Heat and Thermodynamics

AIEEE Syllabus : Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; specific heat, calorimetry; change of state, latent
heat; Thermal equilibrium, Zeroth law of thermodynamics; Heat, work and internal energy. First law of
thermodynamics; Carnot engine and its efficiency
HEAT
When a hot body is kept in contact with a cold body, there is a transfer of energy from hot body to cold
body. The energy transferred is called heat.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS : If a body A is separately in thermal equilibrium with body
B and body C then B and C are also in the thermal equilibrium.
Two bodies which are in thermal equilibrium are said to have equal temperatures.
Thermal Expansion
When the temperature of a body increases, its size increases.
(1) Coefficient of linear expansion is given by
A
o =
A
L
L T
L
u
= L
0
(1 + ou)
(2) Coefficient of superficial expansion is given by
A
| =
A
A
A T
A
u
= A
0
(1 + |u)
(3) Coefficient of cubical expansion is given by
A
=
A
V
V T
or V
u
= V
0
(1 + u)
0
(1 ) = + u
p p
m m
p
u
~ p
0
(1 u)
An Isotropic body expands equally in all directions and we can obtain the following relations
= 3o, | = 2o or
1 2 3
o |
= =
12
CHAPTER
Heat and Thermodynamics 2
Applications
(1) If o
x
, o
y
, o
z
are coefficient of linear expansion along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, (i.e., for anisotropic
body) then = o
x
+ o
y
+ o
z
.
(2) For water is negative between 0C and 4C
(3) Density of water is maximum at 4C. Therefore water at the bottom of lake in winter is warmer
than that at the surface.
(4) Two rods of length L
1
and L
2

are kept side by side. If with increase in temperature, the difference
in their lengths does not change i.e.
2 1 2 1
' ' = L L L L where
2 1 1
(1 ) ' = + o A L L t and
2 1 2
(1 ) ' = + o A L L t
then L
1
o
1
= L
2
o
2
or
1 2
1 2 2 1
o
=
o o
L
L L
.
L ,
1 1
o
L
2 2
, o
(5) A vessel is completely filled with a liquid
Glass container ( )
of volume
o
v
V
0
Liquid of volume
( ) V
0

l
o
v
= coefficient of linear expansion of vessel

l
= coefficient of cubical expansion of liquid
With increase in temperature, the volume of
liquid flown out is given by
AV = V
0
[1 + (
l

v
)Au] = V
0
[1 + (V
l
3o
v
)Au]
AV = V
0
[1 +
a
Au], where

a
= coefficient of apparent expansion =
l

v
=
l
3o
v
CALORIMETRY
Specific heat capacity :
A
=
A
Q
c
m T
(cal/g/C)
Molar heat capacity :
A
=
A
Q
C
n T
(cal/mol/C)
Note : Molar heat capacity = (Mol. mass) Specific heat capacity
Latent heat
(1) of fusion =
f
Q
L
m
(2) of vaporisation
=
v
Q
L
m
Water
Specific heat C = 1 cal/gm/C = 4.2 J/gm/C = 4200 J/kg/C
L
f
= 80 cal/gm = 336 J/gm
L
v
= 540 cal/gm = 2268 J/gm
Heat and Thermodynamics 3
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Assumptions for ideal gas are
(i) Kinetic theory of gases is applicable for large number of molecules.
(ii) Intermolecular forces between two molecules is negligible.
(iii) The force due to gravity on the molecules is neglected.
(iv) The separation between the molecules is much larger as compared to their size.
(v) The molecules are perfectly elastic and all collisions between the molecules and a wall are considered
to be perfectly elastic.
All gases at high temperature and low pressure behave like an ideal gas.
Pressure Exerted by the Gas
The pressure of the gas is due to continuous bombardment of the gas molecules against the walls of the
container. According to kinetic theory, the pressure exerted by an ideal gas is given by
2
1
3
=
M
P v
V
M = Mass of the enclosed gas
V = Volume of the container
2
v = Mean square speed of molecules
Or
2
1
3
=
Nm
P v
V
N = Number of molecule
m = Mass of the molecule
2
v = Mean square speed of molecules
Types of speed defined for a gas :
(i) Root mean square speed,
rms
v =
3
w
RT
M
=
2 2 3 2
1 2 3
3
....... + + +
=
p
n
P
v v v v
n
(ii)
Avg
v =
1 2 3
......... 8 8 + + + +
= =
t p
n
w
v v v v RT P
M n
(iii) v
mp
= Most probable speed is defined the speed corresponding to which there are maximum number
of molecules.
2 2
= =
p
mp
w
RT P
v
M
p = Density of gas
= Molecular weight
= Gas constant
= Pressure of gas
M
R
P
w
Order of magnitude : v
rms
> v
avg
> v
mp
8
: : 3 : : 2 =
t
rms av mp
V V V
Heat and Thermodynamics 4
Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
Translation Kinetic Energy =
3
2
nRT
THERMODYNAMICS
Internal Energy : Every bulk system consists of a large number of molecules. Internal energy is simply
the sum of the kinetic energies and potential energies of these molecules. It is a macroscopic variable.
For gases
2 2 1 1
( )
2 2
A = A =
f f
U nR T PV PV
Law of equipartition of energy :
According to law of equipartition of energy, the total kinetic energy of a Thermo dynamical system
consisting of a large number of particles is equally distributed among its degree of freedom and
hence the average kinetic energy of a molecule associated with each degree of freedom is
1
. .
2
= K E kT where k is Boltzmann constant and T is absolute temperature.
Gas
Degrees of
freedom (f)
2
A = A
f
U nR T
A
=
A
V
U
C
n T
C
P
=C
V
+ R
=
P
V
C
C

Monoatomic
3
(Translational)
3
2
A nR T
3
2
R
5
2
R
5
3

Diatomic or
Linear
Polyatomic
3(Trans) +
2(Rot)
5
2
A nR T
5
2
R
7
2
R
7
5

Non-Linear
Poly atomic
3 (Trans) + 3
(Rot)
3nRAT 3 R 4 R
4
3


First Law of Thermodynamics : It is law of conservation of energy.
Let Q heat is supplied to gas. It is used in two ways.
(1) Increasing internal energy (i.e., increasing temperature).
(2) Work done by the gas during expansion (W)
Q = AU + W
Note : (1) Q and W are path functions. They depend on the type of process.
(2) U is state function. It depends only on initial and final state of system.
U = nC
V
T (Always applicable, whatever may be the process. Here C
V
is Molar heat
capacity at constant volume)
Heat and Thermodynamics 5
Thermodynamic Process
(1) Isochoric process :
dV = 0 W = 0 [dV = change in volume]
Q = nC
V
AT = AU

A
=
A
V
U
C
n T
(2) Isobaric process :
P = constant, dW = PdV
W = PAV = nRAT
Q = nC
P
AT = AU + W
nC
P
AT = nC
V
AT + nRAT
C
P
= C
V
+ R
Fraction of total heat converted to internal energy =
1 A
=

U
Q
Fraction of total heat converted to work is,
1
=

W
Q
(3) Isothermal process :
PV = K AT = 0 AU = 0, C =
To calculate the amount of work done by the gas in an isothermal process.
as PV = nRT (Constant)
So
=
nRT
P
V
Work done
2 2
10
1 1
log 2.303 log = = = =
e
V V
W Q nRT nRT
V V
(4) Adiabatic process :
PV

= K [Equation of adiabatic process]
As Q = 0, nCAT = 0 or C = 0
Also, 0 = nC
V
AT + W [by first law of thermodynamics]
Now, =A W U
Heat and Thermodynamics 6
Applications
(1) P-V graph for different gases for adiabatic expansion
= 4/3
= 7/5
= 5/3
1
2
3
1 monoatomic
2 diatomic
3 polyatomic

P
V
(2) P.V. graph for isothermal & adiabatic expansion & compression for a given gas
Isothermal
Adiabatic
V
P
Isothermal
Adiabatic
V
P
(a) (b)
(3) Expansion of a gas under different processes
1 Isobaric
2 Isothermal
3 Adiabatic
4 Isochoric

V
P
1
2
3
4
| | > | | > | | W W W
1 2 3
(4) Compression
1 Isobaric
2 Isothermal
3 Adiabatic
4 Isochoric

V
P
1
2
3
4
| | > | | > | | W W W
3 2 1
CARNOT ENGINE
Carnot Cycle :
In a carnot engine the working substance (an ideal gas) draws some heat from the source per cycle (say
Q
1
) performs some work W per cycle and rejects heat Q
2
to the sink per cycle.
Source
T
1
Sink
T
2
Working
substance
W
Q
1
Q
2
Heat and Thermodynamics 7
1
2
3
4
P V
2 2
,
P V
3 3
,
P V
4 4
,
P V
1 1
,
P
V
Q
2
T
1
Q
1
T
2
1 2 Isothermal Expansion
AU = 0
2
1 1
1
ln = =
V
W Q nRT
V
(positive)
2 3 Adiabatic Expansion
Q = 0
2
1
A
= A =

nR T
W U
r

3 4 Isothermal Compression
AU = 0
4
3 2
3
ln
| |
= =
|
\ .
V
W Q nRT
V
(negative)
4 1 Adiabatic Compression
Q = 0
4
1
A
= A =

nR T
W U
r

Heat supplied = Q
1
Heat rejected = Q
2
Q
1
Q
2
= W
total 1 2
supplied 1
100 100

n = =
W Q Q
Q Q
=
2
1
1 100
| |

|
\ .
Q
Q
=
2
1
1 100
| |

|
\ .
T
T
(for ideal engine)
1 2 1 2 1 2
: : : : = Q Q W T T T T or
1 2
1 2 1 2
= =

Q Q W
T T T T
Refrigerator : In a refrigerator, W work is done on the working substance, Q
2
heat is absorbed from
lower temperature T
2
and Q
1
heat is rejected to higher temperature T
1
. (T
1
> T
2
).
Coefficient of performance
2
total 1 2
heat rejected
| = =

Q
W Q Q
2
1 2
| =

T
T T
*****
EVERONN TOPPERS
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
LEVEL - I
1. At a given temperature if
rms
V is the root mean
square velocity of the molecules of a gas and
s
V
the velocity of sound in it, then these are related
as
p
v
C
C
| |
=
|
\ .
(1)
rms s
V V = (2) rms s
3
V V =

(3)
rms s
V V
3

=
(4) rms s
3
V V
| |
=
|

\ .
2. 110J of heat is added to a gaseous system, whose
internal energy increases by 40J, then the amount
of t work done by the system is
(1) 150J (2) 70J
(3) 110J (4) 40J
3. For free expansion of the gas which of the
following is true
(1)
int
Q W 0 and E 0 = = A =
(2)
int
Q 0, W 0 and E 0 = > A =
(3)
int
W 0, Q 0, and E Q = > A =
(4)
int
W 0, Q 0 and E 0 > < A =
4. The specific heat of hydrogen gas at constant
pressure is
3
p
C 3.4 10 cal / kg C

= and at
constant volume is
3
v
C 2.4 10 cal / kg C

= . If
one kilogram hydrogen gas is heated from 10C
to 20C at constant pressure, the external work
done on the gas to maintain it at constant pressure
is
(1) 10
5
cal (2) 10
4
cal
(3) 10
3
cal (4) 5 10
3
cal
5. If a cylinder containing a gas at high pressure
explodes, the gas undergoes
ASSI GNMENT
(1) Reversible adiabatic change and fall of
temperature
(2) Reversible adiabatic change and rise of
temperature
(3) Irreversible adiabatic change and fall of
temperature
(4) Irreversible adiabatic change and rise of
temperature
6. An ideal gas at 27C is compressed adiabatically
to
8
27
of its original volume. If
5
3
=
, then the
rise in temperature is
(1) 450K (2) 375K
(3) 225K (4) 405K
7. Which is the correct statement
(1) For an isothermnal change P = Bulk Modulus
(2) In an isothermal process the change in internal
energy must be equal to the work done
(3) For an adiabatic change
2 2
1 1
P V
,
P V

| |
=
|
\ .
where
is the ratio of specific heats
(4) In an adiabatic process work done must be
equal to the heat entering the system
LEVEL - II
1. Which of the following is correct in terms of
increasing work done for the same initial and final
volume for expansion
(1) Adiabatic < isothermal < isobaric
(2) Isobaric < Adiabatic < Isothermal
(3) Adiabatic < Isobaric < Isothermal
(4) None of these
2. When an ideal diatomic gas is heated at constant
pressure, the fraction of the heat energy supplied
which increases the internal energy of the gas, is
(1)
2
5
(2)
3
5
(3)
3
7
(4)
5
7
Heat and Thermodynamics 9
3. A mono atomic gas is supplied the heat Q very
slowly keeping the pressure constant. The work
done by the gas will be
(1)
2
Q
3
(2)
3
Q
5
(3)
2
Q
5
(4)
1
Q
5
4. The temperature of a hypothetical gas increases
to
2
times when compressed adiabatically to
half the volume. Its equation can be written as
(1)
3/ 2
PV constant =
(2)
5/ 2
PV constant =
(3)
7/ 3
PV constant =
(4)
4/ 3
PV constant =
ASSERTION-REASON TYPE QUESTIONS
Direction : The questions given below consisst of
an Statement-1 and the Statement-2. Use the
following key to choise the appropriate answer
(1) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
Statement-2 is a correct explanation for
Statement-1.
(2) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for
Statement-1.
(3) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False.
(4) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True.
1. STATEMENT - 1 : In a process if initial volume
is equal to the final volume, work done by the gas
is zero.
and
STATEMENT - 2 : In an isochoric process work
done by the gas is zero.
2. STATEMENT - 1 : V-T graph in a process is
rectangular hyperbola. Then P-T graph in the
same process will be a parabola.
and
STATEMENT - 2 : If V-T graph is rectangular
hyperbola, with increase in T, volume will
decrease and hence pressure will increase.
3. STATEMENT - 1 : If an ideal gas expands in
vacuum in an insulated chamber, AQ, AU and AW
all are zero.
and
STATEMENT - 2 : Temperature of the gas
remains constant.
4. STATEMENT - 1 : The ratio
p
v
C
C
for a diatomic
gas is less than that for a monoatomic gas.
and
STATEMENT - 2 : The molecules of mono atomic
gas has more degrees of freedom.
Heat and Thermodynamics 10
ANSWERS
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
LEVEL - I
1. (2) 2. (2) 3. (1) 4. (2) 5. (3)
6. (2) 7. (1)
LEVEL - II
1. (1) 2. (4) 3. (3) 4. (1)
ASSERTION-REASION TYPE QUESTIONS
1. (4) 2. (2) 3. (2) 4. (4)
COMPREHENSION BASED QUESTIONS