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NICOMEDES D. BRIONES Environment and Policy Institute East-West Center Honolulu, Hawaii 96848, USA nomic losses are from reduced agricultural production due to siltation of irrigation works and farmlands. To check the adverse ecological effects of improper mine tailings disposal, government regulations have been imposed on mining firms. Several disposal schemes have been proposed, including the use of the reservoir of a multipurpose project to be sited in the watershed where the mines are located. Because of siltation problems, however, trapping the tailings in the reservoir will diminish the economic benefits that can be derived from the project.
ABSTRACT / Environmental problems caused by improper mine tailings disposal in the Baguio district include pollution of the Lower Agno River system and its watershed and siltation of irrigation canals in the Pangasinan plains. Direct eco-
The Philippines is considered one of the world's highly mineralized countries in terms of minerals per unit area of land. For example, the country has the world's largest deposits of chromite and one of the richest nickel reserves. The total mineral reserves of the Philippines is estimated at 36.2 billion metric tons (MT), 66% of which is accounted for by nonmetallic ore reserves and the remaining 34% by metallic reserves (NEEP 1983). At present, most of the mining activities are concentrated in Luzon's Baguio Mining District, where metallic reserves such as. gold, silver, and copper are the largest in the nation. The mining industry has always been a major contributor to national economic growth and development. Its significance lies in its contribution to employment, capital accumulation, and foreign exchange earnings. For a developing Philippine economy, the mining sector is an indispensable source of funds to improve the country's balance of payments. Although it accounted for less than 2% of the net domestic product, the annual contribution of mining as a source of foreign exchange earnings was about 18% of the total receipts for the period of 1971-1984 (NEDA 1985). The majority of the Philippine mining share is derived from the exports of copper concentrates, gold, iron ore, and chrome ore. While the industry has brought economic benefits, it has also taken its toll on the environment. In 1977, there were 39 mining firms dispersed along the major river basins of the Philippines. Of these, 24 mines were active mineral-producing firms generating 220,000 MT of raw ore daily. About 140,000 MT of mine tailings were being discharged daily into eight rivers,
KEY WORDS: Mine pollution; Water quality; Watershed management; Siltation; Mine tailings EnvironmentalManagementVol. 11, No. 3, pp. 335-344
consequently damaging about 190,000 ha of farmlands (Villavicencio 1977). As the tailings are transported down the streams and rivers, the beds become shallower, leading to overflowing with consequent flooding of the outlying areas. The tailings accumulate at lower elevations and clog irrigation canals, ricefields, and reservoirs. It has been recognized that pollution and siltation of main river systems within the immediate vicinity of mine sites of Baguio Mining District is due to improper disposal of mine tailings. This article discusses the problems and economic implications of mining pollution in the highly mineralized area in Baguio, the Philippines. Alternative mine waste disposal methods, including the use of the proposed reservoir of the San Roque Multipurpose Project as a dumping site, are also presented.
T h e B a g u i o M i n i n g District
In an area of a few kilometers southeast of Baguio City in Luzon is a mining site which is drained by the Twin River, a tributary of the big Agno River. It lies in a mountainous region characterized by sharp edges and steep slopes. This area is collectively designated as the Baguio Mining District, which is considered as the most important and productive mining area in the Philippines (Figures 1-3). Several active mines and mine prospects are clustered along a north-south trending belt with an approximate area of 260 km 2. The most common problems of the mines in the district is how to dispose of the mine tailings properly. After ore milling and concentration, the mines discharge the railings into neighboring creeks; thus, downstream of the mines all streams are polluted to varying degrees. The total daily tonnage of discharged
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50
1fib
150
200
250 Krrl
I
N
O -17 ~
C~
Z 15~
Figure 1. Location map of the Baguio Mining District, Luzon, the Philip* pines.
Figure 2. Aerial view of a typical mining site, Baguio Mining District, The Philippines.
Figure 3. Aerial view of mining roads, Baguio Mining District, The Philippines.
mine tailings is approximately 50,000 MT and is expected to increase in the coming years. This quantity, which flows into the Agno River and other nearby creeks, has caused a considerable amount of damage to the agricultural system and aquatic resources. Mine pollution in the area affects four river systems and hundreds of thousands of hectares of farms in the lowland areas of the provinces of Pangasinan, La Union, and Ilocos Sur (Table 1). Philex Mines, the largest company operating in the
district, started operation in 1958 and by 1983 had 3000 employees. The mine, which uses the blockcaving mining method, has a remaining lifespan of 40 years. The railings produced by this mine represent 90% of the total railings volume produced within the Lower Agno River watershed and nearly 80% of the overall ore or tailing volume mined in the Baguio District. At present, Philex Mines' tailings are impounded in two company-constructed tailing dams that are being gradually built up on a right bank tributary of
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Backfill Method
The tailings are used as fillings for underground openings that are mined out or no longer in use. By
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capacity.
Figure 5, Aerial view of a tailings pond, Baguio Mining District, The Philippines.
Figure 6. Aerial view (downstream side) of a tailings dam. A bulldozer is piling up the tailings to increase the dam's height, mine tailings is being released and reaches the Agno River, thus heavily polluting its waters. The construction of a railings dam is costly for the mining companies and is therefore carried out with extremely limited investment. The stability of the railings dana therefore is very uncertain, and the ponds represent a serious threat to public projects and private properties downstream.
Figure 7. Upstream aerial view of the railings dam and reservoir. building facilities, inevitably disturb the environment. Milling operations produce tailings, which, if not properly disposed, could easily find their way into natural river systems, resulting in the sedimentation of riverbeds and agricultural lands. When rocks and wastes are dumped to lower levels, trees are usually cut down or buried. The heavy-metal components of the wastes are subject to leaching and can adversely influence water quality. Acid water is also an undesirable discharge from the mines. Mill tailings provide a hostile environment to plants because they are deficient in important soil nutrients, have excessive salts and heavy phytotoxicants, and lack microbial populations; moreover, physical damage is caused by unconsolidated sands that, when wind blown, destroy young plants and seedlings. Mill tailings are also toxic and destructive to much aquatic life, because of the effects of heavy metals, reagents, and suspended solids.
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Table 3. Losses due to mine tailings siltation of irrigation systems (1978 prices).
Annual loss (million US$) Cause Loss due to silting of canals (rehabilitation) (19701977) Loss due to uncollected irrigation fees (19701977) Loss due to crop yield reduction (1970-1977) Loss due to the inability to irrigate parts of the service area (1970-1977) Total
a
Amburayan
Agno
Bued
1.73
0.009 a
a Based on samples taken from 3 main canals and 1:3 lateral canals. b Based on samples taken from 6 lateral canals. c Not available. d Based on samples taken from 2 main canals and 2 lateral canals.
__b b
b
5.75
0.009
rigation System, Agno River Irrigation System, and Bued River Irrigation System, respectively (NIA 1978) (Table 3). T h e losses had been attributed to siltation of canals, crop yield reduction, inability to irrigate the service area, and uncollected irrigation fees. The total farm area affected was 122,757 ha located in the provinces of Pangasinan, La Union, and Ilocos Sur. In fresh unweathered form, the mill tailings contain very little assimilable plant nutrients and in the ricefields where such sediments are deposited and mixed with the existing soil by plowing and harrowing, the soil fertility had diminished every year. The consequences of uncontrolled irrigation water siltation by mine wastes have been determined by several studies (Mercado 1974, Sulliven 1967). Mine wastes have high acidity and dissolved solids that pollute irrigation water, which results in water which is slightly toxic to plant growth. The lower pH changes the stability and mobility of numerous elements and salts in the soil. In addition, continuous siltation has raised the elevation of the farms so that they require leveling to insure proper distribution of irrigation water. Based on the population whose livelihood depends directly on agriculture in the area, calculations indicate that the number of people adversely affected in 1980 by these mine tailings was about 146,000.
Hydrobiological Effects
In addition to the effects on agricultural productivity, mine tailings also adversely affect the microbiological regime of the Lower Agno River. In a fishery survey conducted in a proposed damsite (BFAR 1983), identified fish species such as gobies, eels, mudfish,
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black bass, and tilapia were found to be very rare. Of the nine species of phytoplankton identified, only three species were considered abundant while the rest are rare. All of the four kinds of zooplanktons identified were rare. Virtually no floating, emergent, or submerged aquatic vegetation has been found. The absence of abundant fish and other forms of aquatic life is attributed to the high water turbidity caused by great amounts of fine suspended sediments from the mine railings. The turbidity reduces light penetration and limits the photosynthetic activities of the phytoplanktons. The resulting decrease of microbial population adversely affects the higher forms of aquatic life, especially fish that directly depend on planktons for sustenance.
ronmental conditions in the proposed project site and furthermore would contain mitigating measures to be undertaken in the course of operations to protect the environment. This function is under the supervision of the National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC), a public agency created primarily to assure the people of a safe, decent, healthful, and productive environment. Several government agencies have been mobilized to safeguard the environment from mining pollution and specifically to design programs to solve the railings problems in the Bagnio district. These include the National Pollution Control Commission, the Ministry of Public Works and Highways, National Power Corporation, National Irrigation Administration, and the Bureau of Mines and Geosciences. Representatives from the mining companies operating in the district work together with these agencies.
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some mines which will shoulder a part of the costs. The total construction cost estimate of this system when it was proposed in 1978 was US $60 million: $29 million for the land portion and $31 million for the sea portion.
1) The reservoir can provide up to 1.3 billion m 3 of storage and has ample capacity to impound the expected volume of mine railings without the need of tailing dams. 2) It will improve downstream water quality by eliminating the solids discharged by the mines and by diluting the chemicals released after mine processing. 3) Estimations based on the present mine operations indicate that the system can accommodate all mine railings production for the entire productive life of the mines (up to 40 years). However, under this proposal, only mines affecting the Agno River would be relieved of the tailings disposal problems. Because of high cost estimates, the rates of amortization will be very high. The total cost of constructing the entire multipurpose project was estimated to be US $1.2 billion (1983 prices). While these proposals are being considered, the mining companies are resorting to their usual means of disposal, the use of existing pond-tailing dams, which is considered inadequate.
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On the basis of estimations of the productive lifespan of the active mines in the area and the daily tonnage of mine tailings production, a total of 184 million m s o f mine railings has been calculated to accumulate in 50 years (the economic planning period of the SRMPP). Sedimentation from natural erosion must be added to the mine railings to get the total amount of sediment that will go into the proposed reservoir. Natural erosion includes gully and sheet erosion as well as erosion due to road construction and maintenance, shifting cultivation and other agricultural activities, and logging operations. Based on erosion studies conducted in the Agno River watershed a net erosion rate of 6500 ma/km2/year was used in the calculation (Briones 1985, BFD 1984, Abernathy 1984). Estimation of natural erosion gave a total volume of 168 MCM. Summing up the contribution of mine tailings and the sediment from natural erosion will give a total volume of 352 MCM for 50 years. The accumulation of this great amount of sediment in the reservoir will reduce the outputs of hydroelectric energy, usable irrigation water, and storage for flood control. The computation of economic loss by Briones (1985) showed that sediments could reduce the project benefits by as much as 12% of the original estimates presented in the feasibility study. In moneta W terms, the value of this decrease is about US $370 million (discounted at 10%). About 52% of this amount (US $192.6 million) can be attributed to mine tailings (on the basis of the proportionate volume of mine tailings and natural erosion to be trapped in the reservoir). When this loss (or benefits forgone) is compared with the JICA proposal, which will cost only US $37 million (discounted at i0%), it is evident that the Philippine economy is better off if the JICA proposal is adopted as the alternative disposal scheme.
been tried in the Agno River watershed by the R P German Training Center for Reforestation and Soil Erosion Control (Costales and Costales 1983, Costales and others 1981 and 1982). A two-year data base on mine waste revegetation by Pefiafiel (1981) revealed that Alnus maritima, Trema
orientale, Pinus insularis, Desmodium sequiax, Eclipta alba, and Miscanthus sinensis are suitable for mine wastes
planting in the Baguio district. Because of high moisture stress in mined waste areas, Orr (1975) suggested that crosswind furrowing and mulching must be adopted in order to conserve available moisture for the plants and in some degree control soil erosion and gushing overland flow. Chapman (1967) recommended that when tree-planting on open-cast mined lands is to be done, cavities should be filled and dumps leveled before the area is covered with topsoil. Then plants of hardy pioneer species should be planted in holes to be filled with topsoil originally covering these lands. Whenever a vegetative cover is to be reestablished, the plants or cuttings nmst be set densely enough to be able to close up quickly to form a protective blanket, which should consist of a mixture of trees, shrubs, and some grass species. Brushwoods could also be used for contour planting to temporarily arrest surface runoff and soil movement (Agpaoa 1975, Hudson i973).
An Immediate Answer
The proposed disposal schemes are very costly to implement and are not forthcoming, but there are measures that can be employed to curb the problem. The mining firms can stabilize and reinforce the existing tailings dams through vegetative covering. Several methods of stabilizing tailings dams have been tried, and vegetative covering seems to be the most practical and economical alternative for the mining companies. Introduction of vegetation to immediately provide protective cover is very essential, considering the hydrologic and ecological enhancement these plant covers can provide. The use of some biological structures in stabilizing tailings dams and road banks had
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contribute to the e n v i r o n m e n t and should endeavor to minimize the resultant ecological imbalance. T h e rate of d e v e l o p m e n t must balance the national economic needs and the necessity of maintaining a healthy environment. Uncertainties cloud the solution r e c o m m e n d i n g a planned i m p o u n d m e n t of all mill tailings into the proposed multipurpose reservoir. T h e r e is a need to assess the short- and long-term quality o f the reservoir's water with the introduction of mill wastes. Considering the large volume of mine tailings to be eventually d u m p e d in the p r o p o s e d reservoir, there may be unknown effects on the stored water's aquatic life, influences on the water's potential use as irrigation water, and effects on the operation and maintenance of the electromechanical e q u i p m e n t of the hydroelectric power plant. Since the multipurpose project's main justification is other than as a disposal site for mine tailings, it would be appropriate and economic that mine tailings disposal be addressed in other ways so as not to jeopardize the huge investment to be poured into this project.
Philippines. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. Bugnosen, E.M. 1981. Mine pollution. Paper presented at the 1979-1980 international course on environmental science, Delft, The Netherlands. Chapman, C.W. 1967. A manual on establishment techniques in man-made forests. Paper presented on FAO symposium on man-made forests, Canberra, Australia. Costales, E. F., Jr., and A. V. B. Costales. 1983. Effects of plant combinations upon protection/stabilization of mined waste areas. Terminal report of PCARRD Project no. 639. Forest Research Institute, Baguio City, The Philippines. Costales, E. F., Jr., A. V. B. Costales, and A. C. Bravo. 1981. Methods of revegetating mined waste areas through different soil amendments. Research terminal report, Forest Research Institute, UPLB, College, Laguna, The Philippines. Costales, E. F.,Jr., A. V. Lopez, and G. Felipe. 1982. Restoration of surface and mined waste areas by selected vegetative engineering methods. Research terminal report, Forest Research Institute, UPLB, College, Laguna, The Philippines. Gaddi, I.C. 1981. Environmental management on mineral resources development in the Philippines. Bureau of Mines and Geophysics, Ministry of Natural Resources, Manila, The Philippines. Holme, N. A. 1978. Environmental management of mineral wastes. Sijthoff and Noordhoff, Alpen van den Rijn, The Netherlands. Hudson, N. 1973. Soil conservation. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Mantell, C.L. 1975. Solid wastes, origin, collection, processing, and disposal. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York. Mercado, B. T. 1974. Study of the growth of some rice varieties in NaC1 + salinated soils as affected by season. Philippine Agriculturist 58:40-49. NEDA. 1985. Philippine statistical yearbook. National Economic Development Authority, Manila, The Philippines. NEEP. 1983. Environmental situationers: Inventory of environment-related projects. National Environment Enhancement Program, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, The Philippines. NIA. 1978. Mine tailings and its effects on NIA irrigation systems: an overview. National Irrigation Administration, Quezon City, The Philippines. NIA. 1983. Project profile, SRMPP irrigation component. National Irrigation Administration, Quezon City, The Philippines. NPC-ELC. 1979. San Roque multi-purpose project feasibility study: main report. National Power Corporation, Manila, The Philippines. Orr, H.K. 1975. Mine spoil reclamation research at Bella Ayn Mine, northeast Wyoming. Pages 304-307 in Symposium proceedings, Fort Union Coal Field, vol. 3. Reclamation Section. Pefiafiel, S. R. 1981. Reclamation of mine tailings/mine waste
Acknowledgments
T h e author is g r a t e f u l for the financial support provided by the Environment and Policy Institute, E a s t - W e s t Cen{er, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Sincere appreciation is extended to the staff of the Watershed M a n a g e m e n t G r o u p of the National Power Corporation, Diliman, Q u e z o n City, the Philippines, for providing logistical support during the field study.
Literature Cited
Abernathy, C.L. 1984[ Ambuklao Reservoir, Philippines: comments on sedimentation rates. Consultant report, National Power Corporation, Quezon City, The Philippines. Agpaoa, A.C. 1975. Manual for reforestation and erosion control for the Philippines. German Agency for Technical Development, Eschbarn, Germany. BFAR. 1983. Report on the pre-impoundment survey of Lower Agno River (San Roque Dam) Pangasinan on August 25-30. Memorandum report, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, The Philippines. BFD. 1984. Annual report. Bureau of Forest Development, Ministry of Natural Resources, Quezon City, The Philippines. BMG. 1983. Situationer report on the pollution problem caused by mining operations in the Philippines. Bureau of Mines and Geosciences, Ministry of Natural Resources, Manila, The Philippines. Briones, N.D. 1985. Socioeconomics of watershed management: the case of the Lower Agno River watershed, Luzon,
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through vegetation establishment. Research Report PCARR Project no. 1123. PCARR, Laguna, The Philippines. Peters, T. H., and H. Kitching. 1978. Report to the Government of the Philippines on mine tailings disposal in the Baguio area: Agno and Bued river systems. United Nations Environment Programme, Manila, The Philippines. Saddam, T. A., and G. H. Prospero. 1963. Sedimentation investigations in the Agno River basin by the Bureau of
Public Works. Paper presented for the world power conference and congress of large dams, first technical symposium, Manila, The Philippines. Sulliven, G. 1967. Current research trend in mined-land conservation and utilization. MiningEngineering 19:63-67. Villavicencio, E. T. 1977. The mineral industry and the environment. Paper presented at the 5th symposium on mineral resources development and the 24th mine safety conference, 24-26 November, Baguio City, The Philippines.