Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

1.0

Atoms and Elements

1.1 Classification of Matter Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

A substance is a form of matter that has a definite composition and distinct properties. e.g. water, ammonia, sucrose, gold, oxygen 1. An element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. e.g. Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O). 2. A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. It can only be separated into their pure components (elements) by chemical means. e.g. water (H2O), glucose (C6H12O6) A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities. 1. Homogenous mixture composition of the mixture is the same throughout. e.g. soft drink, milk, solder 2. Heterogeneous mixture composition is not uniform throughout. e.g. cement, iron filings in sand Physical means can be used to separate a mixture into its pure components. e.g. Distillation. Filtration, Evaporation, etc. Changes Matter Undergoes: A physical change does not alter the composition or identity of a substance. e.g. melting of ice, dissolution (change of state solid, liquid, gas) A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the substance(s) involved. e.g. combustion, oxidation, reduction, precipitation, etc. Extensive and Intensive Properties Extensive property of a material depends upon how much matter is is being considered. E.g. mass, length, volume Intensive property of a material does not depend upon how much matter is is being considered. E.g. density, temperature, color

Mass vs Weight

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

mass measure of the quantity of matter SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g weight force that gravity exerts on an object

Note: Please practice Calculations, Conversions, Factor-label method. Volume SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)

Density SI derived unit for density is kg/m3 1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1 kg/L = 1000 kg/m3 Density (d) = mass volume = d v

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

PROBLEM: A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass? m=dxV = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g NOTE: Encircle/Box your final answer!

Scientific

Notation

The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon: (Avogadros number = N) 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 6.022 x 1023 atoms The mass of a single carbon atom in grams: 0.0000000000000000000000199 = 1.99 x 10-23 FORMULA: N x 10n N is a number between 1 and 10 n is a positive or negative integer Significant Figures 1. Any digit that is not zero is significant e.g. 1.234 kg = 4 significant figures 2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant e.g. 606 m = 3 significant figures 3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

e.g. 0.08 L

1 significant figure

4. If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant e.g. 2.0 mg = 2 significant figures 5. If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end and in the middle of the number are significant e.g. 0.00420 g = 3 significant figures PROBLEM: Indicate the number of significant figures 1. 560 kg = 2 significant figures 2. 3001 g = 4 3. 0.0320 m3 = 3 4. 24 mL = 2 5. 6.4 x 104 molecules = 2 Addition or Subtraction The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal point than any of the original numbers.

Multiplication or Division The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original number that has the smallest number of significant figures

Accuracy vs Precision Accuracy how close a measurement is to the TRUE value Precision how close a set of measurements are to each other

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

1.2 The Atom Atoms is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that element. Daltons Atomic Theory (1808) Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. Parts of an Atom Subatomic Particles 1. proton (p or p+) has a positive (+) electrical charge - location: nucleus 2. electron (e-) has a negative (-) electrical charge - location: outside the nucleus 3. neutron (n or n0) has no electrical charge; neutral - location: nucleus RULE: Opposite attracts; Like repels Atomic mass unit (amu) small unit used to describe the mass of the subatomic particles in an atom.

A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds

H2

H 2O

NH3

CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms e.g. H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms e.g. O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

1.3 Atomic Number and Mass Number Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

Calculation of Atomic Mass Atomic mass = (% abundance) (mass isotope in amu) Example: Isotopes 35Cl (% abundance = 75.78%; 34.97 amu) 37 Cl (% abundance = 24.22%; 36.97 amu) Atomic mass = [34.97 amu (75.78/100)] + [36.97 amu (24.22/100) = 35.45 amu for chlorine 1.4 Periodic Table

Period horizontal row Group (Family) vertical column

Classification as Groups

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

1. Representative Elements (first two columns: Alkali metals and Alkaline earth
metals) - have unfilled s orbital (s block)

Alkali Earth Metals elements are soft, shiny metals, which are good conductors of heat and electricity. Have a relatively low melting point. They vigorously react with water and form white precipitate as they combine to oxygen (oxides). NOTE for Hydrogen Alkaline Earth Metals - shiny also but not that reactive as Group 1 (alkali earth metals).

2. Transition metals (unfilled d orbitals). Also called as the d block 3. Halogens found on the right side of the periodic table (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) - looses electron to follow the noble gas configuration (most stable configuration) 4. Noble Gasses (filled valence shell) quite unreactive Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids Metals shiny solids, ductile, malleable, good conductors of heat and electricity, high melting point. Nonmetals not very shiny, malleable, and ductile; poor conductors of heat and electricity, low meting points. Metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po and At) - exhibit some properties that are typical of the metals and other properties that are characteristic of the nonmetals.

1.5 Electron Energy Levels and Electron Configurations

Quantum Theory

Wavelength (l) is the distance between identical points on successive waves. Amplitude is the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or trough. Bohrs Model of the Atom (1913)
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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

Electron energy level energy of an electron is quantized, which means that the energy of an electron can never be between any two specific energy levels. - this level is associated with the values of the principal quantum numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, ) which are only positive integers. Electrons that are found in the lower energy level are more close to the nucleus thus, the effect of the nuclear charge (attraction of the nucleus to the electrons) are higher. Electrons are occupying these energy levels. n=1<n=2<n=3<n=4 (increasing energy).

Sublevels each energy level consists of one or more sublevels, which contain electrons with identical energy. - represented by the (l) azimuthal quantum number - Shape of the volume of space that the e- occupies - (l = 0, 1, 2, 3) - l = 0, s-orbital, 2 electrons - l = 1, p-orbital, 6 electrons - l = 2, d-orbital, 10 electrons - l = 3, f-orbital, 14 electrons Atomic orbital the highest probability that the electron could be found. - These are results of the graphical representation of the uncertainty principle. - For s, one orbital - For p, 3 orbital - For d, 5 orbital - For f, 7 orbital

Aufbau Principle the lowest energy should be first filled up. Paulis Exclusion Principle only two electrons with opposite spins (ms)

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

- no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers. - + or Hunds Maximum Multiplicity each orbital should be filled up first by one electron before pairing. Electronic Configuration

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s (increasing energy) Electron configuration is how the electrons are distributed among the various atomic orbitals in an atom.

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

PROBLEM: What is the electron configuration of Mg?

12

Mg = 12 e-

1. Write the order of the sublevels by increasing energy. 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s 2. Place the number of electrons per sublevel 1s2 < 2s2 < 2p6 < 3s2 3. Check the total number of electrons 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons 4. It can be abbreviated (shortened) using the nearest noble gas [Ne] 1s2 2s2 2p6 Thus, it can be abbreviated as [Ne] 3s2 for 12Mg

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

NOTE: GROUND STATE meaning no charge An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge. cation ion with a positive charge. If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons. It becomes a cation.

anion

ion with a negative charge. If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons. It becomes an anion.

Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal, electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and then from the (n 1)d orbitals.

1.6 Periodic Trends Atomic Radius: clockwise) (Counter-

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

Cation is always smaller formed.

than atom from which it is

Anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed.

Ionization Energy Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state. (Counterclockwise) I1 < I2 < I3 (increasing energy) Electron Affinity Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion. (Clockwise) Electronegativity Electronegativity is the pull of the electrons towards the nucleus. The most electronegative atom is Flourine (F). (Clockwise) Valence Electrons

Valence electrons are the outer shell electrons of an atom. The valence electrons are the electrons that participate in chemical bonding.

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Chemistry 111 Lecture College of Nursing University of Santo Tomas

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