptic and mild anaesthetic actions. Clove bud oil has various biological activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant and insecticidal properties. The high level of eugenol present in the essential oil imparts strong biological and antimicrobial activity. Clove oil is an active ingredient in several mouthwash products and a number of over-the-counter toothache pain-relief preparations. It is also used to disinfect root canals. For toothache, clove tea has been used in combination with chamomile or sage. Clove oil is used to prepare microscopic slides for viewing. It is used to treat flatulence, colic, indigestion and nausea. Eugenol is used in germicides and perfumes, in the synthesis of vanillin and as a sweetener or intensifier.

Antimicrobial activit :
Clove exhibits potent antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Essential oils from clove and eugenol show various degrees of inhibition against Aspergillus niger, S. cerevisiae, Mycoderma sp., Lactobacillus acidophilus and B. cereus, as estimated by the paper disc agar diffusion method. The oil also inhibits the growth of Fusarium verticilloides. Clove oil (1% v/w) inhibits Listeria monocytogenes in chicken frankfurters. It has excellent antimicrobial properties and is used in food preservation. Clove extracts show high antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani. Clove oil and eugenol are reported to possess significant antifungal activity against rye bread spoilage fungi. Clove oil shows antifungal activity against the fungi belonging to Eurotium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species, commonly causing deterioration of bakery products. Eugenol possesses antifungal activity against Cladosporium herbarum, Penicillium glabrum, P. expansum and A. niger. Clove bud oil causes inhibition of both mycelial growth and aflatoxin production of A. parasiticus. Clove oil, at concentrations > 100 g/ml, results in reduction in the aflatoxin production in liquid cultures. Clove oil inhibits the growth and production of fumonisin B1 by F. proliferatum.

Antibacterial activit :
Cloves are one of Mother Natures premium antiseptics. A few drops of the oil in water can stop vomiting and an infusion relieves nausea. Essential oil of clove is effective against Streptococci, Staphylococci and Pneumomocci bacteria.The volatile oils of clove exhibited considerable inhibitory effects and antibacterial activity against several genera of bacteria, including animal and plant pathogens and food poisoning and spoilage bacteria. Clove kills intestinal parasites and exhibits broad antimicrobial properties, thus supporting its traditional use as a treatment for diarrhoea, intestinal worms and other digestive ailments. Clove essential oil is strongly antimicrobial, antiseptic, haemostatic and anti-inflammatory. Because of its strong antiparasitic action, clove is also included in Dr Huda Clarks protocol for elimination of parasites from the digestive system. It has also been found that a 0.05% solution of eugenol is sufficient to kill B. tuberculosis. Clove oil showed antimicrobial activity against some human pathogenic bacteria resistant to certain antibiotics.

Antioxidant activit :
Clove essential oil has the highest antioxidant capability of any essential oil, perhaps one of the highest known for a food or supplement. It has been included in some longevity formulae for this reason. Clove and eugenol possess strong antioxidant activity, which is comparable to the activities of the synthetic antioxidants, BHA and pyrogallol. Essential oil from clove leaf possesses scavenging activity against the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical at concentrations lower than the concentrations of eugenol, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA). It also shows a significant inhibitory effect against hydroxyl radicals and acts as an iron chelator. Clove oil is also commonly used for numbing tooth pain and the healing of mouth and gum sores. The oil can also be used to assist in the breaking of tobacco addiction (Ananda Aromatherapy). The antioxidant activity of clove bud extract and its major aroma components, eugenol and eugenyl acetate, are comparable to that of the natural antioxidant, a-tocopherol.

Anti-inflammator activit :
Eugenol, the primary component of cloves volatile oils, functions as an antiinflammatory substance. In animal studies, the addition of clove extract to diets already high in anti-inflammatory components (like cod liver oil, with its high -3 fatty acid content) brings a synergistic effect. In some studies, it further reduces inflammatory symptoms by another 1530%. Clove also contains a variety of flavonoids, including kaempferol and rhamnetin, which also contribute to cloves anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Another constituent of clove oil, b-caryophyllene, also contributes to the anti-inflammatory activity.

Mosquito-repellent activit :
Clove oil exhibits repellent activity on Anopheles albimanus, Aedes aegypti, A. dirus and Culex quinquefasciatus.

Insecticidal activit :
Eugenol, isoeugenol and methyl eugenol cause contact toxicity to the storage pathogens, Sitophilus zeamis and Tribolium costaneum. These compounds have similar toxicity to S. zeamis at LD50 30 g/mg insect, while for T. costaneum the order of potency is isoeugenol > eugenol > methyl eugenol. The clove leaf and bud oils show potent insecticidal activity against the human headlouse.

Antithrombotic activit :
Clove oil inhibits human platelet aggregation induced by arachidonic acid (AA), platelet activating factor (PAF) or collagen. Clove oil is a more effective inhibitor for aggregation induced by AA and PAF (IC50: 4 and 6 M, respectively) than collagen (IC50: 132 M). It inhibits platelet aggregation and thromboxane synthesis and acts as an antithrombotic agent. Eugenol and acetyl eugenol are more potent than aspirin in inhibiting platelet aggregation induced by arachidonate, adrenaline and collagen. In arachidonate induced aggregation eugenol is on par with indomethacin.

Anticancerous activit :
Clove has strong anticancerous properties. The sesquiterpenes, b-cayophyllene, b-cayophyllene epoxide, a-humulene, ahumulene epoxide and eugenol present in clove oil showed potent anticarcinogenic activity by inducing the detoxifying enzyme, glutathione-Stransferase, in mouse liver and small intestine.

Antiviral activit :
Clove is a potent antiviral agent and eugenin isolated from clove buds showed antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus at a concentration of 10 g/ml.

Antip retic effect:

Eugenol, the chief constituent of clove oil, has marked antipyretic activity when given intravenously, intragastrically and centrally to rabbits made febrile by interleukin-1. Eugenol was more effective in reducing fever than acetaminophen and it reduced fever primarily through a central action similar to that of common antipyretic drugs, such as acetaminophen.

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