In computer science and computer engineering, computer architecture or digital computer organization is the conceptual design and fundamental

operational structure of a computer system. It forms a blueprint and functional description of requirements and design implementations for the various parts of a computer, focusing largely on the way by which the central processing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. It may also be defined as the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals. Computer architecture comprises at least three main subcategories:[1] y Instruction set architecture, or ISA, is the abstract image of a computing system that is seen by a machine language (or assembly language) programmer, including the instruction set, word size, memory address modes, processor registers, and address and data formats. Microarchitecture, also known as Computer organization is a lower level, more concrete and detailed, description of the system that involves how the constituent parts of the system are interconnected and how they interoperate in order to implement the ISA.[2] The size of a computer's cache for instance, is an organizational issue that generally has nothing to do with the ISA. System Design which includes all of the other hardware components within a computing system such as: System interconnects such as computer buses and switches Memory controllers and hierarchies CPU off-load mechanisms such as direct memory access (DMA) Issues like multiprocessing.

Implementation can be further broken down into three (not fully distinct) pieces: y Logic Implementation design of blocks defined in the microarchitecture at (primarily) the register-transfer and gate levels. Circuit Implementation transistor-level design of basic elements (gates, multiplexers, latches etc.) as well as of some larger blocks (ALUs, caches etc.) that may be implemented at this level, or even (partly) at the physical level, for performance reasons. Physical Implementation physical circuits are drawn out, the different circuit components are placed in a chip floorplan or on a board and the wires connecting them are routed.

For CPUs, the entire implementation process is often called CPU design. More specific usages of the term include more general wider-scale hardware architectures, such as cluster computing and Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) architectures. In computer engineering, microarchitecture (sometimes abbreviated to arch or uarch), also called computer organization, is the way a given instruction set architecture (ISA) is implemented on a processor. A given ISA may be implemented with different microarchitectures.[1] Implementations might vary due to different goals of a given design or due to shifts in technology.[2] Computer architecture is the combination of microarchitecture and instruction set design. In engineering, a function is interpreted as a specific process, action or task that a system is able to perform [1].

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Once both ISA and microarchitecture have been specified, the actual device needs to be designed into hardware. This design process is called the implementation. Implementation is usually not considered architectural definition, but rather hardware design engineering.

Structure is a fundamental, if intangible, notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and stability[disambiguation needed] of patterns and relationships of entities. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential foundation of nearly every mode of inquiry and discovery in science, philosophy, and art.[1] In early 20th-century and earlier thought, form often plays a role comparable to that of structure in contemporary thought. The neo-

Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer (cf. his Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, completed in 1929 and published in English translation in the 1950s) is sometimes regarded as a precursor of the later shift to structuralism and poststructuralism.[2] The description of structure implicitly offers an account of what a system is made of: a configuration of items, a collection of inter-related components or services. A structure may be a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships) or a network featuring many-to-many relationships. Before learning how to use a computer, you must first learn the different functions that a computer can perform. Basically, there are four functions, input, output, storage, processing. Input Computer can keep track of any different types of information. With software like microsoft word, notepad. it makes inputing any data such as words, articles relatively easy. Examples of input devices include, your keyboard, computer mouse, microphone etc. Processing Computer can rapidly solve all types of numerical problems. Solving numerical problems can be considered as an example of computer processing. With the ability of data manipulation of company, task can be completed efficiently with effectively. Saving lots and lots of time and effort, compared to human work. Aslo, computer are accurate and error free, they can process huge amount of information at the same time and they inexpensive. Storage Imagine you have a collections of ten thousand photos. You are going to london to meet your relative and were told to bring that ten thousands photos over. Guess what? That is alot of things. So with the advent of computer, you can just save that ten thousand photos and bring your laptop over. Thats that simple!. Example of computer storage include, harddisk, cd rom, dvd rom and others. Output Output is one of the most commonly used function in computer. It may refers to the graph that is being plotted in microsoft excel, the song that you are playing from media player, the powerpoint slide,

computer operation - an elementary operation that a computer is designed and built to perform machine operation floating-point operation, flop - an arithmetic operation performed on floating-point numbers; "this computer can perform a million flops per second" operation - (computer science) data processing in which the result is completely specified by a rule (especially the processing that results from a single instruction); "it can perform millions of operations per second" retrieval - (computer science) the operation of accessing information from the computer's memory storage - (computer science) the process of storing information in a computer memory or on a magnetic tape or disk A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows. This diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a given problem. Process operations are represented in these boxes, and arrows connecting them represent flow of control. Data flows are not typically represented in a flowchart, in contrast with data flow diagrams; rather, they are implied by the sequencing of operations. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.[1]

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Document flowcharts, showing controls over a document-flow through a system Data flowcharts, showing controls over a data flows in a system System flowcharts showing controls at a physical or resource level Program flowchart, showing the controls in a program within a system

Symbols A typical flowchart from older basic computer science textbooks may have the following kinds of symbols: Start and end symbols Represented as circles, ovals or rounded rectangles, usually containing the word "Start" or "End", or another phrase signaling the start or end of a process, such as "submit enquiry" or "receive product". Arrows Showing "flow of control". An arrow coming from one symbol and ending at another symbol represents that control passes to the symbol the arrow points to. Generic processing steps Represented as rectangles. Examples: "Add 1 to X"; "replace identified part"; "save changes" or similar. Subroutines Represented as rectangles with doublestruck vertical edges; these are used to show complex processing steps which may be detailed in a separate flowchart. Example: PROCESS-FILES. One subroutine may have multiple distinct entry points or exit flows (see coroutine); if so, these are shown as labeled 'wells' in the rectangle, and control arrows connect to these 'wells'. Input/Output Represented as a parallelogram. Examples: Get X from the user; display X. Prepare conditional Represented as a hexagon. Shows operations which have no effect other than preparing a value for a subsequent conditional or decision step (see below). Conditional or decision Represented as a diamond (rhombus) showing where a decision is necessary, commonly a Yes/No question or True/False test. The conditional symbol is peculiar in that it has two arrows coming out of it, usually from the bottom point and right point, one corresponding to Yes or True, and one corresponding to No or False. (The arrows should always be labeled.) More than two arrows can be used, but this is normally a clear indicator that a complex decision is being taken, in which case it may need to be broken-down further or replaced with the "pre-defined process" symbol. Junction symbol

Generally represented with a black blob, showing where multiple control flows converge in a single exit flow. A junction symbol will have more than one arrow coming into it, but only one going out. In simple cases, one may simply have an arrow point to another arrow instead. These are useful to represent an iterative process (what in Computer Science is called a loop). A loop may, for example, consist of a connector where control first enters, processing steps, a conditional with one arrow exiting the loop, and one going back to the connector. For additional clarity, wherever two lines accidentally cross in the drawing, one of them may be drawn with a small semicircle over the other, showing that no junction is intended. Labeled connectors Represented by an identifying label inside a circle. Labeled connectors are used in complex or multi-sheet diagrams to substitute for arrows. For each label, the "outflow" connector must always be unique, but there may be any number of "inflow" connectors. In this case, a junction in control flow is implied. Concurrency symbol Represented by a double transverse line with any number of entry and exit arrows. These symbols are used whenever two or more control flows must operate simultaneously. The exit flows are activated concurrently when all of the entry flows have reached the concurrency symbol. A concurrency symbol with a single entry flow is a fork; one with a single exit flow is a join. It is important to remember to keep these connections logical in order. All processes should flow from top to bottom and left to right.