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Building and Environment 42 (2007) 325329 www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Evaluating skid resistance of different asphalt concrete mixes

Ibrahim M. Asi
Department of Civil Engineering, Hashemite University, P.O. Box 150459, Zarqa 13115, Jordan Received 24 June 2005; accepted 19 August 2005

Abstract At all stages of pavement life, the highway surface should have some sort of roughness to facilitate friction between car wheels and pavement surface. Skid resistance is a measure of the resistance of pavement surface to sliding or skidding of the vehicle. It is a relationship between the vertical force and the horizontal force developed as a tire slides along the pavement surface. The texture of the pavement surface and its ability to resist the polishing effect of trafc is of prime importance in providing skidding resistance. Polishing of the aggregate is the reduction in microtexture, resulting in the smoothing and rounding of exposed aggregates. This process is caused by particle wear on a microscopic scale. It is a common fact that the lower the skid resistance value, the higher the percentage of the trafc accidents, especially during the wet seasons. Having a low skid resistance value at an asphalt concrete surface might be attributed to one or more of the following reasons: (1) use of higher asphalt content than recommended by the mix design procedure, (2) the Marshall mix design procedure itself, (3) used aggregate gradation, and (4) aggregate quality. To evaluate these factors, a comparative study was performed to nd the British Pendulum Skid Resistance Number for a number of mixes. These mixes included, an asphalt concrete mix using local aggregate at the optimum Marshall asphalt content, mixes with 0.5% and 1.0% asphalt contents higher than Marshall optimum asphalt content, a mix designed using Superpave design procedure, a mix with steel slag to replace 30% of limestone aggregate, and a mix with stone matrix aggregate gradation. It was found that the mix with 30% slag has the highest skid number followed by Superpave, SMA, and Marshall mixes, respectively. It was also observed that increasing the asphalt content above the optimal asphalt content value decreases the skid resistance of these mixes. r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Skid resistance; British Pendulum; Skid number; Superpave; Stone matrix aggregate; Slag; Microtexture

1. Introduction Worldwide, more than 1 million person is killed yearly due to trafc accidents. Although high percentage of these accidents is due to drivers errors, but highways have a signicant effect on this high percentage of trafc accidents. The most important factor in the highways affecting trafc accident rates is the skid resistance. Accident rates increase in the rainy season especially after the initial rain showers. One of the main reasons for this increase is attributed to the low skid resistance of the highway surfaces. In addition, a number of the drivers do not give much attention to the depth of the grooves in their tires treads, and their driving habits do not change much during the rain period.
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In general, the highway surface should have some sort of roughness to facilitate friction between the car wheel and pavement surface. Skid resistance is the force developed when a tire that is prevented from rotating slides along the pavement surface [1]. Skid resistance is a measure of the resistance of the pavement surface to sliding or skidding of the vehicle. It is a relationship between the vertical force and the horizontal force developed as a tire slides along the pavement surface. Therefore, the texture of the pavement surface and its ability to resist the polishing effect of trafc is of prime importance in providing skidding resistance. Skid resistance is an important pavement evaluation parameter because:

 

E-mail address: asi@hu.edu.jo. 0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.08.020

Inadequate skid resistance will lead to higher incidences of skid related accidents. Most agencies have an obligation to provide users with a roadway that is reasonably safe.

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Skid resistance measurements can be used to evaluate various types of materials and construction practices.

Skid resistance depends on a pavement surfaces microtexture and macrotexture [2]. Microtexture refers to the small-scale texture of the pavement aggregate component (which controls contact between the tire rubber and the pavement surface); therefore, it is produced from the coarse aggregate. Macrotexture refers to the large-scale texture of the pavement as a whole due to the aggregate particle arrangement (which controls the escape of water under the tire and hence the loss of skid resistance at high speeds) [1]. Therefore, macrotexture is controlled by the shape, size, gap width, layout, and gradation of the coarse aggregates [3]. Skid resistance changes over time. Typically, it increases in the rst two years following construction as the roadway is worn away by trafc and rough aggregate surfaces become exposed, and then decreases over the remaining pavement life as aggregates become more polished. Skid resistance is also typically higher in the fall and winter and lower in the spring and summer. This seasonal variation is quite signicant and can severely skew skid resistance data if not compensated for [1]. Bazlamit and Reza [4] reported that skid resistance is also affected by temperature, it decreases with increased temperature. Polishing of the aggregate is the reduction in microtexture, resulting in the smoothing and rounding of exposed aggregates. This process is caused by particle wear on a microscopic scale and is difcult to quantify. Low-speed friction measurements, such as the British Portable Friction Tester, have been used in an attempt to quantify polishing. Coefcient of friction, m is calculated by dividing the motion frictional resistance, F, by the load acting perpendicular to the interface, L [2]. Therefore, m is dependent on the pavement surface properties, wheel properties, and loading conditions, in addition to factors affecting those properties. Another factor which is usually used is the friction factor, f which is equal to F/L. ASTM in test method E274 introduced the skid number, SN which is equal to 100*f. Most skid resistance measuring techniques involve measuring the force required to drag a non-rotating tire over a wet pavement. One of the most popular procedures which are used to evaluate the friction resistance of the road surfaces is the Portable British Pendulum Tester. This test procedure is standardized in ASTM E303 test method. The British Pendulum Tester is a dynamic pendulum impact type tester which is based on the energy loss occurring when a rubber slider edge is propelled across a test surface. The apparatus may be used for both laboratory and eld tests on at surfaces, and also for polished stone value (PSV) measurements on curved laboratory specimens from accelerated polishing wheel tests. The values measured are referred to as British Pendulum (tester) numbers (BPN) for at surfaces, and PSVs for specimens subjected to accelerated polishing.

Locked-wheel trailer methods are also used to evaluate skid resistance of highway surfaces according to ASTM E274 procedure. In this method, a bias-ply tire is towed at 40 mph. The wheel is locked and allowed to slide for a certain distance. From the measured resistance force, the skid number, SN, is calculated. Another skid resistance evaluation procedure is by the use of the yaw mode system. In this system, the wheels are turned at some angle to the direction of motion. The side or cornering forces are measured and transformed into skid numbers. In addition, other measuring systems use surface texture analysis, like the TRRL Texture meter, to evaluate skidding properties. The Skid Number does not indicate the stopping characteristics of the vehicle, driver, or climatic condition, but it is a useful tool that can be used in evaluating the surface friction properties depending on aggregate types, asphalt mix design, and pavement construction methods. Although higher Skid Numbers are preferable to lower Skid Numbers, it is not possible to select a single value which can be considered adequate for all sites and trafc conditions [5]. Another variable which is used to evaluate aggregate resistance against polishing is the PSV. PSV of aggregate gives a measure of resistance to the polishing action of vehicle tires under conditions similar to those occurring on the surface of a road. The PSV test is carried out in two stages, accelerated polishing of test specimens followed by measurement of their state of polish by a friction test. The PSV test is standardized as a BS 812 test. Some of the factors affecting road skidding resistance properties are [2]: 1. 2. 3. 4. surface porosity of the pavement layers, surface wear due to studded tires and aggregate, polishing of surface aggregate, rutting due to compaction, lateral distortion or studded tire wear, 5. bleeding and ushing of bituminous binder to the surface, 6. contamination (rubber, oil, water, etc.). Skidding resistance of roads can be improved by mechanical methods of retexturing using high pressured water jets which is analogous to sand blasting. It can also be improved by milling and resurfacing. In addition, road surface can be roughened or dressed by chipseal, overlay, slurry seal or microsurface, or by making grooves in it [6,7]. 2. Study objectives This investigation was undertaken to compare the skid resistance of different asphalt concrete mixes that included an asphalt concrete mix using local aggregate at the optimum Marshall asphalt content, mixes with 0.5% and 1.0% asphalt contents higher than Marshall optimum asphalt content, a mix designed using Superpave design

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procedure, a mix with steel slag to replace 30% of limestone aggregate, and a mix with stone matrix aggregate gradation.

3. Results and discussion To study the effect of asphalt content and asphalt concrete mix type on the skid resistance properties, 15 cm diameter by 7 cm height samples were compacted using Superpave Gyratory compactor. The gyratory compactor was used because it simulates eld compaction, it can compact samples of 15 cm diameter, and the sample height can be controlled. 15 cm samples were used since the recommended contact path for the British Pendulum shoe on the asphalt concrete surface is between 124 and 127 mm [8]. Since the British Pendulum is just designed to test eld asphalt concrete surfaces and not designed to test asphalt concrete laboratory samples, its base was adjusted to accept 15 cm samples by constructing a special xture to hold the samples rmly in place. In addition, the height adjusting screws of the pendulum were replaced by longer

ones to accept the 7 cm height samples. Plate 1 shows the modied British Pendulum Tester. ASTM E303-93 Standard Test Method for Measuring Surface Frictional Properties Using the British Pendulum Tester [8] test procedure was followed in performing the comparison tests. Table 1 shows the suggested acceptable minimum Skid Numbers for the different categories of roads [9]. Skid resistance of six different mixes was evaluated. The rst mix was an asphalt concrete mix using local limestone aggregate compacted at the required optimum Marshall asphalt content. The used gradation for this mix was the median recommended aggregate gradation by Jordan Ministry of Public Works and Housing (MPWs&H) for heavy trafc wearing course layer [10]. The used gradation is shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen from this gure that the recommended gradation passes through the restricted zone.
Sieve Size, mm #4 9.5 12.5

#200 #30 #16 #8 100 90 80 70 Percent Passing, % 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.5

19

25

Heavy Traffic Wearing Course Superpave Gradation SMA Gradation Restricted Zone Control Points

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Sieve Opening to Power 0.45, mm

4.5

Plate 1. Modied British Pendulum skid resistance tester.

Fig. 1. Used gradations for the different asphalt concrete mixes.

Table 1 Suggested minimum values of skid resistance numbers (measured with the portable tester) [9] Category Type of site Minimum skid resistance value (surface wet)

Difcult sites such as: (i) Roundabouts (ii) Bends with radius less than 150 m on unrestricted (iii) Gradients, 1 in 20 or steeper, of lengths greater than 100 m (iv) Approaches to trafc lights on unrestricted roads Motorways, trunk and class 1 roads and heavily trafcked roads in urban areas (carrying more than 2000 vehicles per day) All other sites

65

B C

55 45

Note: For category A and B sites where speed of trafc is high (in excess of 95 km/h) an additional requirement is a minimum texture depth of 0.65 mm.

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Cominsky et al. and Brown et al. [11,12] found that mixes passing through the restricted zone tend to be tender mixes, and special precautions should be taken when compacting such mixes. The optimum Marshall asphalt content for this mix was found to be 5.4%. Usually, the allowable asphalt content range is optimum Marshall content 70.5%. Asphalt concrete construction contractors prefer to use higher asphalt content percentages than the allowable limit because the asphalt concrete will be more workable, and it will be easier for them to reach the required compaction degree. To test the effect of increasing the asphalt content, two additional Marshall mixes were prepared having 5.9% and 6.4% asphalt contents. Fig. 1 also shows the used gradation for the Superpave mix. Two mixes were prepared according to Superpave mix design procedure. The rst mix used locally available limestone aggregate. In the second mix, 30% of the limestone aggregate was replaced by steel slag. The asphalt content for Superpave samples was found to be 5.4%. The suggested requirements for SMA mixtures which was developed by the FHWA sponsored SMA Technical Working Group (TWG) in publication IS 118 [5] was followed in preparing the SMA samples [13]. The used SMA aggregate gradation is shown in Fig. 1. The used asphalt content for the SMA mix was 6.9%. Details of SMA mix design procedure can be found in another publication [14]. Two samples from each mix were tested for skid resistance evaluation. On each sample, the test was repeated ve times. Table 2 and Fig. 2 show the obtained skid numbers for the different mixes. From Fig. 2, it can be seen that for Marshall samples, SN decreases with the increase of the asphalt cement content. Samples designed according to Superpave procedure, showed better skid resistance performance than both Marshall and SMA samples. The highest SN values were for the slag samples. Although SMA samples showed lower SNs than Superpave and slag samples, but eld performance of SMA mixtures proved that SMA mixes have high
Table 2 Skid resistance evaluation results for the different mixes Sample no. 1 Trial no. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Marshall 92 89 97 100 80 80 80 85 82 87 87.2 7.3

skid resistance values [1517]. The high asphalt content of SMA mixes, 6.9%, placed a high lm thickness around the aggregate and was the main reason behind the low SN values. However, due to the coarse gradation of SMA mixes they will have high eld SN values. Still SMA-tested samples were having higher SN values than Marshall mixes. Fig. 2 showed higher SN values than those usually obtained in the eld. This might be because the samples are non-trafcked, or because of the fact that the test is performed on laboratory prepared samples. In spite of these limitations, using the British pendulum on laboratory prepared samples can aid in comparing the skid performance of the different mixes, and can give an idea about predicted skid resistance performance. 4. Concluding remarks This investigation was undertaken with the primary objective to compare the skid resistance of different mixes. Based on the ndings of the experimental results, the following main conclusions can be drawn: 1. Skid resistance of the asphalt concrete surfaces of the roads should be checked during the service life of the roads.

120 Skid Number 100 80 60 40 20 0

Marshall @ Marshall @ Marshall @ Superpave OAC OAC + 0.5% OAC +1.0% S.M.A 30% Slag

Mix Type
Fig. 2. Skid numbers for the different asphalt concrete mixes.

Marshall+0.5% 84 80 77 80 81 82 83 84 82 80 81.3 2.2

Marshall+1% 77 71 70 73 75 72 77 70 77 77 73.9 3.0

Superpave 100 110 97 93 92 90 90 98 95 92 95.7 6.1

SMA 93 90 90 96 94 94 92 93 92 90 92.4 2.0

30% slag 102 97 100 100 100 100 99 99 99 100 99.6 1.3

Average Standard deviation

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2. A test to evaluate resistance of aggregate to polishing, like PSV test, should be included in the highway specications. 3. Asphalt concrete mixes containing 30% slag have the highest skid number followed by Superpave, SMA, and Marshall mixes, respectively. 4. Increasing the asphalt content above the optimal asphalt content value decreases the skid resistance of these mixes. Therefore, road construction contractors should adhere to the specication limits of the asphalt content. 5. Mixes designed according to Superpave mix design procedure have better skid numbers than those designed using Marshall mix design procedure. 6. Addition of steel slag in asphalt concrete mixes and using SMA mixes can be implemented to improve skid resistance of road surfaces, especially at highway intersections. 7. British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester can be used to compare skid performance of the different mixes.

Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge the support of the Hashemite University for supporting this research study. Thanks are extended to both Eng. Feras Elayan and Mr. Ali Al-Omary for helping in performing the required laboratory and eld measurements.

References
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