A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: , lit.

"harbor wave";[1] English pronunciation: /su n mi/ soo-nah-mee or /tsu n mi/ tsoo-nah-mee[2]), also called a tsunami wave train,[3] and at one time referred to as a tidal wave, is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean, though it can occur in large lakes. Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in Japan; approximately 195 events have been recorded.[4] Owing to the immense volumes of water and the high energy involved, tsunamis can devastate coastal regions. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides glacier calvings[5] and other mass movements, meteorite ocean impacts or similar impact events, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The Greek historian Thucydides was the first to relate tsunami to submarine earthquakes,[6][7] but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research. Many early geological, geographical, and oceanographic texts refer to tsunamis as "seismic sea waves." Some meteorological conditions, such as deep depressions that cause tropical cyclones, can generate a storm surge, called a meteotsunami, which can raise tides several metres above normal levels. The displacement comes from low atmospheric pressure within the centre of the depression. As these storm surges reach shore, they may resemble (though are not) tsunamis, inundating vast areas of land. The 2011 T hoku earthquake, also known as the Great East Japan Earthquake,[6][7] (Japanese: "Eastern Japan Great Earthquake Disaster" (Higashi Nihon Daishinsai)[fn 1]) was a magnitude 9.0 (Mw) undersea megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on Friday, 11 March 2011,[2][3][8] with the epicenter approximately 70 kilometres (43 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of T hoku and the hypocenter at an underwater depth of approximately 32 km (20 mi).[2][9] It was the most powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900.[8][10][11] The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft) in Miyako, Iwate, T hoku.[12][13] In some cases traveling up to 10 km (6 mi) inland.[where?][14] In addition to loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami caused a number of nuclear accidents, primarily the ongoing level 7 meltdowns at three reactors in the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant complex, and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.[15][16] Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan."[17] The Japanese National Police Agency has confirmed 15,505 deaths,[4][5] 5,386 injured,[4][5] and 7,305 people missing[4][5] across eighteen prefectures, as well as over 125,000 buildings damaged or destroyed.[4][5] The earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and severe structural damage in Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse.[14][18] Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water.[19] Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors suffered explosions due to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings after cooling system failure. Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6.2 mi) radius of the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. In addition, the U.S. recommended that its citizens evacuate up to 80 km (50 mi) of the plant.[20] Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion.[21] The Bank of Japan offered 15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March in an effort to normalize market conditions.[22] The overall cost could exceed US$300 billion, making it the most expensive natural disaster on record.[23][24][25] The earthquake moved Honshu 2.4 m (8 ft) east and shifted the Earth on its axis by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in).[26][27][28 The 9.0-magnitude (MW) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011 at 14:46 JST

(05:46 UTC) in the western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (19.9 mi),[29] with its epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of T hoku, Japan, lasting approximately six minutes.[1][2] The nearest major city to the quake was Sendai, on the main island of Honshu, 130 km (81 mi) away. The quake occurred 373 km (232 mi) from Tokyo.[2] The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large foreshocks, and hundreds of aftershocks were reported. The first major foreshock was a 7.2 MW event on 9 March, approximately 40 km (25 mi) from the location of the 11 March quake, with another three on the same day in excess of 6.0 MW.[2][30] Following the quake, a 7.0 MW aftershock was reported at 15:06 JST, followed by a 7.4 at 15:15 JST and a 7.2 at 15:26 JST.[31] Over eight hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 or greater have occurred since the initial quake.[32] United States Geological Survey (USGS) director Marcia McNutt explained that aftershocks follow Omori's Law, might continue for years, and will taper off in time.[33] One minute before the earthquake was felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early Warning system, which includes more than 1,000 seismometers in Japan, sent out warnings of impending strong shaking to millions. The early warning is believed by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) to have saved many lives.[34][35] Initially reported as 7.9 MW by the USGS, the magnitude was quickly upgraded to 8.8, then again to 8.9,[36] and then finally to 9.0.[3][37

Geology Map of the T hoku earthquake and aftershocks on March 1114 This earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under the plate beneath northern Honshu; which plate is a matter of debate amongst scientists.[27][38] The Pacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8 to 9 cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips under Honshu's underlying plate releasing large amounts of energy. This motion pulls the upper plate down until the stress builds up enough to cause a seismic event. The break caused the sea floor to rise by several meters.[38] A quake of this magnitude usually has a rupture length of at least 480 km (300 mi) and generally requires a long, relatively straight fault surface. Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the rupture is not very straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of an earthquake to exceed 8.5; the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists.[39] The hypocentral region of this earthquake extended from offshore Iwate Prefecture to offshore Ibaraki Prefecture.[40] The Japanese Meteorological Agency said that the earthquake may have ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500 km (310 mi) and a width of 200 km (120 mi).[41][42] Analysis showed that this earthquake consisted of a set of three events.[43] The earthquake may have had a mechanism similar to that of another large earthquake in 869 with an estimated surface wave magnitude (Ms) of 8.6, which also created a large tsunami.[44] Other major earthquakes with tsunamis struck the Sanriku Coast region in 1896 and in 1933. The strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara, Miyagi Prefecture.[45] Three other prefecturesFukushima, Ibaraki and Tochigirecorded an upper 6 on the JMA scale. Seismic stations in Iwate, Gunma, Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured a lower 6, recording an upper 5 in Tokyo. In Russia, the main shock could be felt in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk (MSK 4) and Kurilsk (MSK 4). The aftershock at 06:25 UTC could be felt in Yuzhno-Kurilsk (MSK 5) and Kurilsk (MSK 4).[46 Energy Damage to Tokyo Tower This earthquake released a surface energy (Me) of 1.90.51017 joules,[47] dissipated as shaking and tsunamic energy, which is nearly double that of the 9.1-magnitude 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230,000 people. "If we could only harness the [surface] energy from this earthquake, it would power [a] city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year," McNutt said in an interview.[33] The total energy released, also known as the seismic moment (M0), was more than 200,000 times the surface energy and was calculated by the USGS at 3.91022 joules,[48] slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake. This is equivalent to 9,320 gigatons of TNT, or approximately 600 million times the energy of the Hiroshima bomb. Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 g (29.33 m/s ).[49][fn 2] The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7g, in

the Miyagi Prefecture, 75 km from the epicentre; the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16g.[52] Aftershocks Further information: List of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 T hoku earthquake Japan experienced over 900 aftershocks since the earthquake, with about 60 registering over magnitude 6.0 Mw and at least three over 7.0 Mw. A magnitude 7.7 Mw and a 7.9 Mw quake occurred on March 11[65] and the third one struck offshore on 7 April with a disputed magnitude. Its epicenter was underwater, 66 km (41 mi) off the coast of Sendai. The Japan Meteorological Agency assigned a magnitude of 7.4 MJMA, while the U.S. Geological Survey lowered it to 7.1 Mw.[66] At least four people were killed, and electricity was cut off across much of northern Japan including the loss of external power to Higashidori Nuclear Power Plant and Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant.[67][68][69] Four days later on April 11, another strong magnitude 6.6 Mw aftershock struck Fukushima, causing additional damage and killing a total of three people.[70][71] As of 3 June 2011 aftershocks continued; a regularly updated map showing all shocks of magnitude 4.5 and above near or off the east coast of Honshu in the last seven days[72] showed over 20 events. By 8 June shocks in the past week had dropped to 13. Tsunami Energy map of the tsunami from NOAA The earthquake which was caused by 5 to 8 meters upthrust on a 180-km wide seabed at 60 km offshore from the east coast of T hoku[73] resulted in a major tsunami which brought destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan's northern islands and resulted in the loss of thousands of lives and devastated entire towns. The tsunami propagated across the Pacific, and warnings were issued and evacuations carried out. In many countries bordering the Pacific, including the entire Pacific coast of North and South America from Alaska to Chile;[74][75][76] however, while the tsunami was felt in many of these places, it caused only relatively minor effects. Chile's section of Pacific coast is one of the furthest from Japan, at about 17,000 km (11,000 mi) away,[77] but still was struck by tsunami waves 2 m (6.6 ft) high.[78][79] A wave height of 38.9 meters (128 ft) was estimated at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city, Iwate prefecture.[13] [edit] Japan The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most serious on its warning scale; it rated as a "major tsunami", being at least 3 m (9.8 ft) high.[80] The actual height predicted varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 6 m (20 ft) high.[81] The tsunami inundated a total area of approximately 561 km2 (217 sq mi) in Japan.[82]The earthquake took place at 14:46 JST around 67 km (42 mi) from the nearest point on Japan's coastline, and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas farther north and south based on the geography of the coastline.[83][84] Just over an hour after the earthquake at 15:55 JST, a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport, which is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture,[85][86] with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland.[87][88] The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it.[89] A 4 m high tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture.[90] Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit.[91] At least 101 designated tsunami evacuation sites were hit by the wave.[92] Casualties The National Police Agency has confirmed 15,505 deaths,[4][5] 5,386 injured,[4][5] and 7,305 people missing[4][5] across eighteen prefectures.[4][5] Of the 13,135 fatalities recovered by 11 April 2011, 12,143 or 92.5% died by drowning. Victims aged 60 or older accounted for 65.2% of the deaths, with 24% of total victims being in their 70s.[146] Tsunami damage between Sendai and Sendai Bay. Save the Children reports that as many as 100,000 children were uprooted from their homes, some of whom were separated from their families because the earthquake occurred during the school day.[147] As of 10 April 2011, Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare stated that it was aware of at least 82 children who had been orphaned by the disaster.[148] The quake and tsunami, as of 28 April 2011, killed

378 elementary, middle-school, and high school students and left 158 others missing.[149] One elementary school in Ishinomaki, Miyagi, Okawa Elementary, lost 74 of 108 students and 10 of 13 teachers and staff.[150][151][152] The Japanese Foreign Ministry has confirmed the deaths of nineteen foreigners.[153] Among them are two English teachers from the United States affiliated with the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program;[154] a Canadian missionary in Shiogama;[155] and citizens of China, North and South Korea, Taiwan, Pakistan and the Philippines. Damage and effects Panorama of Rikuzentakata area swept away The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and resulting tsunami were enormous, with most of the damage being caused by the tsunami. Video footage of the towns worst affected shows little more than piles of rubble, with almost no parts of any structures left standing.[171] Estimates of the cost of the damage range well into the tens of billions of US dollars; before-and-after satellite photographs of devastated regions show immense damage to many regions.[172][173] Although Japan has invested the equivalent of billions of dollars on anti-tsunami seawalls which line at least 40% of its 34,751 km (21,593 mi) coastline and stand up to 12 m (39 ft) high, the tsunami simply washed over the top of some seawalls, collapsing some in the process.[174] Japan's National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 45,700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were damaged by the quake and tsunami. The damaged buildings included 29,500 structures in Miyagi Prefecture, 12,500 in Iwate Prefecture and 2,400 in Fukushima Prefecture.[175] Three hundred hospitals with 20 beds or more in T hoku were damaged by the disaster, with 11 being completely destroyed.[176] The earthquake and tsunami created an estimated 25 million tons of rubble and debris in Japan.[177] An estimated 230,000 automobiles and trucks were damaged or destroyed in the disaster. As of the end of May 2011, residents of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures had requested deregistration of 15,000 vehicles, meaning that the owners of those vehicles were writing them off as unrepairable or unsalvageable.[178] Scientific and research response Fukushima radiation comparison to other incidents and standards, with graph of recorded radiation levels and specific accident events.(Note: Does not include all radiation readings from Fukushima Daini site) A large amount of data was collected that provides "the possibility to model in great detail what happened during the rupture of an earthquake."[26] The effect of this data is expected to be felt across other disciplines as well, and this disaster "would provide unprecedented information about how buildings hold up under long periods of shaking and thus how to build them better. .[287] Seismologists had anticipated that the "big one" would strike the same place as the 1923 Great Kant earthquakein the Sagami Trough, southwest of Tokyo.[288][289] Since 1976, when Katsuhiko Ishibashi said a large earthquake in the Suruga Trough was forthcoming, the government tracked plate movements, in preparation for the so-called Tokai earthquake.[290] Occurring 373 km (232 mi) northeast of Tokyo, the T hoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists, since the Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes, but was not expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude.[289][290] [edit]