PHYSICS

UNIT FIVE: PHYSICS FROM CREATION TO COLLAPSE

Topics:
1. Thermal Physics 2. Nuclear Decay 3. Oscillations 4. Astrophysics and Cosmology

Duration: 1 hour 35 minutes Maximum marks: 80

Thermal Energy Formulae

Temperature in Kelvin (K) and in degree Celsius (C)

Ideal Gas equation

n = number of moles of gas R = Universal gas constant T = absolute temperature of gas in K

= change in temperature in K = change in temperature in C

Equation of state

Heat capacity (C)

N = number of molecules of the gas k = Boltzmann constant T = absolute temperature of gas in K

= change in temperature E = Energy transferred

Pressure exerted by a single molecule

Specific Heat capacity (c) m = mass = change in temperature E = Energy transferred P = pressure of gas = density of gas which is V is volume of gas = mean square speed where is mass of gas and

Pressure exerted by N number of molecules m = mass of each molecule N = number of molecules = mean square speed

Latent heat of fusion ( )

Latent heat of vaporization (

Molecular Kinetic Theory Boyles Law ( ) = Kinetic Energy for calculations:

Charless Law (

Number of moles, n Pressure Law ( )

Combined Gas equation (

N = total number of molecules = Avogadros constant

Boltzmann constant

P = pressure of gas V = volume of gas T = absolute temperature of gas in K

R = Universal gas constant

Root-mean-square speed (r.m.s)

Nuclear Decay Formulae

Alpha decay ( )

Activity of nuclei, A, at any given time, t

and neutrons Half-life (

A = Activity at a given time, t = Initial activity linear form:

where y = ln A and x = t

nuclide is heavy excess protons )

Beta minus decay (

this is when N = half-life: average time taken for a nuclei or activity of a sample to halve half-lives, remaining number of nuclei, N

nuclide has excess neutrons splits into and electron (same as stays in the nucleus is emitted out at high speed )

After )

Beta plus decay (

Mass defect (

nuclide has excess protons splits into and positron (same as ) stays in the nucleus is emitted out at high speed this type of decay produces an electron neutrino ( ) )

= difference between total mass of separate nucleons and mass of nucleus Mass of any nucleus is slightly less than the total mass of separate nucleons )

Binding energy (

Decay Law (

= decay constant: Activity per number of nuclei A = Activity: number of nuclei decaying per second N = Number of nuclei present (undecayed)

is speed of light, = mass defect or mass deficit = energy lost when separate protons and neutrons bind together to form a nucleus, i.e. Binding energy

Binding energy per nucleon

Number of nuclei remaining, N, after a fixed time, t number of nucleons = mass number for neutron mass (mn), for proton mass (mp),

N = Number of nuclei remaining (undecayed nuclei) = Initial number of nuclei present = fraction of original sample remaining = fraction of original sample that decayed = decay constant, larger indicates a faster decay e = logarithm to base e linear form: where y = ln N and x = t

Energy conversions 1 u = 1.66 x 10 kg -19 1 eV = 1.60 x 10 J -13 1 MeV = 1.60 x 10 J Energy equivalent of 1 u using mass-energy equation is -10 1.49 x 10 J = 934 MeV
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Oscillations Formulae
Time period (T)

Simple pendulum oscillations

T = time take for one oscillation f = number of oscillations in 1 second = displacement: from mean to extreme position l = length of pendulum: from support to middle of bob g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 ms-2)

Angular frequency ( ):

Mass-spring system oscillations

= also known as angular velocity and angular speed = amount of angle covered t = unit time

Simple Harmonic Motion, SHM (

periodic motion in which acceleration of oscillating body is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and always acts towards that point = displacement from a fixed point (amplitude) a = acceleration of the body towards the fixed point = angular frequency

For all oscillations

Fmax = maximum resultant force (restoring force) F = resultant force acting at any instant k = spring constant = m can be only used in mass-spring system, but not in simple pendulum oscillations in spring systems, to increase T increase m or decrease k in series: so extension increases, effective k decreases, so T increases in parallel, so extension decreases, effective k increases, so T decreases

= maximum displacement = maximum kinetic energy

Condition for exponential decay in Damped Oscillations

For oscillations starting from Equilibrium position

= initial amplitude at t = 0 = amplitude of second oscillation = amplitude of third oscillation for Damped oscillations, amplitude decreases with time, halflife is equal (time taken for equilibrium = resultant force is zero equilibrium position = position at which a = 0 (or = 0) kinetic energy is maximum at equilibrium position potential energy is zero at equilibrium position for to fall to to fall to and the time taken are the equal)

Condition for Resonance in Forced Oscillations

For oscillations starting from Extreme position

= driving frequency at which oscillator vibrates = natural frequency of the oscillator resonance = when equals , system oscillates at maximum amplitude and transfers a large amount of energy

Total energy in SHM

extreme position = position at which a = max (or = momentarily at rest means v = 0 kinetic energy is zero at extreme ends potential energy is maximum at extreme ends ) if no energy is lost from the oscillator, throughout its motion remains constant

Astrophysics and Cosmology Formulae

Newtons Law of Gravitation ( )

Circular orbits: Orbital time period ( ) since

two masses m1 and m2 attract each other with a gravitational force, F G = Universal gravitational constant -11 2 -2 G = 6.67 x 10 m kg r = distant between centers of the masses M = mass of a given planet (or object) e.g.: Earth for calculations:

T = orbital speed of the object the follows circular path (e.g.: satellite orbiting around Earth) r = orbital radius (between centers of the 2 masses) if object is orbiting at height, h, above Earths surface, then r = rE + h where rE is radius of Earth M = mass of the object around which another smaller mass is orbiting (e.g.: Earths mass when a satellite is orbiting around it)

Keplers Law of Planetary Motion

Gravitational Field Strength (g)

F = gravitational force m = unit mass -2 At Earths surface g = 9.81 ms M = mass of a given planet (or object) e.g.: Earth r = distance from center of mass M to the point minus sign indicates this is an attracting force, never repulsive for calculations:

square of orbital period of a Planet is directly proportional to the cube of mean radii R = average distance between centers of Planet and Sun = mass of Sun

Gravitational Potential (Vg)

Circular orbits: Orbital speed (v) since

vg = work done (in this case, Potential Energy = mgh) per mass (m) -1 units: Jkg

if an object of mass, m, is in circular orbit round another much bigger mass, M, then the gravitational force, F, provides the necessary centripetal force (e.g.: satellite orbiting around Earth) orbital speed is independent of mass of the object that follows circular path (e.g.: satellite orbiting around Earth) r = radius of the orbit

Circular orbits: Orbital angular speed ( ) since

angular speed is also independent of mass of the object that is orbiting (e.g.: satellite or moon orbiting around earth)

Astronomical Distances and Conversions Astronomical Unit (AU) = distance between Earth & Sun, 11 1 AU = 1.50 x 10 m Light year = distance travelled by light in 1 year, 1 Light year = 9.46 x 10 m using where c = speed of light, t = 1 year Parallax second, Parsec (pc) = distance between Sun & a particular Star with a parallax angle of 1 arc second, 16 1 pc = 3.09 x 10 m = 3.26 Light years 1 arc second = 1 arc minute = degrees degrees
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Wiens Law (

= wavelength of light at which the energy output is maximum assumption: star is a perfect black body )

Redshift (z) of galaxies (

1 = 60 = 3600 (one degree = 60 arc minutes = 3600 arc seconds)

Radiation Flux (F) of a star

F = power received per unit area -2 = Radiation flux of Sun: 1350 Wm L = Luminosity of star: total output power of a star 26 = Luminosity of Sun: 3.9 x 10 W d = distance to the star, measured using Parallax method or Standard Candles for calculations: )

v = galaxys speed away from us c = speed of light = original wavelength of light = difference between the original wavelength and the wavelength observed = Dopplers shift: difference between observed frequency and the source frequency Or the difference between observed wavelength and the source wavelength where f is apparent frequency f = original frequency of light limitation: the star should be showing red shift, otherwise will be negative, which indicates the star is moving towards Earth )

Hubbles Law (

Stefan-Boltzmann Law (

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant -8 -2 -4 = 5.67 x 10 W m K A = surface area of the star T = absolute temperature of the star in K r = radius of star assumptions: star is a sphere and a perfect black body (perfect radiator) Suns surface temperature: 5800 K

v = recessional speed of the star or galaxy = Hubbles constant -18 -1 = 2 x 10 s d = distance of star or galaxy from Earth -1 sometimes v is measured in km s and d is measured in -1 -1 Mpc so units of can be km s Mpc red shift, can also be equated as