Computer Basics

Processor A processor is the part a computer system that executes instructions .It is also called a CPU A Central Processing Unit (CPU), or sometimes just processor, is a description of a certain class of logic machines that can execute computer programs. y (370 pins for P3, 423 478 pins for P4, Socket 7 for P4 ) Motherboard A PC motherboard is a printed circuit board used to connect CPU, graphics card, sound card, hard disk controller, memory (RAM), and external peripheral devices. The most important component on a motherboard is the chipset. It often consists of two components or chips known as the Northbridge and Southbridge, though they may also be integrated into a single component. These chips determine, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard. Chipset: A chipset is a group of integrated circuits, or chips, that are designed to work together, and are usually marketed as a single product. In personal computers based on Intel Pentium-class microprocessors, the term often refers to a specific pair of chips on the motherboard: the northbridge and the southbridge. The northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially main memory and graphics controllers, and the southbridge connects to lower-speed peripheral buses (such as PCI or ISA). In many modern chipsets, the southbridge actually contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices. A chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining system performance. North Bridge: The northbridge, also known as the memory controller hub (MCH) in Intel systems (AMD, VIA, SiS and others usually use 'northbridge'), is traditionally one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a PC motherboard, the other being the southbridge. The northbridge typically handles communications between the CPU, RAM, AGP or PCI Express, and the southbridge. Some northbridges also contain integrated video controllers, which are also known as a Graphics and Memory Controller Hub (GMCH) in Intel systems. South Bridge: The Southbridge, also known as the I/O Controller Hub (ICH) in Intel systems (AMD, VIA, SiS and others usually use 'southbridge'), is a chip that implements the "slower" capabilities of the motherboard in a northbridge/southbridge chipset computer architecture. The southbridge can usually be distinguished from the northbridge by not being directly connected to the CPU. Rather, the northbridge ties the southbridge to the CPU. Slots In Motherboard ISA : Industry Standard Architecture AGP: Accelarated Graphics Port (Only for graphics use, Black brown in Colur) PCI: Personel Components Interconnect (Called as universal Slots, used to connect Ethernet, TV Tuner card) AMR: Audio Modem Riser (Special card function sound and modem) CNR: Communication Network Riser (Special card functin sound modem usb networking)

General Computer Terms

Assembler : An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations. Some people call these instructions assembler language and others use the term assembly language. Compiler : A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular programming language and turns them into machine language or "code" that a computer's processor uses. Typically, a programmer writes language statements in a language such as Pascal or C one line at a time using an editor. The file that is created contains what are called the source statements. The programmer then runs the appropriate language compiler, specifying the name of the file that contains the source statements. Loader : In a computer operating system, a loader is a component that locates a given program (which can be an application or, in some cases, part of the operating system itself) in offline storage (such as a hard disk), loads it into main storage (in a personal computer, it's called random access memory), and gives that program control of the compute Linker: Linker performs the linking of libraries with the object code to make the object code into an executable machine code. Differentiate between Complier and Interpreter? An interpreter reads one instruction at a time and carries out the actions implied by that instruction. It does not perform any translation. But a compiler translates the entire instructions. What are the main difference between Micro-Controller and Micro- Processor? A microcontroller is by definition a is a computer on a chip. It includes all the necessary parts (including the memory) all in one IC. You just need to apply the power (and possibly clock signal) to that device and it starts executing the program programmed to it. A microcontroller generally has the main CPU core, ROM/EPROM/EEPROM/FLASH, RAM and some necessary functions (like timers and I/O controllers) all integrated into one silicon real estate chip. Advantages of these MC are generally compact construction, small size, low power consumption and that those chips are cheap. Microprocessor is generally just the CPU core itself, although nowadays it might have some accessory parts also integrated to the same chip Universal Plug and Play : Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) is a set of computer network protocols promulgated by the UPnP Forum. The goals of UPnP are to allow devices to connect seamlessly and to simplify the implementation of networks in the home (data sharing, communications, and entertainment) and corporate environments. UPnP achieves this by defining and publishing UPnP device control protocols built upon open, Internet-based communication standards. Plug the device and install the driver and restart the computer. The device will be ready to use called Plug&Play. SCSI : SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define commands, protocols, electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but it can connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners, and optical drives (CD, DVD, etc.). The SCSI standard contains definitions of command sets of specific peripheral device types; the presence of "unknown" as one of these

types means that in theory it can be used to interface almost any device, but the standard is highly pragmatic and addressed toward commercial requirements.

Hard disk / Memory

Hard disk is the secondary storage device, which holds the data in bulk, and it holds the data on the magnetic medium of the disk.Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, the magnetic medium can be easily erased and rewritten, and a typical desktop machine will have a hard disk with a capacity of between 10 and 40 gigabytes. Data is stored onto the disk in the form of files. SATA : Serial Advanced Technology Attachment is a computer bus primarily designed for transfer of data between a computer and storage devices. The main benefits are faster transfers, ability to remove or add devices while operating (hot swapping), thinner cables that let air cooling work more efficiently, and more reliable operation with tighter data integrity checks than the older Parallel ATA interface. y 7 pin SATA controller y 15 pin power connector y 150Mhz Speed PATA: Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) is a standard interface for connecting storage devices such as hard disks and CD-ROM drives inside personal computers. Integrated Drive Electronics, a computer hardware bus used primarily for hard drives and optical drives (e.g. CD, DVD) y 40 pin IDE controller y 4 pin power connector y 100/133 MHz Speed. Virtual Memory: A virtual memory is hardware technique where the system appears to have more memory that it actually does. This is done by time-sharing, the physical memory and storage parts of the memory one disk when they are not actively being used. RAM space is not sufficient for the system so it borrows some space from the HD called Virtual Memory. Normally VM is 1.5 times of RAM. This can be changed from MyComputer > Properties > Advanced > Performance Setting > Advanced. All informations are saved in pagefile.sys . In Win 98 pagefile is known as win386.swp Cache memory: Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do the more timeconsuming reading of data from larger memory. y Level1 : Located in the processor y Level2: Located ie in the processor or in the MB y Level3: Located in the MB RAM and ROM: Semiconductor memories are of two types: RAM (random access memory) and ROM (read only memory). RAM is a read/write memory. Information can be written into and read from a RAM. It is volatile memory. It stores information so long as power supply is on.

ROM is permanent type memory. Its contents are not lost when power supply goes off. the user cannot write into a ROM.Its contents are decided by the manufacturer and written at the time of manufacture. Programmable ROMs are also available. They are called PROMs. RAM: Random access memory is a type of computer data storage. It today takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order, i.e. at random. The word random thus refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data. The word RAM is mostly associated with volatile types of memory, where the information is lost when power is switched off. SRAM: Static random access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory where the word static indicates that it, unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), does not need to be periodically refreshed, as SRAM uses a bistable latching circuitry to store each bit. However, SRAM is still volatile in the (conventional) sense that data is lost when powered down. SRAM is a little more expensive, but faster and significantly less power hungry (especially idle) than DRAM. It is therefore used where either speed or low power, or both, are principle considerations. SRAM is also easier to control (interface to) and generally more truly random access than modern types of DRAM. Due to a more complex internal structure, SRAM is less dense than DRAM and is therefore not used for high-capacity, low-cost applications such as the main memory in personal computers. Application : y as RAM or cache memory in microcontrollers (usually from around 32 bytes up to 128 kilobytes) y as the primary caches in powerful microprocessors, such as the x86 family, and many others (from 8 KB, up to several megabytes) y to store the registers and parts of the state-machines used in some microprocessors DRAM: Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of random access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. Since real capacitors leak charge, the information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory as opposed to SRAM and other static memory. Its advantage over SRAM is its structural simplicity: only one transistor and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to six transistors in SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high density. Like SRAM, it is in the class of volatile memory devices, since it loses its data when the power supply is removed. SDRAM: SDRAM means synchronous dynamic random access memory which is a type of solid state computer memory. Other dynamic random access memories (DRAM) have an asynchronous interface which means that it reacts as quickly as possible to changes in control inputs. SDRAM has a synchronous interface, meaning that it waits for a clock signal before responding to its control inputs. It is synchronized with the computer's system bus, and thus with the processor. The clock is used to drive an internal finite state machine that pipelines incoming instructions. This allows the chip to have a more complex pattern of operation than DRAM which does not have synchronizing control circuits. DDR SDRAM: DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronous dynamic random access memory) is a class of memory integrated circuit used in computers. It achieves greater bandwidth than the preceding single data rate SDRAM by transferring data on the rising and falling edges of the clock signal (double pumped). Effectively, it doubles the transfer rate without increasing the frequency of the memory bus.

With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer rate of (memory bus clock rate) 2 (for dual rate) 64 (number of bits transferred) / 8 (number of bits/byte). Thus with a bus frequency of 100 MHz, DDR-SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of 1600 MB/s. DDR2 SDRAM: DDR2 SDRAM or double-data-rate two synchronous dynamic random access memory is a random access memory technology used for high speed storage of the working data of a computer or other digital electronic device. Its primary benefit is the ability to operate the external data bus twice as fast as DDR SDRAM. This is achieved by improved bus signaling, and by operating the memory cells at half the clock rate (one quarter of the data transfer rate), rather than at the clock rate as in the original DDR. DDR2 memory at the same clock speed as DDR will provide the same bandwidth but markedly higher latency, providing worse performance. RDRAM: Direct Rambus DRAM or DRDRAM (sometimes just called Rambus DRAM or RDRAM) is a type of synchronous dynamic RAM, designed by the Rambus Corporation. They supported PC-800 RDRAM, which operated at 400 MHz and delivered 1600 MB/s of bandwidth over a 16-bit bus using a 184-pin RIMM form factor. Data is transferred on both the raising and the falling edges of the clock signal (double data rate). For marketing reasons the physical clock rate was muliplied by two (because of the DDR operation) so the 400 MHz Rambus standard was named PC800. This was significantly faster than the previous standard, PC-133 SDRAM, which operated at 133 MHz and delivered 1066 MB/s of bandwidth over a 64-bit bus using a 168-pin DIMM form factor. ROM: Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of storage media used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM cannot be modified, it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to require frequent updates). PROM: A programmable read-only memory (PROM) or field programmable read-only memory (FPROM) is a form of digital memory where the setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse. Such PROMs are used to store programs permanently. The key difference from a strict ROM is that the programming is applied after the device is constructed. They are frequently seen in video game consoles EPROM: An EPROM, or Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, is a type of computer memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. It is an array of floatinggate transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally used in electronic circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased only by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light. EEPROM: An EEPROM (also called an E2PROM and pronounced e-two-prom) or Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, is a non-volatile storage chip used in computers and other devices to store small amounts of volatile data, e.g. calibration tables or device configuration. When larger amounts of more static data are to be stored (such as in USB flash drives) other memory types like flash memory are more economical. EEPROMs are realized as arrays of floating-gate transistors.

Registers: Its a long hierarchical database with al the necessary information about the system. It includes the both hardware and software information s. Taken by Run > regedit (9x) regedit32 (NT) To backup the registry : Run > scanreg \backup , scanreg \restore (9x) , ntbackup (NT) HeaderKeys in Registry : y HKey Classes Root : It contains all file extensions in the OS, File association is responsible for the mapping of file extension to a perticular program to execute it. y HKey Current User: It contains all the current user settings like Desktop, Document, Software and all custom changes made by the current user. y HKey User: It contains all the custom settings of all the users loggedin that system. Once the system is logoff all the current user settings are stored in the HKey Users. When the user is loggedin back, all his settings are put back from users to current user Header Key. y HKey Local Machine: It contains all the unique settings for the system. All hardware software global settings related to the system. y HKey Current Config: It contains all the information about the current hardware connected to the system. Whenever the system shutdown the settings of current config is copied to local machines. Registry informations are stored in Registry Hives. There are 5 C:\Windows\System32\Config They are Software, Security, System, Default, SAM(Security Account Manager) For 9x its been stored in User data and System Data files. hives (For NT) in the

Computer Network
Basic Hardware Components All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.11) or optical cable ("optical fiber"). Network Interface Cards: A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly. Repeater: A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted, they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model. Hubs: A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports of the hub. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the frame does not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it simply copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub. Its used for the interconnection of LAN segments.

Bridges: A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do. but learns which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received. Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived. Bridges come in three basic types: 1. Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs) 2. Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers. 3. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs Switches: Switches are a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Switches may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport . A network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments. Low-end network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch contains more "intelligence" (and comes with a correspondingly slightly higher price tag) than a network hub. Network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination device of that packet, and forwarding it appropriately. By delivering each message only to the connected device it was intended for, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces makes it possible to connect different types of networks, for example Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, and 802.11. . Router: Routers are the networking device that forward data packets along networks by using headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers work at the network layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of the OSI model. Routers also provide interconnectivity between like and unlike media (RFC 1812) This is accomplished by examining the Header of a data packet, and making a decision on the next hop to which it should be sent (RFC 1812) They use preconfigured static routes, status of their hardware interfaces, and routing protocols to select the best route between any two subnets. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Some DSL and cable modems, for home use, have been integrated with routers to allow multiple home computers to access the Internet. The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is a hierarchical interior gateway protocol (IGP) for routing in Internet Protocol, MAC Address: In computer networking a Media Access Control address (MAC address) or Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA) or hardware address or adapter address is a quasi-unique identifier attached to most network adapters (NICs). It is a number that acts like a name for a particular network adapter, so, for example, the network cards (or built-in network adapters) in two different computers will have different names, or MAC

addresses, as would an Ethernet adapter and a wireless adapter in the same computer, and as would multiple network cards in a router. However, it is possible to change the MAC address on most of today's hardware, often referred to as MAC spoofing. What is the difference between layer 3 switch and router? Actually there is nothing difference between layer 3 switch and a router. remember that routers are also switches layer 3 switch is a multiport bridge with a router added in. Layer 3 switches are faster than routers, but they usually lack some of the advanced functionalities of routers. A router is a device that routes the packets to their destination. It means that a router analyzes the destination address of every packet, and devises the best next hop for it. This process takes time, and hence every packet encounters some delay because of this. In a Layer 3 switch, on the other hand, whenever a routing table searches for any specific destination, a cache entry is made in a fast memory. This cache entry contains the source-destination pair and next hop address. Once this cache entry is in place, the next packet with the same source and destination pair does not have to go through the entire process of searching the routing table. That's why it is called route once switch many. This way, a Layer 3 switch can route packets much faster than the router. Layer 3 switches are primarily used in the LAN environment, where you need routing . Routers are used in the WAN environment. These days lots of people have started using layer 3 switches in WAN environment, like MPLS. How to configure a router? Firstly You connect the router to a Dedicated system and in Internet explorer type the router address.Ex.192.168.1.1 and enter it will ask the user name and password and you will get the Menu and configure the IPaddess and subnet mask and Dns Server ipaddress Workgroup: 1. All computers are peers; no computer has control over another computer. 2. Each computer has a set of user accounts. To use any computer in the Workgroup, you must have an account on that computer. 3. There are typically no more than ten to twenty computers. 4. All computers must be on the same local network or subnet. Domain: 1. One or more computers are servers. Network administrators use servers to Control the security and permissions for all computers on the domain. This makes it easy to make changes because the changes are automatically made to all Computers. 2. If you have a user account on the domain, you can log on to any computer on the domain without needing an account on that computer.

3. There can be hundreds or thousands of computers. 4. The computers can be on different local networks. Packet Internet Groper (Ping): Packet Internet Groper (Ping) allows you to quickly verify the connectivity of your network devices. Ping attempts to transmit a packet from one device to a station on the network, and listens for the response to ensure that it was correctly received. You can validate connections on the parts of your network by pinging different devices: Subnet: A typical subnet is a physical network served by one router. However, subnetting allows the network to be logically divided regardless of the physical layout of a network, since it is possible to divide a physical network into several subnets by configuring different host computers to use different routers. In order to facilitate the routing process the address is divided into two pieces, Network part and Host part. Dot-decimal Address Full Network Address Subnet Mask Network Portion Host Portion Binary 192.168.5.10 11000000.10101000.00000101.00001010 255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 192.168.5.0 11000000.10101000.00000101.00000000 0.0.0.10 00000000.00000000.00000000.00001010

IP: IPv4 is 32 bit and IPv6 is the 128 bit protocol. IPv4 addresses are broken down into three parts: the network part, the subnet part and the host part. Class A (CIDR /8) B (CIDR /16) C (CIDR /24) D (CIDR /28) E Leading bits 0 10 110 1110 1111 Start 0.0.0.0 128.0.0.0 192.0.0.0 224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 End Default Subnet Mask in dotted decimal 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0 239.255.255.255 255.255.255.0

Ipconfig : This is a networking tool which gives the system network details such as ip, gateway, mac address etc Run > cmd > ipconfig (Gives the system network details such as ip, gateway, mac address etc) ipconfig /release (This will flush the network settings, System will get disconnected from the nw) ipconfig /renew (This will renew the network settings) ipconfig /all (Gives the system network details such as ip, gateway, mac address etc)

Operating System
An operating system (OS) is the software that manages the sharing of the resources of a computer and provides programmers with an interface used to access those resources. An operating system processes system data and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the system. At the foundation of all system software, an operating system performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input and output devices, facilitating networking and managing file systems. Most operating systems come with an application that provides a user interface for managing the operating system, such as a command line interpreter or graphical user interface. The operating system forms a platform for other system software and for application

software. The most commonly-used contemporary desktop OS is Microsoft Windows, with Mac OS X also being well-known. Linux and the BSD are popular Unix-like systems. Major Funtions y Environment for hardware to communicate with eachother. y Its an Inerface between user and computer. y Manages files and folders. y Launches Applications. y Memory Managment. y Responsible for file allocations. y Keep track of drive letters.

File System
In computing, a file system (often also written as filesystem) is a method for storing and organizing computer files and the data they contain to make it easy to find and access them. File systems may use a data storage device such as a hard disk or CD-ROM and involve maintaining the physical location of the files, they might provide access to data on a file server by acting as clients for a network protocol (e.g., NFS, SMB, or 9P clients), or they may be virtual and exist only as an access method for virtual data (e.g., procfs). More formally, a file system is a set of abstract data types that are implemented for the storage, hierarchical organization, manipulation, navigation, access, and retrieval of data. File systems share much in common with database technology, but it is debatable whether a file system can be classified as a special-purpose database (DBMS) NTFS: NTFS is the standard file system of Windows NT, including its later versions Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2008, and Windows Vista. NTFS replaced Microsoft's previous FAT file system, used in MS-DOS and early versions of Windows. NTFS has several improvements over FAT and HPFS (High Performance File System) such as improved support for metadata and the use of advanced data structures to improve performance, reliability, and disk space utilization plus additional extensions such as security access control lists and file system journaling. NTFS have the user permission settings (Access denied error while accessing other user files). Its a 32 bit file system. Maximum size of partition can be 2 terabit. Versions y NTFS 4: Compression is possible and its the first version. y NTFS 5: Encryption or Compression is possible. Its also called EFS (Encryption File System) FAT: File Allocation Table (FAT) is a partially patented file system developed by Microsoft for MS-DOS and was the primary file system for consumer versions of Microsoft Windows up to and including Windows Me. The FAT file system is relatively uncomplicated, and is supported by virtually all existing operating systems for personal computers. This ubiquity makes it an ideal format for floppy disks and solid-state memory cards, and a convenient way of sharing data between disparate operating systems installed on the same computer (a dual boot environment). The most common implementations have a serious drawback in that when files are deleted and new files written to the media, directory fragments tend to become scattered over the entire media, making reading and writing a slow process. Defragmentation is one solution to this, but is often a lengthy process in itself and has to be performed regularly to keep the FAT file system clean. FAT32, with cluster counts held in a 32-bit field, of which 28 bits are currently used.

Versions : y FAT 12 : 2x12 memory locations ie 2x12 clusters y FAT 16 : 2x16 clusters, Maximum size of one partition can be 2 gigabits y FAT 32: 2x32 clusters, Maximum size of one partition can be 2 terabits Other File Systems y CDFS: Compact Disk File System y UDF: Universal Disk Format (DVD File System) y HPFS: High Performance File System Command used for converting the file system y convert C:/fs:ntfs y convert C:/fs:fat32

Boot Process
y y y y y 1.Power On 2.POST 3.Stepup instruction 4.Bios Instruction 5.Booting

1.Power On : Turning the power supply on, smps will make it the corresponding DC voltages and gives it to the motherboard and activates ROM BIOS. ROM BIOS activates the first process POST. 2.POST: Power On Self Test gives the power to all devices connected to the system and check for any bug. Will show 2 types of warning. Critical & NonCritical Critical : System will halt there with this warning and will continue only after we rectify the issue. Ex: 1** Microprossor issues, 2** Ram related issues, 3** Keyboard related issues, 16** Hard disk related issues. Non Critical : This can be neglected by pressing F1 3.Stepup instruction : Loads the set off instruction by accepting necessary datas from CMOS RAM which stores time and date, User/Supervisor BIOS passwords , All custom settings of BIOS other than default one. 4.Bios Instruction: ROM BIOS loads all basic device drivers like display sound etc. It has the basic driver informations. 5.Booting: It transfers the control from ROM BIOS to Hard Disk MBR in Track 0 / Sector1 6.Hard Disk MBR: Its has the partion information with referral to the very first booting file of the operating system, MBR executables, MBR error codes

7. IO.SYS: is the very first booting file for Win 9x. It is responsible for organizing and conducting the early stages of Win 9x. Responsible for finding and loading other system files and checks to ensure that those files contain proper settings. It provides the OS with details about the Hardware installed in the computer. 8.MSDOS.SYS:It contains the startup configuration parameters like which OS to use by default if more than one OS is installed in the system. Contains the location of boot files of all OS and display time for windows startup. 9. CONFIG.SYS: Loads all the device drivers and configures the memory usage. AUTOEXEC.BAT: Automatically launches all startup applications. Its used in conjunction with config.sys. Both these files together called legacy configuration files. For Win NT y NTLDR: Coordinates the system startup procedures. Its responsible for loading and initializing other required startup files. Same function as io.sys in Win9x y BOOT.INI: Responsible for OS choice at startup. Same as msconfig.sys y NTDETECT.COM: Responsible for gthering information about the hardware currently exsists in the system. This information is reported back to the ntldr which writes the information in the windows registry. Advanced Boot Options y Safemode y Safemode with Networking y Safemode with Command Prompt y Normal Mode y Last Know Good Configuration y Enable boot logging y Debugging Mode Safemode Minimum Number of drivers are been loaded in this mode. 16 colours 640*480 pixels MSCONFIG Its called the System Configuration Utility. Taken by Run > msconfig, DiskCleanUp: To remove the unwanted temporary files from the disk. Taken by Run > cleanmgr, Drive Properties. DiskDefragment: To fill the unused space in the hard drive to increase the HD reading speed. Taken by Run > dfrg.msc, Drive Properties, MyComputer > Manage. ScanDisk / CheckDisk : Used to repair file system errors and recover the bad sector in hard disk. Taken by Run > chkdsk, Drive Properties. Bad sector is the physical sratches in the platters caused by inproper earthing that makes the HD shivering and RW needle touches the platters. Symtoms : grainting sound while reading HD. chkdsk/f for normal and chkdsk/r for thourgh scanning

MSINFO32 : Gives many system informations. Taken by Run > msinfo32 Device Manager: To manage the hardware connected to the system. Taken by devmgmt.msc Four error codes in Device Manager Yellow ? : If the device is connected but driver is missing. Red X: Hardware is disabled. Black ! : Device is in a problamatic stage due to an IR cube config. Blue i: If we change the automatic default setting of a device to custom one. Device Manager > Device Properties > Resource. eg:if two modems are connected (externet and internel) system get confused and wont work properly. We need to change the automatic settings in this case. System Restore: We can create the check points of the systems current setting and restore the system with that image. We can schedule it and will be removed automatically after 90 days. Taken by Run > %systemroot%\system32\restore\rstrui.exe Run > C:\windows\system32\restore\rstrui.exe, MyComputer > Properties > System restore. Hibernate: Long Sleep. To set it go to Control Panel > PowerOptions > Hibernate. All setting are saved in file hiberfil.sys DXDIAG (DirectX Diagnostic Tool) : Gives many informations regarding the system. Recovery Console: Its primary function is to enable administrators to recover from situations where Windows does not boot as far as presenting its graphical user interface. The recovery console can also be configured as an option on the boot-time menu that is presented by NTLDR. This is not included by default when the operating system is first installed. Instead, administrators have to run the winnt32 utility with the /cmdcons switch, which adds the recovery console to the NTLDR menu, ready for when the machine is next bootstrapped. Command to install Recovery console in Windows CdDriveLetter:\i386\winnt32.exe /cmdcons Recovery console commands: y fixboot y fixmbr Remote Desktop: (Accessories > Communication > Remote Desktop Connection) With Remote Desktop on Windows XP Professional, you can have access to a Windows session that is running on your computer when you are at another computer. This means, for example, that you can connect to your work computer from home and have access to all of your applications, files, and network resources as though you were in front of your computer at work. You can leave programs running at work and when you get home, you can see your desktop at work displayed on your home computer, with the same programs running.

Remote Assistance: (My Computer > Properties > Remote Tab) Remote Assistance is a convenient way for a friend in another location to connect to your computer from another computer running a compatible operating system, such as Microsoft Windows XP, and walk you through your solution. SFC (System File Checker) y Run > cmd > sfc /scannow (Scan for the errors in the system files immediately) y sfc /scanboot (Scan for the operating system errors in every boot up) y sfc /scanonce (Scan for the operating system errors in next boot up) y sfc /quiet (Runs the sfc tool in background) Virus: Vital Information Resources Under Seige . A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer without permission or knowledge of the user. A computer virus is a small program written to alter the way a computer operates, without the permission or knowledge of the user. A virus must meet two criteria: y It must execute itself. It often places its own code in the path of execution of another program. y It must replicate itself. For example, it may replace other executable files with a copy of the virus infected file. Viruses can infect desktop computers and network servers alike. Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs, deleting files, or reformatting the hard disk. Others are not designed to do any damage, but simply to replicate themselves and make their presence known by presenting text, video, and audio messages. Even these benign viruses can create problems for the computer user. They typically take up computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result, they often cause erratic behavior and can result in system crashes. In addition, many viruses are bug-ridden, and these bugs may lead to system crashes and data loss. Worm: Worms are programs that replicate themselves from system to system without the use of a host file. This is in contrast to viruses, which requires the spreading of an infected host file. Although worms generally exist inside of other files, often Word or Excel documents, there is a difference between how worms and viruses use the host file. Usually the worm will release a document that already has the "worm" macro inside the document. The entire document will travel from computer to computer, so the entire document should be considered the worm W32.Mydoom.AX@mm is an example of a worm Trojan horse: Trojan horses are impostors files that claim to be something desirable but, in fact, are malicious. A very important distinction between Trojan horse programs and true viruses is that they do not replicate themselves. Trojan horses contain malicious code that when triggered cause loss, or even theft, of data. For a Trojan horse to spread, you must invite these programs onto your computers; for example, by opening an email attachment or downloading and running a file from the Internet. Trojan.Vundo is a Trojan horse. Spyware: A program that collects all the system and other necessary informations and will send it to the creater. Rootkit: Its a program between kernel and shell. The shell gets open only while booting. Application programs cant even touch this shell. So a virus like rootkit is affected on the system, will be very difficult to remove it.