5.

61 Fall 2007

Lecture #2

page 1

The DEMISE of CLASSICAL PHYSICS

(a) Discovery of the Electron

In 1897 J.J. Thomson discovers the electron and measures e me

(and inadvertently invents the cathode ray (TV) tube) Faraday (1860s 1870s) had already shown using electrochemistry that amounts of electric current proportional to amounts of some substances could be liberated in an electrolytic cell. The term electron was suggested as a natural unit of electricity. But Thomson experimentally observes electrons as particles with charge & mass.

y = displacement induced by deflector voltage Cathode Anode Thomson found that results are independent of (1) (2) cathode material residual gas composition Deflector plates Phosphor screen

electron is a distinct particle, present in all materials!

force on electron due to deflector voltage:

Classical mechanics

Fy = e =m dv y dt

(force starts at time t = 0 when electron enters region between plates)

( F = ma )

dv y

e = dt me

e Integrating v y = t me

[Note v y t = 0 = 0]

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e t f dy Integrating again since v y = and y t = 0 = 0 y = dt me 2

t f = total time electron is between the plates (easily calculated)

Set voltage , calculate time t f , measure displacement y

Modern day value is

e 11 m = 1x10 C/kg e

e 11 = 1.758x10 C/kg me

(b)

1909 Milliken oil drop experiment determines e, me separately mist of micron-size oil droplets in air

Gravitational force downward:

Fg

Fg = Mg

M = mass of droplet, g = gravitational constant Ff

Frictional force upward due to air:

F f = 6 rv

r = radius of droplet, = air viscosity, v = droplet velocity

Since F f v , terminal velocity vt is reached when forces balance

6 rvt = Mg

get droplet mass M = 6 rvt g

Now use x-rays or -rays to add some charge ne to the droplets Voltage across plates exerts Coulomb force Fc = ne on the charged droplet x-rays n-

( )

Fc
n-

Fg
n-

Ff
n-

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Adjust voltage until drop stops falling:

v = 0 F f = 0,

Fc = Fg

ne = Mg

Determine ne = Mg

Mulliken did this for lots of droplets i = 1,2,3,...

They all had different charges ni e but all integer multiples of charge e Determined elementary charge as e = 1.59x10 (very close to todays value e = 1.602x10 Combining values for e me
19 19

( )

()

C)

) and ( e)

me = 9.11x10
27

31

kg

Hydrogen mass was known: mH = 1.66x10

kg electron is subatomic!!

(c) Where are the electrons? Whats the structure of the atom? Angstrom (10-10 m) atomic size scale already inferred from gas kinetics First jellium model didnt last long (jelly)
n+

Rutherford backscattering experiment He

2+

Au foil He
2+

(no electrons) 2% scatter back (1) (2)

98% undeflected

He2+ nucleus very small, << 10 -10 m (Rutherford estimated 10-14 m) Au atoms are mostly empty!

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Rutherford planetary model: classical mechanical model of atomic structure Coulomb attraction plays the role of gravity

centripetal force
r v

Fc =

me v 2

+Z

Coulomb force for stable orbit

r Ze2 FC = 4 0 r 2 me v 2 r Ze2 = 4 0 r 2 Ze2 r= 4 0 me v 2

This is stable compared to separated electron & nucleus

1 Ze2 1 Ze2 2 E = K.E. + P.E. = me v + <0 = 2 2 4 0 r 4 0 r

BUT model not consistent with classical electrodynamics: Accelerating charge emits radiation! (centripetal acceleration = v2/r) And since light has energy, E must be getting more negative with time r must be getting smaller with time! Electron spirals into nucleus in ~ 10-10 s ! Also, as r decreases, v should increase Frequency of emitted light = frequency of rotation

(Hz = cycles/s) =

v (m/s) 2 r (m/cycle)
circumference of orbit

atom should emit light at all frequencies that is it should produce a continuous spectrum

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BUT emission from atoms was known to be discrete, not continuous! For H:

n1 = 3 n1 = 2 n2 = 3 4 5 6

n1 = 1
n2 = 2 3 4

10,000

30,000

50,000

100,000 (cm-1)

For the H atom, Rydberg showed that the spectrum was consistent with the simple formula:

1
1

(cm -1 ) = R 2
2
n1 n2
with n1 = 1, 2, 3, ... and n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2, n1 + 3, ... R = 1.097x105 cm -1 (Rydberg constant)
n1 = 1 Lyman series n1 = 2 Balmer series n1 = 3 Paschen series
visible & UV lines well known

Summary: (1) (2) (3)

Rutherfords model of the atom Is not stable relative to collapse of electron into nucleus Does not yield discrete emission lines, Does not explain the Rydberg formula