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Contents Introduction History Triple Canal Project Post Independence Era Indus Water Treaty Physical System Facts And Figures Salient Features of Barrages y Barrages on Indus River y Taunsa Barrage Tarbela Barrage Ghazi Barotha Barrage Jinnah Barrage Chashma Barrage Guddu Barrage Sukkhur Barrage Kotri Barrage
Page Number 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 12 12 12
Barrages on Chenab River Maralla Head Works Khanki Head Works Qadirabad Barrage Trimmu Barrage Punjnad Barrage 14 15 15 15 16
Salient Features of Off-Taking Canals y Ravi River Off-Taking Canals Chenab River Off-Taking Canals Sutlej River Off-Taking Canals Jhelum River Off-Taking Canals Indus River Off-Taking Canals References 17-18
18-21
21-23
23-24
24-31 32
Water from the Indus empties onto the plains through regulatory structures known as rim stations. About 173 billion cubic metres pass through the rim stations, about 128 billion cubic metres of which is diverted for irrigation. But this figure is still insufficient to meet agricultural irrigation requirements, and the shortfall of about 40 per cent is made up from groundwater pumping. The associated canal network is massive, with 43,561 kilometres of canals, 18,884 kilometres of seepage/storm water drains and 12,612 kilometres of tile drains, mostly in the Indus Plain provinces of Punjab and Sindh. This system of reservoirs and canals forms the basis of the Indus Basin irrigation system and is thus absolutely essential to agriculture.
History
The first canals were constructed some five or six centuries ago and extended under the Mughal Emperors. The early canals were inundation channels and delivered water to the fields when rivers were in high flow during the summer. They tended to be unpredictable in operation and subjected both to frequent breaches and serious siltation problems. The next stage in the evaluation of the Irrigation System was construction of perennial canals having permanent headworks. These headworks either did not extend across the entire stream or allowed the floods to pass over their crests. The first evidence of perennial irrigation on any of the Indus rivers dates back to early seventeenth century when a 80 Km long canal was constructed by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir (reigned 1605-27) to bring water from the right bank of the Ravi to the pleasure gardens of Sheikhupura near Lahore. The irrigation system which exists today was stated in the nineteenth century under the British administration. In the early 19th century, there were numerous inundation canals leading from the Indus River and its tributaries. The more important of these were the Upper and Lower Sutlej canals, the Shahpur canals, the Chenab canals and the Indus canals in Punjab and Bahawalpur. In the Sindh, where the Indus River flows more or less on a ridge, conditions were particularly favorable for inundation canals. Among Sindhs 19th century canals were the Desert, the Begari, the Sukkur, the Fuleli, the Pinyari and the Kalri canals. From the middle of the 19th century onwards, a large number of inundation canals were remodelled and fitted with permanent headworks and new canals with weir controlled supply were constructed for the Sindh, Punjab and NWFP areas. The first permanent headworks constructed in 1887 was the Marala Barrage, which started supplying water to the Upper Chenab Canal in 1915. In 1889, a project was prepared for the irrigation of part of the Rechna Doab. The project envisaged the diversion of the Chenab waters by means of a weir at Khanki. The project was sanctioned in 1890 and the Chenab Canal, now called the Lower Chenab Canal, was opened in 1892.
A similar scheme was sanctioned for the irrigation of the area between the Chenab and the Jhelum (Chaj Doab) from a weir at Rasul on the Jhelum River. Construction was started in 1897 and the Jhelum Canal, now called the Lower Jhelum Canal was opened in 1901. After World War-I, the Sukkur Barrage Project, the first barrage constructed on the Indus River was started in 1923 and was commissioned to irrigation in 1932. During 1921 the Sutlej Valley Project was sanctioned for the development of the Punjab, Bikaner (now in India) and Bahawalpur states areas. The Project consisting of four (4) weirs on the Sutlej River at Ferozepur, Sulemanki, Islam and Panjnad and 11 canals were completed by 1933. The Trimmu Barrage, located below the junction of the Jhelum and the Chenab Rivers was started in 1837 and completed in 1939, was the last barrage completed prior to World War II. At the time of independence the Kalabagh Barrage (Jinnah), Kotri Barrage on the Indus River and the Bhakra Dam in India on the Sutlej River were under construction.
commanded area of 1.13 million ha (2.8 million acres) of land, with the construction of the Kotri Barrage at Kotri (1947-1955). Similarly, the Guddu Barrage built (1953-1962) at the head of Upper Sindh Inundation Canals system, converted the Upper Sindh Inundation Canals into a controlled perennial canals system for the irrigation of 1.13 million ha of land. The Taunsa Barrage built (1953-1958) on the Indus provided weir-controlled irrigation supplies to culturable commanded area of 687,970 ha. This barrage is multipurpose and also provides bridges for road and railway and head regulator for the Taunsa-Panjnad Link-Canals. In 1954, the World Bank put forward a proposal for the equitable distribution of the water resources available to India and Pakistan.
Roaman Nargus 7 2005 Operation Resarch a concept to transfer water from the Western Rivers i.e. Indus, Jhelum and Chenab to the Eastern Rivers, i.e. Ravi and Sutlej after the Indus water treaty of 1960. Whereas, the feeder canals taken out from different head works are meant mainly to irrigate the agricultural lands throughout. The waters of the Indus Basin Rivers are diverted through reservoirs/barrages into canals, classified as the Main Canals. These main canals then distribute the irrigation water into their command areas through a network of branch canals.
Major Irrigation Channels 1. Head works / Barrages 2. Main Canal Systems 3. Length of Main Canals and Branches 4. Distributaries and Minors 5. Length of Distributaries and Minors 6. Total Off-take Capacity 7. Total Off-take Outlets 8. Gross Command Area 9. Culture able Command Area 10. Overall Annual Permissible Irrigation 11. Overall Designed Annual Intensity of Irrigation 12. Actual Irrigation 13. Actual Intensity of Irrigation 14. Length of Inter-river Links 15. Off-take Capacity of Links 16. Operable SCARP Tube wells 17. Other Operable Tube wells 18. Length of Surface Drains 19. Length of Flood Embankment 20. Spurs 18 No. 21 No. 3993 Miles 2794 No. 19291 Miles 1,20,000 Cfs 50,000 No. 23.35 Ma. 20.78 Ma. 13.96 Ma. 67% 25.50 Ma. 122% 528 Miles 1,10,000 Cfs 7943 No. 1135No. 4900 Miles 1600 Miles 500 No.
31 No.
Tounsa Barrage
Year Of Completion : The Taunsa Barrage was completed in 1958 Location : Taunsa Barrage is located 20 km southeast of Taunsa Sharif city on the Indus river in the Punjab province of Pakistan Design Discharge : 750000 cusecs Length : 4346 feet No. Of Bays : 53 No. Of Under sluices : 12 Crest Level : 6
Tarbela Dam
Year Of Completion : The dam was completed in 1976 Location : Located about 50km North West of Islamabad at tarbela in Swabi, shortly located at the point from where the District Haripur, in hazara division starts. Design Discharge : The main spillway has a discharge capacity of 18,406 cubic metres per second (650,000 cu ft/s) and the auxiliary spillway, 24,070 cubic metres per second (850,000 cu ft/s). Length : 2,743.2 metres (9,000 ft) No. Of Bays : No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : Off Taking Canals :
Jinnah Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1946 Location : Situated at Kalabagh in Mianwali District of the north-west Punjab province, bordering the Province On the Indus River. Design Discharge : 950000 cusecs
Roaman Nargus 12 2005 Operation Resarch Length : 3360 feet No. Of Bays : 42 No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : Off Taking Canals : 1
Chashma Barrage
Year Of Completion : The project was built between 1967 and 1971. Location : Chashma Barrage wetland site is located Indus Monsoon Forest, some 25 km southwest of Mianwali, Punjab, Pakistan. Design Discharge : 1176000 cusecs Length : 3556 feet No. Of Bays : 52 No. Of Under sluices : 11 Crest Level : Off Taking Canals : 2
Guddu Barrage
Year Of Completion : The barrage was completed in 1962. Location : Guddu Barrage is a barrage across river Indus, near Kashmore in Pakistan. Design Discharge : 1.2 million cubic feet per second (34,000 m/s) / 1200000cusecs Length : 3840 feet No. Of Bays : 64 bays No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : Off Taking Canals : 5
Sukkur Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1932 Location : barrage across the Indus river near the city of Sukkur, Pakistan. Design Discharge : 1500000 cusecs Length : 4490 feet No. Of Bays : 54 No. Of Under sluices : 12 Crest Level : 177 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 7
Kotri Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1955 Location : Located southeast of Karachi near Hyderabad Design Discharge : 750000 cusecs Length : 915 metres (3,000 ft) long No. Of Bays : 44 No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : 48 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 4
Roaman Nargus 14 2005 Operation Resarch Length : 10,300 feet No. Of Bays : No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : Off Taking Canals : 1
Rasool Barrage
Year Of Completion : It was constructed in 1968 Location : is located on the Jehlum River, 4 km downstream of the Rasul Weir and 72 km from the Mangla Dam. Design Discharge : 24070 cubic meter per second/876000 cusecs Length : 3,209 feet No. Of Bays : 42 No. Of Under sluices : 6 Crest Level : 703 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 2
Islam Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1927 Location : Sutlej river Design Discharge : 300000 cusecs Length : 1650 feet No. Of Bays : 29 No. Of Under sluices : 4 Crest Level : 435.5 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 2
Mailsi Siphon
Year Of Completion : 1965 Location : This siphon is located on Sutlej river near Mailsi Design Discharge : 286 cumecs/429000 cusecs Length : 1,601 feet No. Of Bays : 24 No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : 415.5 S.P.D
Roaman Nargus 16 2005 Operation Resarch No. Of Bays : 66 No. Of Under sluices : 13 Crest Level : 800 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 2
Qadirabad Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1967 Location : Located on the river Chenab in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is lies in Phalia tehsil of Mandi Bahauddin District. Design Discharge : 900000 cusecs Length : 3,373 feet No. Of Bays : 50 No. Of Under sluices : 5 Crest Level : 684.5 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 1
Trimmu Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1939 Location : It is situated some 25 km away from the city of Jhang westwars, at the famous town of Atharan Hazari where there is the confluence of rivers Chenab and Jhelum. Design Discharge : 645000 cusecs Length : 3025 feet No. Of Bays : 37 No. Of Under sluices : No of Left Under Sluice Portion 5, No of Right Under Sluice Portion 6 Crest Level : Crest Level of Main Weir 477.50, Crest Level of Under Sluice 472.00 Off Taking Canals : 3
Punjnad Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1929 Location : Chenab river Design Discharge : 700000 cusecs Length : 2856 feet No. Of Bays : 47 No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : 325 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 2
Roaman Nargus 18 2005 Operation Resarch Year Of Completion : 1914 Location : River ravi Design Discharge : 140000 cusecs Length : 1644 feet No. Of Bays : 35 No. Of Under sluices : Crest Level : 625.5 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 2
Sidhnai Barrage
Year Of Completion : 1965 Location : Located on Ravi river Design Discharge : 167000 cusecs Length : 712 feet No. Of Bays : 15 No. Of Under sluices : 4 Crest Level : 454 S.P.D Off Taking Canals : 2
CANALS
River Ravi Balloki Barrage Balloki-Sulemanki Link Canal Design Discharge: 6,500 cusecs Length of Canal: 39 miles Lower Bari Duab Canal Location: Multan
Roaman Nargus 19 2005 Operation Resarch Design Discharge: Head discharge is 9292 cusecs and tail discharge is 1000 cusecs Length of Canal: 132.14 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 2130937 and culturable area is 1845974 Sidhnai Barrage Sidhnai-Mailsi Bahawal Link Canal Location: Multan Design Discharge: 10,100 cusecs Length of Canal: 4.132 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 4071 and culturable area is 3724 Sidhnai Canal RIVER CHENAB Maralla Barrage Upper Chenab Canal Location: Lahore Zone Design Discharge: Head discharge is 16850 cusecs and tail discharge is 11373 cusecs Length of Canal: 26.659 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 19600 and culturable area is 12449 Maralla Ravi Link Canal Location: Lahore Zone Design Discharge: Head discharge is 22000 cusecs and tail discharge is 20000 cusecs Length of Canal: 63.463 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 165598 and culturable area is 154987 BRBD Link Canal (Bambawala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur Canal) Location: Lahore Zone Design Discharge: Head discharge is 7260 cusecs and tail discharge is 2380 cusecs
Khanki Headworks Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) Location: Faisalabad Zone Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8143 cusecs Length of Canal: 40.058 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 3700000 and culturable area is 3400000 Qadirabad Barrage Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal Location: Hafizabad Zone Design Discharge: 18,600 cusecs Length of Canal: 79.483 miles Trimmu Barrage Rangpur Canal Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal Location: (Sidhnai) Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 12500cusecs and tail discharge is 10000 cusecs Length of Canal: 44 miles Haveli Canal Punjnad Barrage Punjnad Canal Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge: Head discharge is 10484 cusecs and tail discharge is 4274 cusecs Length of Canal: 38 miles
Roaman Nargus 21 2005 Operation Resarch Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 1293941 and culturable area is 1186537 Abbasia Canal Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge: Head discharge is 1394 cusecs and tail discharge is 587 cusecs Length of Canal: 44.915 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 117663 and culturable area is 111333 RIVER SUTLEJ Sulemanki Barrage Pakpatan Canal Location: Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 5508 cusecs and tail discharge is 24 cusecs Length of Canal: 113.47 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 1046326 and culturable area is 961158 Eastern Sadqiya Canal Location: Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 6820 cusecs and tail discharge is 5106 cusecs Length of Canal: 49 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 616035 and culturable area is 547472 Fordwah Canal Location : Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 3447 cusecs and tail discharge is 2993 cusecs Length of Canal: 8.97 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 465024 and culturable area is 430112 Islam Barrage Qasim Canal
Roaman Nargus 22 2005 Operation Resarch Location: Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 483.00 cusecs and tail discharge is 61 cusecs Length of Canal: 7.43 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 55804 and culturable area is 52797 Bahawal Canal Location: Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 500 cusecs and tail discharge is 386 cusecs Length of Canal: 2.40 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 57469and culturable area is 52023 Mailsi Siphon Sidhnai-Mailsi Bahawal Link Canal Location: (Baghdad) Bahawalpur Design Discharge: Head discharge is 5338 cusecs and tail discharge is 5123 cusecs Length of Canal: 30.40 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 1229174 and culturable area is 1048805 RIVER JHELUM Mangla Dam Upper Jhelum Canal Year of Completion:1915 Length of Canal: 730.8 miles Rasool Barrage Rasool Qadirabad Link Canal Location: It is a main canal located in Rasul Division. Design Discharge: 19,000 cusecs Length of Canal: 30 miles
Roaman Nargus 23 2005 Operation Resarch Lower Jhelum Canal Year of Completion:1901 Location: It is a main canal located in Rasul Division. Design Discharge: Its authorized head discharge is 5500.00.Its authorized tail discharge is 3705.00 Length of Canal: 39.366 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross command area is 1728349.00.Its Culturable command area is 1485776.00. INDUS RIVER Tarbela Dam Ghazi Barrage Ghazi Barotha Power Channel Jinnah Barrage
Thal Canal
The amount of water that it carries is 2.534 MAF. It is divided into 2 different divisions.
Roaman Nargus 24 2005 Operation Resarch Chashma Barrage Chashma Right Bank Canal (CRBC) Design Discharge: 2500 cusecs Length of Canal: 71 miles Area to Be Irrigated: 261,000 acres Chashma Jhelum Link Canal Design Discharge: 21,700 cusecs Length of Canal: 63 miles Tonsa Barrage Kachi Canal (Under Construction) LOCATION : Punjab: Muzaffar Garh, D.G.Khan, Rajanpur Distts Balochistan: Dera Bugti, Naseerabad, Bolan, Jhal Magsi Districts Length : 500 Km (300 Km Lined in Punjab 200 Km Unlined in Balochistan) Capacity : 6000 Cusecs Distributaries & Minors 2000 KM, 713000 Acres
Command Area: PHASE-I: 102,000 CCA PHASE-II: 267,000 CCA PHASE-III: 344,000 CCA Dera Ghazi Khan Canal (DGK Canal) Location: It is a main canal located in D.G Khan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8900 and tail discharge is 5514 Length of Canal: 69.046 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 947874 and cultural command area is 901984 Taunsa Punjnad Canal (TP Canal) Location: DG Khan (Lashari)
Roaman Nargus 25 2005 Operation Resarch Design Discharge: Head discharge 1200 Length of Canal: 38.20 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 2150000 and cultural command area is 2000000 Muzaffargarh Link Canal Location: Muzaffargarh Zone Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8901 and tail discharge is 2776 Length of Canal: 74.14 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 906490 and cultural command area is 838380 Guddu Barrage Pat Feeder Desert Feeder Design Discharge:419 cumecs Area to Be Irrigated: 185000 acres Begari Sindh Feeder Design Discharge: 372 cumecs Ghotki Canal Design Discharge: 238 cumecs Raine Canal Sukkhur Barrage Nara Canal Mirwah Canal Rohri Canal Abul Wah Right side canals are Dadu Canal
Roaman Nargus 26 2005 Operation Resarch Rice Canal Khirthar Canal Kotri Barrage Kotri Baghar Feeder Design Discharge: 255 cumecs Phuleli Design Discharge: 391 cumecs Pinjari Design Discharge: 408 cumecs Akram Wah Design Discharge: 116 cumecs
Book on Irrigation and soil salinity in the Indian subcontinent: past and present
By N. T. Singh
BARRAGES IN Pakistan
Sr.N o Barrage name River on which barrage occurs Lengt h(ft) Discharge (1000*cfs ) Year of completio n No.of f takin g canal s 1 2 4 5 7 4 1 2 2 No.o f bays Crest level No.of sluice s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
42 52 53 64 54 44 42 66
11 12 12 6 13
Roaman Nargus 28 2005 Operation Resarch S.P.D 726.5727 S.P.D 684.5 S.P.D 477.5 S.P.D 325 S.P.D 624.5 S.P.D 454 S.P.D 560 S.P.D 435.5441 S.P.D 415.5 S.P.D
10
khanki
Chenab
4000
750
1892
48
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1 3 2 2 2 3 2
50 37 47 35 15 24 29
5 14 4 16 4
18
Mailsi syphon
Sutlej
1601
429
1965
24
Pakistan, a country of enchanting landscapes offers a combination of beaches, mountains, beautiful deserts and valleys. Its vast farm lands are sustained by the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS), the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world. The IBIS irrigates 45 million acres of farm land which produces wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables, sugarcane, maize and cotton in abundance for local use as well as for export.
Roaman Nargus 29 2005 Operation Resarch This report provides the historical context in which the IBIS was developed. It discusses the economic impact of the IBIS on Pakistan, and provides recommendations for some current problems related to insufficient drainage and inefficient farming practices.
Historical Background
The Indus Valley has been the host to one of the most ancient civilization of human history, the Indus Valley Civilization. After the extinction of the Indus Civilization, new settlements especially in doabs grew slowly. New irrigation systems started to evolve. Inundation canals and small dams were constructed and population grew all around this area. In order to reduce the occurrence of low irrigation water supply the British authorities, towards the middle of the last century, started modernizing and expanding the irrigation system of the Indus Basin.
Pakistans IBIS
Pakistans economy is largely based on its agricultural produce. Water is therefore a critical resource for its sustained economic development. In order to fully utilize the river water resources, the IBIS has emerged as the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world. The IBIS comprises of three large dams, eighty five small dams, nineteen barrages, twelve inter-river link canals, forty-five canal commands and 0.7 million tube wells In monetary terms, this network is the biggest infrastructure enterprise of Pakistan accounting for approximately US$ 300 billion of investment.
Roaman Nargus 30 2005 Operation Resarch A. The average annual flow of Western Rivers of Indus Basin is approximately 142 million acre feet (MAF). About 104 MAF of this water is diverted for irrigation purposes and about 35 million acre feet outflows to the Arabian Sea.
Rain Water:
Another source of water is the rain fall. Irrigated areas of Indus Basin receive on average 40 million acres feet of water annually. C. Ground Water: The third source of water is the ground water. It provides approximately 40 percent of crop water requirements of the country.
Roaman Nargus 31 2005 Operation Resarch 4. Develop agricultural based industries and timber factories in the rural areas to provide employment to small farmers and increase the percentage of value added goods for export. 5. Group small farms into larger units for cooperative farming using the latest irrigation and farming techniques and modern agricultural practices. 6. Increase the production of beans, lentils and edible oil seeds to reduce their imports. 7. Develop pastures for cattle farming and increase milk and meat production. 8. Big land holdings more than five thousand acres of area should be made available for co operative farming. 9. The level and standard of research should be enhanced in the existing agricultural universities of Pakistan.
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Roaman Nargus 32 2005 Operation Resarch 3.4 Waterlogging, Drainage, Salinity, and Flood Protection 4 Institutional Environment 5 Trends in Water Resources Management 6 Further Reading
The Himalayan mountain ranges in the north-western part on the border with India and China. The highest peak, the Godwin-Austin (8,611 meters) is part of the Trans-Himalayan Range; The Hindu Kush and the Western Mountains in the north on the border with Afghanistan. The Tirichmir (7,690 m) is the highest peak in the Hindu Kush range; The Potwar Plateau, just south of Islamabad. The elevation varies from 300 to 600 meters (m). South of the Potwar Plateau is the Salt Range; The Indus Plain, stretching from the Salt Range to the Arabian Sea. This flat plain is largely made up of alluvium, over 300 m deep, deposited by the Indus river and its tributaries; The Balochistan Plateau in the southwest of the country, with an average altitude of about 600 m. Dry hills run across theplateau from north-east to south-west. A large part of the northwest is desert.
The total cultivable area was estimated at 29.9 million hectares (ha) in 1990, which is 37% of the total area, mainly concentrated in the Indus plain. In 1990, the total cultivated area was estimated at almost 16.6 million ha, or 55% of the cultivable area, of which 16.1 million ha consisted of annual crops and almost 0.5 million ha consisted of permanent crops.
The total population is 141 million (1995), of which 65% is rural. Average population density is 177 inhabitants per km2, but the population is mainly concentrated in theIndus plain. Average annual population growth is estimated at about 3.2%. In 1992,agriculture accounted for 26% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and providedemployment to 48% of the labor force. It supplies most of the country's food, but is also the source of raw materials for major domestic industries, particularly for cotton products which account for 80% of export earnings.
Water Resources
Pakistan can be divided into three hydrological units:
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The Indus basin, covering more than 566,000 km2 (or 71% of the territory), comprising the whole of the provinces of the Punjab, Sindh, and NWFP and the eastern part of Balochistan. The Indus river has 2 main tributaries, the Kabul on the right bank and the Panjnad on the left bank. The Panjnad is the resulting flow of five main rivers (literally Punjab means "five waters"): the Jhelum and Chenab, known as the western rivers, and the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej known as the eastern rivers. The Karan desert in the west of Balochistan (in the west of the country), which is an endorheic basin covering 15% of the territory. The Mashkel and Marjen rivers are the principal source of water in the basin. The water is discharged in the Hamun-i-Mashkel lake, in the south-west at the border with Iran. The arid Makran coast along the Arabian Sea covering 14% of the territory in its southwestern part (Balochistan province). The Hob, Porali, Hingol, and Dasht are the principal rivers of this coastal zone.
The internal renewable water resources are estimated at 248 cubic kilometers per year (km3/year). Surface runoff is estimated at 243 km3, while groundwater resources are about 55 km3, most being the baseflow of the river system. The Indus basin has a total drainage area of 1.06 million km2, of which 56% lies in Pakistan, and the other 44% in China,Afghanistan, and India. Because of the importance of irrigation in the Indus plain, the water balance of the Indus basin has been carefully studied, which is not the case for the other basins. Therefore most of the results found refer only to the Indus basin. The mean annual inflow into the country through the western rivers (the Indus, including the Kabul tributary, the Jhelum and the Chenab) amounted to 170.27 km3 in 1995. The mean annual natural inflow into the country through the eastern rivers (the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej) is estimated at 11.1 km3, but this is reserved for India, according to the 1960 Indus Water Treaty. Given the seasonal nature of the Himalayan runoff, roughly 85% of annual flows are in the Kharif season (summer), and only 15 % in the Rabi season (winter).
installed capacity, and 47.5% of total energy generation, Tarbela dam alone represents 36.7% of the total. The gross theoretical hydropower potential was estimated in 1991 at 150,000 gigawatt hours per year (GWh/year).
Water Withdrawal
Total water withdrawal in 1991 was estimated at 156 km3, of which 96.8% for agricultural purposes (1.6% is withdrawn for domestic use and another 1.6% for industrial use). Groundwater abstraction for agriculture has been roughly estimated at 55 km3/year, which is approximately the volume of groundwater renewable resources. However, in some areas, development appears to have reached the point where groundwater is being mined. Most urban and rural water is supplied from groundwater. Over 50% of the village water supply is obtained through hand pumps installed by private households. In saline groundwater areas, irrigation canals are the main source of domestic water.
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the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS), which is by far the largest irrigation system in Pakistan, covering areas in all provinces. In 1993, irrigated areas in the IBIS were estimated at 13,972,500 ha; in NWFP, about 7,800 ha are irrigated through pump lifts. They are maintained by the Provincial Irrigation Department (PID); in northern parts of NWFP, irrigation is practiced by means of contour channels off-taking from the locally available water sources, often steep side streams or springs. Most of these schemes which cover about 26,700 ha are owned and operated directly by the beneficiaries through traditional social organizations; in Balochistan, about 50,000 ha are irrigated from about 800 karezes (tunnels or underground channel tapping an aquifer) and perennial springs. They are generally small group-operated schemes, with a size ranging between 50 and 400 ha; in Balochistan, about 130,000 ha of small group-operated schemes are irrigated from infiltration galleries or small weirs inrivers; in Balochistan, about 130,000 ha are irrigated by individuals pumping from tubewells and 10,000 ha from open wells.
Spate irrigation, covering a total area of 1,402,448 ha. In Pakistan, these areas are known as Rod Kohi in NWFP and Punjab, or Bandat in Balochistan, and are often called flood irrigation. This kind of irrigation relies on the floods of the hill torrents. Wherever possible, the runoff is harnessed for irrigation by weirs or temporary diversion structures. Farmers divert the spate flow onto their fields by constructing breachable earth bunds (called gandas) across the rivers, or by constructing stone/gravel spurs leading towards the center of the river. Captured water flows from field to field and when the soil profile is saturated, the lower bund is breached to release water into another field. Annual average cropping intensity is 20%. Flood recession cropping areas, covering a total area of 1,230,552 ha. In Pakistan these areas are known as Sailaba, and are often called falling flood irrigation areas. Sailaba cultivation is carried out on extensive tracts of land along the rivers and hill streamssubject to annual inundation. It utilizes the moisture retained in the root zone after the flood subsides together with sub-irrigation due to the capillary rise of groundwater and any rain.
Apart form these water managed areas, some attempts have been made to develop water harvesting, which is known in Pakistan as Khushkaba. According to the usual Pakistani classification irrigation consists of:
y y y y y y
Government canals: 11,310,000 ha in 1990, of which 74% in the Punjab and 20% in the Sindh province; Private canals: 430,000 ha, of which 86% are in NWFP; Tubewells: 4,260,000 ha, of which 92% in Punjab province; Open wells: 280,000 ha, of which 82% in Punjab province; Tanks: 60,000 ha, all of them in Punjab; Other means: 620,000 ha, of which 73% in Sindh province.
In 1989, 305 231 tubewells were used for irrigation in Pakistan, most of them being privately owned and using diesel. The total water managed area of 16.96 million ha is higher than the total cultivated area (16.56 million ha). This is due to the fact that not all the water managed areas are actually cultivated. This is especially the case for spate irrigation and flood recession cropping areas. The main irrigated crops are wheat, rice, and cotton. Due to inadequate water availability in winter (storage capacity is too small) and at the beginning and end of summer, cropping intensity is exceptionally low.
supplied through outlets (moghas) from the distributaries and minors. The mogha is designed to allow a discharge that self-adjusts to variations in the parent canal. Within the watercourse command (an area ranging from 80 to 280 ha), farmers receive water proportional to their land holding. The entire discharge of the watercourse is given to one farm for a specified period on a seven day rotation. The rotation schedule, called warabandi, is established by the Provincial Irrigation Department, unless the farmers can reach a mutual agreement.
provided through public tubewells 7.5%. In 1990, the figures were 63%, 27% and 10% respectively. The Water Resources Section of the Planning and Development Division has estimated average water losses from canal head to outlet at 25%, and from outlet to farm gate at 15%.
Institutional Environment
The Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), created in 1958 as a semi-autonomous body, is responsible for planning and execution of schemes pertaining to:
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Generation, transmission, and distribution of power; Irrigation, water supply and drainage; Prevention of waterlogging and reclamation of waterlogged and saline lands; Flood control; Inland navigation.
In power projects, WAPDA acts as the owner with responsibility for implementation as well as operation and maintenance of the power stations and distribution systems. In other projects, the authority acts as the government agency for the execution of schemes (including drainage schemes), which upon completion are transferred to Provincial Irrigation Departments (PID) for operation and maintenance. However, WAPDA remains responsible for the operation and maintenance of large multipurposereservoirs and inter-provincial link canals. The PIDs have historically been responsible for all water-sector activities at the provincial level, including planning, development, and the operation and maintenance of irrigation, drainage, flood control, and reclamation works. However, the role of WAPDA has progressively grown in relation to several of these activities. Currently, the main responsibility of the PIDs relates to the operation and maintenance of the irrigation, drainage, and flood-control systems.
Under the provision of the Irrigation and Drainage Act, the PID is responsible for all aspects of the distribution and use of irrigation supplies including on-farm use; however, in practice, the responsibility ends at the end of the watercourse (mogha). The Provincial Agriculture Departments (PAD) are mainly responsible for organizing input distribution and the extension service to farmers, and notably farm management. The PADs are responsible for the implementation of the on-farm water management program. Farmers are responsible for operation and maintenance of watercourses and field canals. The Indus River System Authority (IRSA) has recently been established, with headquarters at Lahore, to provide continuing interaction and a resolution of any disputes among the four provinces on matters relating to sharing the Indus waters. The IRSA is comprised of one representative from each province and a member from the federal Government. The office of the Chief Engineering Advisor provides advisory services to the Ministry of Water and Power through its Water Engineering and Power Engineering sections, and coordinates the inter-provincial activities related to flood-control works. It acts also as the converter and coordinator of the Dam Safety Council. The 1967 Land Reform Act established a register of Rights, which is a cadastral register for land and water rights.
Groundwater extraction by tubewells may cause serious environmental problems and in certain areas, increasing exploitation by tubewells causes water tables to fall at the rate of about 0.3 meters per year. In a 1994 report, the World Bank proposed changing the Government's approach, and commercializing (in order to later privatize) all water services. The proposed strategy comprises:
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Market-determined incentives for irrigation and on-farm drainage; Establishment of Farmers Organizations; Drawing up enforceable property rights to water, the first steps being the establishment of communal water rights, which would later be translated into enforceable individual rights; Establishment on a canal command basis of public utilities responsible for operation and maintenance, cost recovery and future investment; Legalization of water markets.
The expected results would be: greater transparency in the cost of water leading to a greater efficiency in use, greater equity in distribution, and relief of pressure on groundwater resources.