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Earthing systems

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Appendix B
POWER SYSTEM EARTHING 1. INTRODUCTION

Earthing of electrical networks and installations is important to ensure correct operation and serves a vital role. These facts are amply reinforced in legislation and codes of practice, as you will find out later in the course. By earthing, we generally mean an electrical connection to the general mass of earth, the latter being a volume of soil/rock etc., whose dimensions are very large in comparison to the electricity system being considered.

1.1

Functions of an Earthing System.

To provide sufficiently low impedance to facilitate satisfactory protection operation under fault conditions. To ensure that living beings in the vicinity of substations are not exposed to unsafe potentials under steady state or fault conditions. To retain system voltages within reasonable limits under fault conditions (such as lightning, switching surges or inadvertent contact with higher voltage systems), and ensure that insulation breakdown voltages are not exceeded, i.e. insulation co-ordination. Custom and practice. Graded insulation can be used in power transformers. To limit the voltage to earth on conductive materials which enclose electrical conductors or equipment.

The most often quoted reasons for having an earthed system is:

Less often quoted reasons include: To stabilise the phase to earth voltages on electricity lines under steady state conditions, e.g. by dissipating electrostatic charges which have built up due to clouds, dust, sleet, etc. A means of monitoring the insulation of the power delivery system. To eliminate persistent arcing ground faults. To ensure that a fault which develops between the high and low voltage windings of a transformer can be detected by primary protection. To provide an alternative path for induced current and thereby minimise the electrical noise' in communication and signalling cables. Provide an equipotential platform on which electronic equipment can operate.

To perform adequately in fulfilling any of the above functions, the earthing system must generally have low impedance such that in dispersing or collecting current to/from the ground, an excessive voltage rise does not occur. Within installations an earth connection is also necessary to ensure the correct operation of some equipment - for example electronic devices, where an earthed shield may be required. It is essential to consider the earthing within a whole installation as one complete system and for this to be designed and installed accordingly. The earthing system is normally designed to provide two safety functions. The first, to prevent a shock due to different potentials on exposed metalwork, is achieved by bonding. Most electrical equipment is housed inside metal enclosures and if a live conductor comes into contact with this, the enclosure will temporarily also become live. Any parts of exposed conductive metalwork, which can be touched, are connected together via bonding conductors. This ensures

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that, should such an electrical fault develop, the potential on all exposed conductive metalwork is virtually the same. An equipotential 'platform' is thus created and a person who is in contact simultaneously with two different pieces of exposed metalwork should not receive a shock. The same principle applies within large electricity substations, railway installations, factories and houses. For example, within factories, bonding of exposed metalwork would normally ensure that an electrical fault to the frame of one machine did not create a potential difference between that and earthed metalwork on an adjacent machine. The second function of the earthing system is to ensure that, in the event of an earth fault, any fault current occurring can return to source in a controlled manner. By a controlled manner, we mean that the return path is predetermined such that damage to equipment or injury to individuals is avoided. The impedance of the earthing system should be low enough that sufficient earth fault current can flow to operate protective devices correctly, which will in turn initiate the operation of circuit breakers or fuses to successfully interrupt the flow of current.

1.2

Methods of Earthing

1.2.1 Unearthed or Insulated System.

This does not have a deliberate, formal connection to earth. There may be some high impedance connections for instrumentation, for example the coil of a measuring device. Under normal conditions the capacitance between each phase and earth is substantially the same. The effect is to stabilise the system with respect to earth so that, with a threephase system, the voltage of each phase to earth is the star voltage of the system. The neutral point, if any, is then at, or near, earth potential, see Figure 1. Faults on overhead distribution lines are not uncommon, particularly during bad weather conditions when branches of trees may fall onto the lines. When the first incident occurs, involving, say a contact between a conductor and earth; there may be no damage as there is not a complete metallic circuit to enable current to flow. This is different to an earthed system, where a significant current would flow. At first sight, the unearthed system may appear to be a safer and more reliable system. In reality a current would flow in the unearthed system, returning via capacitive coupling to the other two phases. The capacitive current flowing at the fault point is three times the normal capacitive current to earth from each phase of the whole system (Figure 2). The damage due to this fault should be negligible, because the total current is still relatively small. The current could be sufficient to risk electrocution if someone was to touch the damaged conductor. Power companies have experienced difficulty when trying to locate faults on this type of system. The introduction of an unearthed system into the UK would require a change in the Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations, 2002. The probability of a second fault is quite high, because the voltage across the remaining insulation will be at phase to phase level rather than phase to earth (i.e. an increase of "^3 in magnitude). This will stress the phase to earth insulation and may cause accelerated ageing and breakdown. A second fault is likely to involve considerable fault energy (leading to damage) and be hard to locate. It is thus important to remove the first fault as quickly as possible. Resonance can cause over-voltages on this type of system, for example via large circulating currents when a phase is grounded via a high inductance (e.g. instrument transformer). High impedance, intermittent arcing faults can cause similar problems and result in equipment failure. This is due to trapped charge effects on the neutral which can in theory lead to insulation being over-stressed by 6 to 7 times that of normal voltage. In practice, due to weather conditions, dust etc., the actual voltages measured have been lower, i.e. 3 or 4 times normal voltage.

1.2.2 Earthed Systems

An earthed system has at least one conductor or point (usually the neutral or star point) intentionally connected to earth. For reasons of cost and practicality, this connection is normally made near the position where the three individual transformer phase windings are joined, i.e. the star point or neutral. This method of earthing is adopted if there is a need

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to connect line to neutral loads to the system, to prevent the neutral voltage fluctuating significantly with load. The earth connection reduces the voltage fluctuation and unbalances, which would otherwise occur. Another advantage is that residual relays can be used to detect faults before they become phase to phase faults. This can reduce fault currents, the damage caused and the stresses imposed on other parts of the electrical network. The type of earthed system is classified according to the earth connection provided. The main types are:

Impedance Earthed System

Resistors and/or reactors are deliberately inserted in the connection between the neutral point and earth, normally to limit the fault current to an acceptable level. The position of the impedance is shown in Figures 3 and 4. The impedance can, in theory, be high enough that little more fault current flows than in the unearthed case. In practice, to avoid excessive transient over-voltages due to resonance with the system shunt capacitance, inductive earthing needs to allow at least 60 of the 3 phase short circuit capacity to flow for earth faults. This form of earthing has lower energy dissipation than resistive earthing. Arc-suppression coils (ASC's), also known as Peterson coils or ground fault neutralisers, can be used as the earth connection. These are tuned reactors, which neutralise the capacitive current of the healthy phases, so that any fault current is of low magnitude. Due to the self-clearing nature of this type of earthing it is effective in certain circumstances on medium voltage overhead systems, for example, those which are prone to a high number of transient faults and have many earthed points. The use of auto-reclosing circuit breakers led to the use of ASC's being marginalised within high and medium voltage systems. However, due mainly to improvements in the equipment available and protective system sophistication, there is increasing interest in ASC's. Their ideal application is for overhead line systems, which have a high number of earthed points (e.g. transformers), and many connected customers. There cannot be too much single phase line or cable, as this will compromise performance of the scheme. Resistance earthing is more commonly used, because it can allow the fault current to be limited and damp transient overvoltages, if the correct value of resistance is chosen. In distribution systems, particularly those at 11kV, it is common to find 750A, 1000A or 1500A Liquid Earth Resistors (LER's) installed in various combination to limit the earth fault current. In new installations, it is now more common to use stainless steel type resistors as shown in Figure 3. These require less space, have significantly lower maintenance costs and cool down more quickly than liquid resistors following the passage of fault current.

Low Impedance (solidly) Earthed System

This is the most common arrangement, particularly at low voltage. Here the neutral/earth connection is through an adequate connection in which no impedance has intentionally been added. The disadvantage of this arrangement is that the earth fault current is normally high, but the system voltages remain suppressed or low under fault conditions.

1.3

Earthing on LV Systems and within Premises

Having dealt with the type of earthing available on the Power System, we should briefly consider the low voltage system. Types of System There are a number of systems in place by which an earth connection can be given and there are now standard definitions for these in Europe. They are each identified by a coding, which contains the following letters: T N C S : terre, direct connection to earth. : neutral. : combined. : separate.

The main types are described below:

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T N -S

The incoming supply has a single point of connection between the supply neutral and earth at the supply transformer. The supply cables have separate neutral and earth protective conductors (S.N.E.). Generally the neutral conductor is a fourth 'core' and the earth conductor forms a protective sheath, or PE conductor. The customer may be provided with an earth terminal connected to the sheath of the service cable or to a separate earth conductor. This was a standard arrangement in the UK, prior to the introduction of protective multiple earthing (P.M.E or TN-C-S) systems.

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T N - C S The supply neutral is earthed at a number of points. The supply cables have a combined neutral and earth metallic outer sheath with a PVC covering (they are termed C.N.E. cables). The combined neutral earth sheath is the PEN (protective earth neutral) conductor. An earth terminal, which is connected to the supply neutral, is provided by the electricity supplier. The supply within the customers premise would normally be T N - S, i.e. the neutral and earth would be separate, linked only at the service position. If the neutral and earth are combined within the premises, then the system is termed a T N - C one. Before the customer is allowed to make use of the earth terminal, the supplier must be satisfied that all internal, normally exposed metalwork (such as water, gas, central-heating pipes etc.), is bonded together in the manner prescribed in the regulations. PNB Protective Neutral Bonding. This is a variation of the TN-C -S system in that the customer is provided with an earth terminal connected to the supply neutral, but the neutral is connected to earth at one point only, normally at or near to the customer's supply point. This arrangement is reserved for use when a single customer has his or her own transformer.

The remaining two systems are: T.T. This is a system where the supply is earthed at one point only, but the cable sheaths and exposed metalwork of the customer's installation are connected to earth via a separate electrode which is independent of the supply electrode. This is a system having no direct connection between live parts and earth, but with the exposed conductive parts of the installation being earthed. Sometimes a high impedance connection to earth is provided to simplify the protection scheme required to detect the first earth fault.

I.T.

Earthing arrangements within buildings in the UK and many other countries are required to conform to British Standard No.7671. This standard is based upon the 16th edition of the Institution of Electrical Engineers Regulations for Electrical Installations. The Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations do not apply, so an earth connection is not a statutory requirement and unearthed systems (such as the I.T. one above) are permitted. The underlying principle is first to take all reasonable precautions to avoid a direct contact with live electrical parts, and secondly to provide measures to protect against indirect contact. The latter involves effective earthing and bonding, and a system of protection which removes the fault condition. The principle is more commonly known as protective bonding. There are some locations where special earthing arrangements are necessary. These include: (a) Mines and Quarries. Under the 1989 Electricity at Work Regulations, the Health and Safety commission have issued two approved Codes of Practice:(i) (ii) The use of Electricity in Mines. The use of Electricity at Quarries.

Detailed guidance is given in these documents on the earthing arrangements which must be made. (b) At Petrol Filling Stations. The Health and Safety Executive issued H.S.E. Publication H.S.E. (41) covering the electrical installations at petrol filling stations. A particular concern is to avoid metal petrol tanks forming part of the neutral network on a TN-C system.

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(c) Lightning Protection of Buildings. This is covered in BS 6651. (d) Lift Installations. This is covered in BS 5655.

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1.4 Methods of Earthing used in Different Parts of the Electricity System

Figure 4 shows the methods of earthing generally used in different parts of the electricity system. These are explained in more detail as follows:

1.4.1 Generating Stations.

Generally have large earthing systems, although these have reduced in physical size, as the plants have become smaller. Significant benefit is derived from steel reinforcing piles, foundations etc, although the earthing system electrodes may be required to divert some fault current from these where necessary to prevent damage. The electrode system is normally 'reinforced' at points where high earth fault return currents are anticipated, for example near the generator transformers. Prospective earth fault currents can be very high, especially on systems within the plant. In most cases this fault current will return via the metallic earthing system and will not create a rise of earth potential. However, potential differences can occur between different parts of the electrode system and this must be accounted for in the design. Normally, the most serious fault condition from the Earth Potential Rise (EPR) perspective is the one on the system to which the plant is connected (132kV, 275kV etc). Special precautions are necessary regarding fuel pipelines and railway tracks, which leave the site.

1.4.2 Transmission Network and 132kV System.

These systems are multiply earthed via low impedance earth connections. Because the system is highly integrated and has many in-feed points, prospective earth fault currents are high, in the order of 20kA to 50kA. Gas insulated switchgear requires special attention because of high frequency effects. Supplies taken from these systems must be able to cope with such currents and the interference effects.

1.4.3 66kV and 33kV System

Normally the earth fault current on the secondary side is limited by introducing an impedance into the earth connection at transformer positions. This significantly reduces the prospective earth fault current, to typically 1000A to 1500A per transformer. This is normally achieved using earthing transformers or neutral point resisters or reactors. ESI 35/2 transformers have a high internal zero sequence impedance, so that the secondary star point may be directly connected to earth. Solid, negligible impedance earthing may also be used at remote locations where the fault level is low, because introduction of additional impedance may compromise the protection operation. Where circuits are mainly underground, it is likely that the rise of earth potential occurring will be low. Where circuits consist of wood pole supported, unearthed overhead lines, rise of earth potentials may be significant. This is because all or most of the earth fault current must return to source via the soil. The earthing system of those sites taking supplies at these voltages must generally be designed on a 'stand-alone' basis. In most cases, especially when supplied from an underground network, the electricity company and customer earthing systems will be connected together to provide a better overall system. Ideally, they should be designed together from the outset, such that they complement one another and produce a safer lower cost arrangement. This means of course that earth fault currents will flow through the customers earthing system and any rise of earth potential will appear throughout the installation. There are of course, some situations where it is best for the systems not to be connected. For example if the rise of earth potential is high and introduction into the customers plant could cause danger, or if corrosion could

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occur, for example due to DC traction return currents from the customer flowing along the lead sheaths of cables belonging to the distributor. In these cases, it is often better to provide supply at a lower voltage, allowing the transformer and different earthing systems to separate the two electrical systems.

1.4.4 11 kV/LV Distribution Substations 11kV Side.

The 11kV system is single point earthed at the primary substation. Different methods of earthing are used, including low, medium (resistance or inductance) and high impedance (e.g. Petersen Coil). The most common arrangement is medium impedance earthing which limits fault currents to between 1500A and 3000A per substation. Each distribution substation has an 11kV earthing system whose function is to ensure safe conditions around and within it during earth fault conditions. There is no physical connection between the star point and earth, anywhere except at the primary substation. The same general implications for customers taking supply at 11kV apply as in the 33kV/66kV case above.

LV Side
Generally the LV system has its own earth at the distribution substation. This would be installed a sufficient distance from the 11kV earth electrode such that only a small, safe potential would be transferred via the soil onto the LV electrode during 11kV fault conditions. The separation distance is generally between 3 and 9 metres, but needs to be checked by calculation. The standards and supply regulations most often now impose this duty on the designer. Connection of the 11kV and LV earths either directly at the substation, or by close proximity in the soil, will result in current and voltage associated with the 11kV fault being impressed on the LV earthing system. Such a connection is acceptable in the UK if the rise of earth potential is below 430V and the resistance of the combined earthing arrangement is less than one ohm. The over-riding factor is that conditions in the LV system must be safe. Most supplies are taken at LV and the most common arrangement in the UK is the TN-CS one. No impedance is deliberately introduced into earthing connections at LV, because this would make the task of identifying the earth fault condition and isolating it more difficult, as the voltage available to drive the fault current is already low. Electricity companies are not obliged to provide an earth terminal, although most do so (albeit with caveats, i.e. an indemnity clause and no legal responsibility for its performance). In exceptional circumstances, for example in rocky areas with high soil resistivity or if the continuity of the earth conductor cannot be guaranteed, then an earth terminal will not be provided. There are other circumstances where an earth terminal may not be provided, such as to petrol filling stations or street lighting fittings. Ideally a TT type arrangement is provided and in the case of streetlights, a non-conductive surface material can be used. On a TN-CS system, the earth terminal provided is not at zero potential. During normal conditions, it may be at a few volts compared to true earth, but may rise to one hundred volts or more during fault conditions and to almost phase voltage if the neutral is cut. Equipotential bonding is required within the property before use can be made of the earth terminal. The neutral is multiply earthed within the supply LV network to help reduce any voltage rise experienced. A National Code of Practice, ER G12/3, in the UK sets out the requirements for this system. The 'earth loop impedance' is required at the point of LV supply in order to design the electrical system within the building. This consists of the impedance of the earth in series with the ground return, plus that of the transformer winding. In a TN CS system, this path is in parallel with the neutral conductor.

EES (Bristol) Ltd, 62 Shirehampton Rd, Stoke Bishop, BRISTOL BS9 2DL T 0117 968 4002, F 0117 968 3536, E info@ees-group.co.uk Directors: C Bell, P Bell (Company Secretary) Registered No. 2563983 Page 9 of 11

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Typical values for supplies up to 100A are: Protective multiple earthed networks Cable sheath, continuous earth wire : 0.35 : 0.80

Other values and details are available in Engineering Recommendation P23/1. It is important to note that the earthing system is not necessarily at true earth potential. At electricity substations and within buildings, the system will usually have an AC standing voltage with some harmonic distortion.

1.5 Why Earthing is Considered Difficult

I feel this is partly due to past lack of interest, arising from the perceived low importance/cost of the earthing system and the difficulty of more detailed analysis required to understand the performance of an earthing system. Poor measurement techniques in the past have often left the commissioning engineer with the mistaken view that the earthing system has adequately low impedance. The tests used to measure the installed resistance value, must be carried out in a rigorous manner. If they are not, as we will demonstrate later in the course, almost any arbitrary value can mistakenly be obtained. It is thus possible to make the measured value match a predicted value, even if both are wrong. This fact is perhaps one of the reasons behind the "black art" description of earthing. It is also true that once one starts to analyse earthing systems in detail, using Carson's equations and extensive algorithms, the techniques are amongst the most difficult in electrical engineering. For most practical purposes a lot can be achieved by a basic understanding and being able to apply a number of straightforward rules and concepts. It is these, which we plan to explain during the course. Computing facilities have been developed, partly as part of the need to understand earthing in the process of calculating electric and electro-magnetic interference. These facilities help one to obtain a better feel for earthing concepts.

1.6 Cost of Earthing Systems.

Now onto the apparent lack of cost associated with earthing system. At one extreme, this can be viewed as perhaps just installing a bit of copper in the ground, with little apparent sophistication and at little cost. Subsequent costs, due to accidents with equipment or those affecting people/animals are also often considered as minimal. The real situation is that earthing systems are often being badly designed, using outdated techniques. This is resulting in over-expenditure and real dangers to people and equipment. The main saving grace so far is that there have been few reported accidents to date. We believe this is partly due to the presence of large amounts of hessian served cable in the UK. The unfortunate reality is that attention will be more closely focused on this subject when the inevitable accident follows on from present inadequate practice.

EES (Bristol) Ltd, 62 Shirehampton Rd, Stoke Bishop, BRISTOL BS9 2DL T 0117 968 4002, F 0117 968 3536, E info@ees-group.co.uk Directors: C Bell, P Bell (Company Secretary) Registered No. 2563983 Page 10 of 11

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References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Characteristics of Different Power Systems Neutral Grounding Techniques: fact or Fiction. F J Angelini and D D Ship, IEEE. J&P Transformer Book. IEEE Std. 141-1986, "IEEE Practice for Grounding of Industrial Power Systems" (IEEE Green Book, IEEE, NY). M.G. Say, Electrical Earthing and Accident Prevention, NEWNES. Neutral Earthing in the Hungarian System, F. Kovacs, Z. Reguly, UNIPEDE, Lisbon, October 25-27, 1989. The National Electric Code Handbook; NFPA 1987. Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations, 2002 - N 2665 BS6651 Lightning protection for structures 2000 BS7430 Code of practice for Earthing, 1999 EA TS 41-24 Guidelines for the design, installation, testing and maintenance of main earth systems in substations. NGTS 3.1.2 Substation Earthing

EES (Bristol) Ltd, 62 Shirehampton Rd, Stoke Bishop, BRISTOL BS9 2DL T 0117 968 4002, F 0117 968 3536, E info@ees-group.co.uk Directors: C Bell, P Bell (Company Secretary) Registered No. 2563983 Page 11 of 11