Tips on Effective Listening "We were given two ears but only one mouth, because listening is twice

as hard as talking." Brief Theory of Communication Expressing our wants, feelings, thoughts and opinions clearly and effectively is only half of the communication process needed for interpersonal effectiveness. The other half is listening and understanding what others communicate to us. When a person decides to communicate with another person, he/she does so to fulfill a need. The person wants something, feels discomfort, and/or has feelings or thoughts about something. In deciding to communicate, the person selects the method or code which he/she believes will effectively deliver the message to the other person. The code used to send the message can be either verbal or nonverbal. When the other person receives the coded message, they go through the process of decoding or interpreting it into understanding and meaning. Effective communication exists between two people when the receiver interprets and understands the senders message in the same way the sender intended it. Sources of Difficulty by the Speaker Voice volume too low to be heard. Making the message too complex, either by including too many unnecessary details or too many issues. Getting lost, forgetting your point or the purpose of the interaction. Body language or nonverbal elements contradicting or interfering with the verbal message, such as smiling when anger or hurt is being expressed. Paying too much attention to how the other person is taking the message, or how the person might react. Using a very unique code or unconventional method for delivering the message. Sources of Difficulty by the Listener Being preoccupied and not listening. Being so interested in what you have to say that you listen mainly to find an opening to get the floor. Formulating and listening to your own rebuttal to what the speaker is saying. Listening to your own personal beliefs about what is being said. Evaluating and making judgments about the speaker or the message. Not asking for clarification when you know that you do not understand. The Three Basic Listening Modes

1.

2. 3.

Competitive or Combative Listening happens when we are more interested in promoting our own point of view than in understanding or exploring someone elses view. We either listen for openings to take the floor, or for flaws or weak points we can attack. As we pretend to pay attention we are impatiently waiting for an opening, or internally formulating our rebuttal and planning our devastating comeback that will destroy their argument and make us the victor. In Passive or Attentive Listening we are genuinely interested in hearing and understanding the other persons point of view. We are attentive and passively listen. We assume that we heard and understand correctly. but stay passive and do not verify it. Active or Reflective Listening is the single most useful and important listening skill. In active listening we are also genuinely interested in understanding what the other person is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means, and we are active in checking out our understanding before we respond with our own new message. We restate or paraphrase our understanding of their message and reflect it back to the sender for verification. This verification or feedback process is what distinguishes active listening and makes it effective.

Levels of Communication Listening effectively is difficult because people vary in their communication skills and in how clearly they express themselves, and often have different needs, wants and purposes for interacting. The different types of interaction or levels of communication also adds to the difficulty. The four different types or levels are.

1.

2.
3. 4.

Clichs. Facts. Thoughts and beliefs. Feelings and emotions.

As a listener we attend to the level that we think is most important. Failing to recognize the level most relevant and important to the speaker can lead to a kind of crossed wires where the two people are not on the same wavelength. The purpose of the contact and the nature of our relationship with the person will usually determine what level or levels are appropriate and important for the particular interaction. Note the different requirements in the following situations: Youre lost, and you ask a stranger for directions. Your child comes to you crying. You are in trouble and someone offers to help. Your spouse is being affectionate and playful. Opposing council is cross-examining you in court. If we dont address the appropriate elements we will not be very effective, and can actually make the situation worse. For example: If your wife is telling you about her hurt feelings and you focus on the facts of the situation and dont acknowledge her feelings, she will likely become even more upset. There is a real distinction between merely hearing the words and reallylistening for the message. When we listen effectively we understand what the person is thinking and/or feeling from the other persons own perspective. It is as if we were standing in the other persons shoes, seeing through his/her eyes and listening through the person's ears. Our own viewpoint may be different and we may not necessarily agree with the person, but as we listen, we understand from the other's perspective. To listen effectively, we must be actively involved in the communication process, and not just listening passively. We all act and respond on the basis of our understanding, and too often there is a misunderstanding that neither of us is aware of. With active listening, if a misunderstanding has occurred, it will be known immediately, and the communication can be clarified before any further misunderstanding occurs. Several other possible benefits occur with active listening: Sometimes a person just needs to be heard and acknowledged before the person is willing to consider an alternative or soften his /her position. It is often easier for a person to listen to and consider the others position when that person knows the other is listening and considering his/her position. It helps people to spot the flaws in their reasoning when they hear it played back without criticism. It also helps identify areas of agreement so the areas of disagreement are put in perspective and are diminished rather than magnified. Reflecting back what we hear each other say helps give each a chance to become aware of the different levels that are going on below the surface. This helps to bring things into the open where they can be more readily resolved. If we accurately understand the other persons view, we can be more effective in helping the person see the flaws in his/her position. If we listen so we can accurately understand the others view, we can also be more effective in discovering the flaws in our own position. Listening Tips Usually it is important to paraphrase and use your own words in verbalizing your understanding of the message. Parroting back the words verbatim is annoying and does not ensure accurate understanding of the message. Depending on the purpose of the interaction and your understanding of what is relevant, you could reflect back the other persons: 1. 2. 3. Account of the facts. Thoughts and beliefs. Feelings and emotions.

4.

Wants, needs or motivation.

5. Hopes and expectations. Dont respond to just the meaning of the words, look for the feelings or intent beyond the words. The dictionary or surface meaning of the words or code used by the sender is not the message. Inhibit your impulse to immediately answer questions. The code may be in the form of a question. Sometimes people ask questions when they really want to express themselves and are not open to hearing an answer. Know when to quit using active listening. Once you accurately understand the senders message, it may be appropriate to respond with your own message. Dont use active listening to hide and avoid revealing your own position. If you are confused and know you do not understand, either tell the person you dont understand and ask him/her to say it another way, or use your best guess. If you are incorrect, the person will realize it and will likely attempt to correct your misunderstanding. Active listening is a very effective first response when the other person is angry, hurt or expressing difficult feelings toward you, especially in relationships that are important to you. Use eye contact and listening body language. Avoid looking at your watch or at other people or activities around the room. Face and lean toward the speaker and nod your head, as it is appropriate. Be careful about crossing your arms and appearing closed or critical.

a bus is a subsystem that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. Early computer buses were literally parallel electrical wires with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit-serial connections, and can be wired in either a multidrop (electrical parallel) ordaisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB. Elements of bus design BUS TYPES Bus channels can be separated into two general types, namely a dedicated and multiplexed. A bus line dedicated permanently assigned a function or a subset of physical computer components. As an example of dedication to the function is the use of separate dedicated address and data lines, which is a common thing for the bus. However, this is not important. For example, the address and data information can be transmitted through the same number of channels using control channel address is invalid. In the early transfer of data, address bus and address placed on a valid control activated. At this time, each module has a specific time period to copy the address and determine whether the address is a module located. Then address removed from the bus and the bus connection is used for reading or writing data transfer next. Methods use the same line for various purposes is known as time multiplexing. The advantage is time multiplexing requires fewer channels, which saves space and cost. The disadvantage is the need for a more complex circuit within each module. There's also a fairly large decrease in performance due to certain events that use the channels together cannot function in parallel. Physical dedication associated with the use of multiple buses, each bus it is connected with only a subset of the modules. A common example is the use of bus I / O to interconnect all I / O module, then this bus is connected to the main bus through a kind of adapter module I / O. The main advantage of physical dedication is a high throughput; because of the traffic congestion is only small data. The disadvantage is the increased size and cost of the system. ARBITRATION METHOD In all systems except the simplest system, more than one module is required to control the bus. For example, an I / O

module may be required to read or write directly to memory, without sending data to the CPU. Because at one point is just a unit that will successfully transmit data through the bus, then take a few method of arbitration. The various methods by and large can be classified as a method centralized and distributed methods. In the centralized method, a hardware device, known as bus controllers or arbitrary, is responsible for the allocation of time on the bus. Perhaps it is CPU device module shaped or a separate section. In a distributed method, there is no central controller. Rather, each module consists of access control logic and modules work together to put on a bus together. In the second method of arbitration, the goal is to assign a device, the CPU or I / O module, acting as master. Then the master can initiate data transfer (e.g., read or write) by using other devices, which work as slave for this particular data exchange.

functional areas to one another. This is how thefunctional areas communicate with each other. A busis a parallel data communication path over whichinformation is transferred a byte or word at a time. Thebuses contain logic that the CPU controls. The itemscontrolled are the transfer of data, instructions, andcommands between the functional areas of thecomputer: CPU, memory, and I/O. The type ofinformation is generally similar on all computers; onlythe names or terminology of the bus types differs. Thename of the bus or its operation usually implies the typeof signal it carries or method of operation.The direction of signal flow for the different busesis indicated on figures in the computers technicalmanuals. The direction may be unidirectional orbidirectional depending on the type of bus and type ofcomputer. Consult the computers technical manual fordetails. After becoming familiar with the basicfunctions and operations of buses, youll see thatregardless of the names, their basic concepts areconsistent throughout the computer. They provideavenues for information to be exchanged inside thecomputer.BUS TYPESThe preferred method for data/information transferbetween system components is by a common data bus.Where point-to-point data transfer is required, thedigital format is the preferred method. GeneralRequirements for Electronic Equipment Specifications,MIL-STD-2036 series, provides a list of the industryaccepted standard internal data buses. They includethe standard and the interface as follows:IEEE 696 IEEE Standard 696 InterfaceDevices, S-100IEEE 896. l IEEE Standard Backplane BusSpecification for Multiprocessor

Architecture,Future BusIEEE 961 Standard for an 8-bitMicrocomputer Bus System, STD BusIEEE 1014 Standard for a Versatile BackplaneBus, VMEbusIEEE 1196 Standard for a Simple 32-BitBackplane Bus, NuBusIEEE 1296 Standard for a High-performanceSynchronous 32-Bit Bus, Multibus IIAll computers use three types of basic buses. Thename of the bus is generally determined by the type ofsignal it is carrying or the method of operation. Wegroup the buses into three areas as you see them in theirmost common uses. They are as follows:Control (also called timing and control bus),address, and data (also called a memory bus)busesInstruction (I), Operand (O), Input/OutputMemory (I/O MEM) or Input/Output Controller(IOC), and Computer Interconnection System(CIS)Time multiplexed busControl BusThe control bus is used by the CPU to direct andmonitor the actions of the other functional areas of thecomputer. It is used to transmit a variety of individualsignals (read, write, interrupt, acknowledge, and soforth) necessary to control and coordinate theoperations of the computer. The individual signalstransmitted over the control bus and their functions arecovered in the appropriate functional area description.Address BusThe address bus consists of all the signals necessaryto define any of the possible memory address locationswi

memory at the address defined by the address bus orconsists of data read from the memory address specifiedby the address bus.Figure 5-17 is an example of a computers bussystem; control, address, and data buses.Instruction (I) BusThe instruction (I) bus allows communicationbetween the CPU and memory. It carries to the CPUthe program instruction words to be operated on by theCPU from memory or returns instructions to memory.The I bus is controlled by the CPU. It is capable ofsending or receiving data while the operand (O) bus isreceiving or sending data at the same time, but only inone direction at a time.Operand (O) BusThe operand (O) bus allows communicationbetween the CPU and memory or the CPU and an I/OController (IOC). The CPU controls the operation inboth cases. The O bus is capable of sending or receivingdata, while the I bus is receiving or sending data at thesame time, but only in one direction at a time. Thedirection of the data depends on whether the CPU isreading data from memory or data is being written backinto memory.I/O MEM Bus or Input/Output Controller(IOC) BUSThe I/O memory bus allows communicationbetween an I/O controller (IOC) and memory. It isFigure 5-17.Example of a computers bus system; control,address and data buses.controlled by the IOC. To respond to the CPU, the I/OMEM bus must use the O bus.Figure 5-18 is an illustration of communicationsbetween a CPU, memory, and an IOC without acomputer interconnection system. Pay close attentionto the direction of signal flow and which buses allowcommunication between functional areas.Computer Interconnection SystemThe Computer Interconnection System (CIS)provides the complete functional replication of thecomputer intraconnection among CPUs, IOCs, andmemories in separate computers. This allows theinternal buses to be extended beyond their ownenclosure. The CIS consists of two independent halves:the requestor extension interface (REI) and the

directmemory interface (DMI).REQUESTOR EXTENSION INTERFACE(REI). The requestor extension interface (REI) is abus extender. It extends the bus up to 15 other computercabinets providing an interconnected s checks parity, and examines a code to determine thecorrect sequence. After the sequence is established, theREI broadcasts the requests and the address to all DMIsconnected to it. The signals on the REI externalinterface are expanded to guarantee capture at the DMIoperating synchronously to the REI, which can belocated up to 500 cable-feet away. Once the REI makesa request, it can send write data if it is performing a writeoperation or wait for a response and pass it to therequestor. The REI responds to the requestor just asmemory does, including faults and aborts (terminates aprocess before it is completed).DIRECT MEMORY INTERFACE (DMI)BUS. The Direct memory interface is a responder orslave on the REI bus. The DMI bus is used in somecomputers that use an I, O, and IOC bus. The DMI busis used to send requests from other enclosures(computers) to the module (CPU or IOC) requested. Itacts as the requestor and makes requests to the CPU.When it requests an IOC, it uses IOC read and writerequests. When it requests memory, it uses operandread or write, instruction read, or replace.Time Multiplexed BusAnother variation of the address and data bus is thetime multiplexed bus. This single bus transmits bothaddresses and data using a four cycle clock (tl, t2, t3,and t4). The address is transmitted during the t1 clockcycle, the direction of data movement is selected duringt2, and the data is transmitted during t3 and t4.BUS OPERATIONSThe bus control function is performed by a businterface unit or logic circuitry similar to it. Control ofa bus line and the proper protocol of requesting a busdepends on the design of the computer. In computerswith no IOC, the CPU has control of the bus lines. Incomputers with an IOC, the CPU will control theinstruction and operand buses and the IOC will controlthe memory buses. Bus control is necessary to handlethe large number of bus transactions that take place ina very short period of time in the computer. There arebasically two factors that must be taken intoconsideration in bus communications: transferpriority and source/destination of the data beingtransferred.Bus transfers are done on a priority basis. Thepriorities of bus transfers are determined by the designof the computers firmware. What part makes therequest is also determined by the design of thecomputers firmware; requests may be made by a CPU,an IOC, and/or a DMI. Examples of priorities that acomputer must deal with include the following (theseexamples are not in any type of priority and do not coverthe frill range of priorities you may encounter):Transfers from memory to the CPU, thesetransfers move

instructions and operands to theCPU for execution and modificationTransfers from the CPU to memoryTransfers by the I/O in and out of memoryThe specific request will identify the source and thedestination of the data. The computers controlling buscontinually and repeatedly checks the bus signal linesfor requests. When it receives a request, it provides thecontrol signals needed to initiate the transfer. Sincemost transfers deal with memory, each transfer consistsof an address exchange and a separate data exchange.The data will either parallel the address as in a writeoperation or move in the opposite direction after thedata has been read from the memory word identified bythe address.In some computers, the bus systems use holdingregisters in both the source and destination sections toprevent data loss and to help coordinate the dataexchange. In the source logic, the data is placed in aholding register until it is accepted by the destinationlogic. The outputs of the holding register feed the buscircuitry. In the destination logic, the bus inputs to aholding register.After accepting the data, thedestination logic can then move the data from theholding register to other parts of the logic forprocessing.A variety of command signal names are used tocoordinate the exchange of data on the buses by boththe source and the destination logic. The source logicgenerates a ready or signal equivalent when the data isin the holding register and on the bus. The destinationlogic sends an acceptor equivalent signal when it hassensed the ready signal and captured the data on the busin its holding register or other logic circuits.MICROCOMPUTER ARCHITECTUREAND BUSESThe microcomputer has uses four main types ofbuses. These are theProcessor busAd checks parity, and examines a code to determine thecorrect sequence. After the sequence is established, theREI broadcasts the requests and the address to all DMIsconnected to it. The signals on the REI externalinterface are expanded to guarantee capture at the DMIoperating synchronously to the REI, which can belocated up to 500 cable-feet away. Once the REI makesa request, it can send write data if it is performing a writeoperation or wait for a response and pass it to therequestor. The REI responds to the requestor just asmemory does, including faults and aborts (terminates aprocess before it is completed).DIRECT MEMORY INTERFACE (DMI)BUS. The Direct memory interface is a responder orslave on the REI bus. The DMI bus is used in somecomputers that use an I, O, and IOC bus. The DMI busis used to send requests from other enclosures(computers) to the module (CPU or IOC) requested. Itacts as the requestor and makes requests to the CPU.When it requests an IOC, it uses IOC read and writerequests. When it requests memory, it uses operandread or write, instruction read, or replace.Time Multiplexed BusAnother variation of the address and data bus is thetime multiplexed bus. This single bus transmits bothaddresses and data using a four cycle clock (tl, t2, t3,and t4). The address is

transmitted during the t1 clockcycle, the direction of data movement is selected duringt2, and the data is transmitted during t3 and t4.BUS OPERATIONSThe bus control function is performed by a businterface unit or logic circuitry similar to it. Control ofa bus line and the proper protocol of requesting a busdepends on the design of the computer. In computerswith no IOC, the CPU has control of the bus lines. Incomputers with an IOC, the CPU will control theinstruction and operand buses and the IOC will controlthe memory buses. Bus control is necessary to handlethe large number of bus transactions that take place ina very short period of time in the computer. There arebasically two factors that must be taken intoconsideration in bus communications: transferpriority and source/destination of the data beingtransferred.Bus transfers are done on a priority basis. Thepriorities of bus transfers are determined by the designof the computers firmware. What part makes therequest is also determined by the design of thecomputers firmware; requests may be made by a CPU,an IOC, and/or a DMI. Examples of priorities that acomputer must deal with include the following (theseexamples are not in any type of priority and do not coverthe frill range of priorities you may encounter):Transfers from memory to the CPU, thesetransfers move instructions and operands to theCPU for execution and modificationTransfers from the CPU to memoryTransfers by the I/O in and out of memoryThe specific request will identify the source and thedestination of the data. The computers controlling buscontinually and repeatedly checks the bus signal linesfor requests. When it receives a request, it provides thecontrol signals needed to initiate the transfer. Sincemost transfers deal with memory, each transfer consistsof an address exchange and a separate data exchange.The data will either parallel the address as in a writeoperation or move in the opposite direction after thedata has been read from the memory word identified bythe address.In some computers, the bus systems use holdingregisters in both the source and destination sections toprevent data loss and to help coordinate the dataexchange. In the source logic, the data is placed in aholding register until it is accepted by the destinationlogic. The outputs of the holding register feed the buscircuitry. In the destination logic, the bus inputs to aholding register.After accepting the data, thedestination logic can then move the data from theholding register to other parts of the logic forprocessing.A variety of command signal names are used tocoordinate the exchange of data on the buses by boththe source and the destination logic. The source logicgenerates a ready or signal equivalent when the data isin the holding register and on the bus. The destinationlogic sends an acceptor equivalent signal when it hassensed the ready signal and captured the data on the busin its holding register or other logic circuits.MICROCOMPUTER ARCHITECTUREAND BUSESThe microcomputer has uses four main types ofbuses. These are theProcessor busAd

checks parity, and examines a code to determine thecorrect sequence. After the sequence is established, theREI broadcasts the requests and the address to all DMIsconnected to it. The signals on the REI externalinterface are expanded to guarantee capture at the DMIoperating synchronously to the REI, which can belocated up to 500 cable-feet away. Once the REI makesa request, it can send write data if it is performing a writeoperation or wait for a response and pass it to therequestor. The REI responds to the requestor just asmemory does, including faults and aborts (terminates aprocess before it is completed).DIRECT MEMORY INTERFACE (DMI)BUS. The Direct memory interface is a responder orslave on the REI bus. The DMI bus is used in somecomputers that use an I, O, and IOC bus. The DMI busis used to send requests from other enclosures(computers) to the module (CPU or IOC) requested. Itacts as the requestor and makes requests to the CPU.When it requests an IOC, it uses IOC read and writerequests. When it requests memory, it uses operandread or write, instruction read, or replace.Time Multiplexed BusAnother variation of the address and data bus is thetime multiplexed bus. This single bus transmits bothaddresses and data using a four cycle clock (tl, t2, t3,and t4). The address is transmitted during the t1 clockcycle, the direction of data movement is selected duringt2, and the data is transmitted during t3 and t4.BUS OPERATIONSThe bus control function is performed by a businterface unit or logic circuitry similar to it. Control ofa bus line and the proper protocol of requesting a busdepends on the design of the computer. In computerswith no IOC, the CPU has control of the bus lines. Incomputers with an IOC, the CPU will control theinstruction and operand buses and the IOC will controlthe memory buses. Bus control is necessary to handlethe large number of bus transactions that take place ina very short period of time in the computer. There arebasically two factors that must be taken intoconsideration in bus communications: transferpriority and source/destination of the data beingtransferred.Bus transfers are done on a priority basis. Thepriorities of bus transfers are determined by the designof the computers firmware. What part makes therequest is also determined by the design of thecomputers firmware; requests may be made by a CPU,an IOC, and/or a DMI. Examples of priorities that acomputer must deal with include the following (theseexamples are not in any type of priority and do not coverthe frill range of priorities you may encounter):Transfers from memory to the CPU, thesetransfers move instructions and operands to theCPU for execution and modificationTransfers from the CPU to memoryTransfers by the I/O in and out of memoryThe

specific request will identify the source and thedestination of the data. The computers controlling buscontinually and repeatedly checks the bus signal linesfor requests. When it receives a request, it provides thecontrol signals needed to initiate the transfer. Sincemost transfers deal with memory, each transfer consistsof an address exchange and a separate data exchange.The data will either parallel the address as in a writeoperation or move in the opposite direction after thedata has been read from the memory word identified bythe address.In some computers, the bus systems use holdingregisters in both the source and destination sections toprevent data loss and to help coordinate the dataexchange. In the source logic, the data is placed in aholding register until it is accepted by the destinationlogic. The outputs of the holding register feed the buscircuitry. In the destination logic, the bus inputs to aholding register.After accepting the data, thedestination logic can then move the data from theholding register to other parts of the logic forprocessing.A variety of command signal names are used tocoordinate the exchange of data on the buses by boththe source and the destination logic. The source logicgenerates a ready or signal equivalent when the data isin the holding register and on the bus. The destinationlogic sends an acceptor equivalent signal when it hassensed the ready signal and captured the data on the busin its holding register or other logic circuits.MICROCOMPUTER ARCHITECTUREAND BUSESThe microcomputer has uses four main types ofbuses. These are theProcessor busAd