Brain Damage and Brocca Aphasia

By : TITIK WINARTI

I.

INTRODUCTION Many people assume physical basis of language lies in lips, tongue, or ears. People who have no capacity to use their vocal cords may still be able to comprehend language and use its written forms. Human sign language which is based on visible gesture rather than the creation of sound waves. Language is brain stuff-not tongue, lip, ear, or hand stuff. The language organ is the mind. Language is a function of the peculiar structure of the human brain. Several areas of the brain have been identified with linguistic skills, such as producing and understanding speech. Furthermore, people with brain damage in specific areas have difficulties with very specific aspects of language, implying that it is a highly compartmentalized process. Furthermore, human brains are functionally asymmetrical, concentrating many areas essential for speech production in one hemisphere. This paper tries to overview certain brain damage which can affect language production. Furthermore, it will discuss about brocca aphasia that actually does not eliminate language from the brain.

II.

THE CAUSES AND NATURE OF APHASIA The brain is a sensitive organ because it is enclosed in the skull. A severe blow at the temples, however, can surpass this natural defense and cause damage to brain cells. Structural damage can ultimately lead to brain dysfunction as the connectivity between neurons is disturbed. Brain damage or brain injury is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. Brain damage may occur due to a wide range of conditions, illnesses, or injuries.

Either stroke or brain damage to a specific area of the brain can make a language disorder. It defines as aphasia. According to Lesser, et al. (1993: 8) all aphasicpeople have in common (by definition) that they have suffered some form of brain damage (from stroke, head-injury, tumour, metabolic disorder, toxicity or other aetology), which has destroyed neuronal cells in parts of the brain on which language seems to be critically dependent. Aphasia is caused by damage to one or more of the language areas of the brain. Lesser, et al. (1993: 8) state that typically the damage which auses aphasia is unilateral; it affects only, or predominantly, one of the cerebral hemispheres, in contrast to other neurological conditions which lead to articulatory or intellectual disorders in which the damage more typically affects both sides of the brain. Many times, the cause of the brain injury is a stroke. A stroke occurs when blood is unable to reach a part of the brain. Brain cells die when they do not receive their normal supply of blood, which carries oxygen and important nutrients. Other causes of brain injury are severe blows to the head, brain tumors, brain infections, and other conditions that affect the brain. Two major categories of aphasia are expressive (motor) and receptive (sensory). Expressive aphasics can understand language, but can't express it. In other words, they recognize words, but can't find the means to articulate them. They usually possess the intellectual capabilities for speech. Much of their communication consists of pulling, pointing, or gesturing. Receptive aphasics don't understand speech but have no trouble speaking. They can ramble on quite fluently, but when one examines the actual content of their sentences, one can see that they lack meaning. The receptive aphasic may also ignore sounds, hearing at one moment, but ignoring the next. This can cause them to be though deaf. There is usually a discrepancy between their intelligence and actual ability to communicate. (Maxine L. Young, 2000) http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=fa/memory-language Fleming (1989) in Lesser, et al. (1993: 9) gives a sample of aphasic speech from patients who have suffered left cerebral damage. 1. M (2) erh (.) d you (1.0) d you er what school wan you? 2. (points to B)

3. B (1.0) buts 4. M (1.0) buts? 5. B yes 6. M (1.0) buts 7. B yes 8. M yes 9. B er (.) d you oh dear (2) erm (4) erm (2) sums//sums 10. M oh yes yes Notes : (0.0) pauses or gaps in tenths of seconds (.) ? micropause not a punctuational mark, but marks a rising intonation contour It is clear that verbal communication between these two men is severely restricted by their aphasic diffiulties. The speech of both patients is characterized by pauses and limited sentence structure. M uses gesture to assist understanding of his speech. B seeks clarification (line 4) of Ms replyto his question, but then appears to accept a repetition without further clarification. There are two major areas of the human brain that are responsible for language. One of them is Broca's area, which is thought to be partially responsible for language production (putting together sentences, using proper syntax, etc.). When people experience damage to Broca's area or its surroundings, their disorder is called Broca's aphasia. As predicted by the central role of Broca's area in language production, Broca's aphasics produce slow, halting speech that is rarely grammatical. (Maxine L. Young, 2000) http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=fa/memory-language Individuals with Broca's aphasia often speak in short, meaningful phrases that are produced with great effort. For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say "walk dog" meaning, "I will take the dog for a walk." The same sentence could also mean "You take the dog for a walk," or "The dog walked out of the yard."

III. RECOVERY FROM APHASIA According to Lesser, et al. (1993: 15-24) there are five ways in which some recovery of communicatory abilities is thought to be achieved: 1. The neural theories of reactivation Reactivation of function is consistent with the claim that neuronal sprouting occurs through stimulation, and with an expectation that the original behaviour should be restored in its original form. Recovery through reactivation is perhaps better accounted for by the notion of redundancy of neurones in a brain system, so that small lessons can be compensated for by other undamaged neurones within the same system. 2. The neural theories of reorganization In contrast to reactivation, reorganization implies that language functions need to be taken over by brain areas which wer previously not actively involved, perhaps because they were inhibited by the neurones which have now been put out of action. 3. The psychological theory of cognitive relays The third approach to therapy is based on the notion of subtitution. This is based on a less optimistic expectation that the brain is capable of recovering its original function, either through reactivating the original ability or achieving it through reorganization. The substitution theory is that the original ability cannot be restored in its original form, but that alternative means can be found to achieve a communicative goal, using intact brain structures which also serve other purposes. 4. The pragmatic use of prostheses The most obvious use of substitutory techniques externalizes the prosthesis. Computers have provided a means of communication for many cerebrally palsied people and adults with acquired dysarthria, but, like other visual communication systems such as Blissymbols and visual communication cards, they have also had some limited use as communicatory media in aphasia, if the ability to handle symbols is not too impaired. 5. The functional communication strategies

There are other adaptations which aphasic patients make without external prostheses, which cannot be identified as cognitive relays, but are apparently pragmatic strategies to achieve communication. The use of gesture does not come as easily to aphasic adults as might be presumed from a simple interpretation of their disorder as being one of language, and many studies have been devoted to examination of aphasic patients disabilities in non-verbal communication. IV. CONCLUSION Aphasia is caused by damage to one or more of the language areas of the brain. Lesser, et al. (1993: 11) state that these aphasic individuals fail to produce speech, or fail to comprehend, but that they produce speech which does not seem to reflect their intentions and which the listener has difficulty comprehending. People with Broca's aphasia are fully aware of their difficulties and often become frustrated trying to produce sentences. According to Lesser, et al. (1993: 15-24) there are five ways in which some recovery of communicatory abilities is thought to be achieved: the neural theories of reactivation and reorganization, the psychological theory of cognitive relays and the pragmatic use of prostheses and functional strategies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Lesser, Ruth, Milroy, Lesley. 1993. Linguistics and aphasia: psycholinguistic and pragmatic aspects of intervention. London: Longman
Maxine L. language Young, 2000 http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=fa/memory-

University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics; Kristofer Kinsey PhD http://www.physiol.ox.ac.uk/~kk3/PP%2002%20Sensory%20Memory.ppt

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience