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A Survey of Advancements in Tire Technology

by Dan Schwarz

School of Engineering Grand Valley State University

Term Paper EGR 250 Material Science & Engineering Section 01 Instructor: Dr. P.N. Anyalebechi March 17, 2006

2 Abstract Tires are one of the most important parts of an automobile because they are the only part of the car that is intended to touch the ground. In view of this fact, tires have been designed to provide traction and shock absorption while protecting the wheels from wear. A brief history of the developments in tire technology is given for the past two centuries including the discovery of vulcanization through the invention of the radial tire. Functional requirements and corresponding material properties of a tire are discussed to ascertain the appropriate materials for manufacturing tires. Common rubber, metal, textile, and filler materials are reviewed with respect to their desirable properties. The current manufacturing processes that assemble these materials into a tire are explained chronologically. The entire discussion is intended to offer a brief survey of the advancements made in tire technology and is concluded with recent developments in the tire industry. 1. Introduction For centuries wheels have been used to reduce large frictional forces that oppose the movement of heavy objects. Most of these early wooden wheels were implemented on horse drawn carriages. The first development resembling the design and functionality of a tire was steel bands fastened to carriage wheels along their outer circumference. The steel bands offered an increase in wear resistance but did not offer any shock absorption. In order to make carriages more comfortable for long rides, leather was placed on the contact surface of the wheels. Eventually, leather wheel coverings were replaced by natural rubber and the concept of the tire, as it is known today, began to develop. The first obstacle in tire development was overcome by Charles Goodyear when he developed the process of vulcanization in 1839 [1]. Good year discovered that heating a mixture of rubber and sulfur improved the rubbers physical properties. Vulcanized rubber held its shape better than plain rubber and was not as susceptible to temperature changes. Several years after vulcanization was discovered, the first tire companies produced extremely heavy solid rubber tires. In order to make the tires lighter, John Boyd Dunlop developed the air filled pneumatic tire in 1888 [1]. Dunlops pneumatic tire was lighter and

3 absorbed shock much better than the early solid tires. The tire consisted of an outer casing that was supported by an inner tube filled with air. The outer casing provided protection for the inner tube and traction for gripping the road. Fifty years passed without any significant changes in tire technology until the bias ply tire was invented [1]. A bias ply tire contained layers of plies that strengthen the casing. Each ply layer had fabric cords embedded in the rubber that ran diagonally from one bead (i.e. edge) of the tire casing to the other. All of the cords within a single ply ran in the same diagonal direction which is where the name bias ply came from [1]. Each successive ply had cords running in the opposite direction than the previous ply to make the tire rigid. The current radial tire design was introduced to the market by Michelin in France, 1948 [2]. Radial tires differ from the bias ply design in that the cords embedded in the rubber run perpendicular to the direction of the tire treads instead of diagonal. Radials also have steel belts underneath the treads to square the treads with the surface of the road. Although radial tires are twice as expensive to make, they improve the life of the treads and decrease rolling resistance [1]. Rolling resistance refers to the amount of force required to turn the wheel. The rigidity of the belts in radial tires reduces rolling resistance by decreasing the amount of tread in contact with the road (i.e. contact patch). radial and bias ply tire designs. By decreasing roll resistance, radials improve the fuel economy of the consumers automobiles. Figure 1 provides a cross-sectional comparison of

Figure 1: The cross-section of a bias ply tire (left) [21] is compared to the cross section of a radial (right) [22].

2. Components of a Modern Tire

At first glace, the modern tire appears to be nothing more than a round piece of rubber that fits onto a wheel. However, close examination will reveal that tires are actually very complex products. Figure 2 provides a cross-sectional view of a radial tire, showing its many hidden components. The most familiar part of a tire is the tread which has different patterns of grooves depending on its intended use. Beneath the tread are several layers of rubber called the undertread. The undertread is intended to fuse the tread to the belts and absorb heat that builds up in the belts. The belts are circumferential strips of rubber with wire suspended in it to offer support for the contact surface of the tread. Beneath the belts lies the carcass which is the sum of all body plies in the tire. The body plies of a radial tire are layers of rubber with polyester fibers suspended perpendicular to the direction of the tread. Bead bundles on either side of the tire are made of steel wires that hold the body plies in place. The bead also creates a tight fit between the tire and the wheel to ensure that there is no slippage between the two. The most important layer of a pneumatic tire is the inner liner that prevents air leakage.

Figure 2: The cross-sectional view of a radial tire and its components [19].

Tire materials include rubber, steel, fabric, and fillers materials as shown in Table 1. Steel wire and fabric fibers are used to create various ply layers as described above. The rubber compound contains filler materials such as carbon black to increase wear resistance and decrease rolling resistance in the tire. Accelerator materials are included in the rubber compound to aid in the vulcanization process of manufacturing tires.
Table 1: Percent composition of a tire [23].

Natural rubber

14%

5 Synthetic rubber Carbon black Steel Fabric, fillers, accelerators, antiozonants, etc. Average weight 27% 28% 14 - 15% 16 - 17% New 25 lbs, Scrap 20 lbs.

2.1. Functional Requirements The most basic function of the tire is to protect the wheels from wear. This requirement suggests that tires must be the only part of the wheel in contact with the ground. Since the entire weight of a vehicle will be resting on the tires, they must be rigid enough to support the vehicles weight. Normal operation of a vehicle requires the tires to roll across both paved and unpaved surfaces. Consequently, tires must be made of robust materials that are not susceptible to being damaged by these surfaces. The materials must also possess enough heat resistance to remain unaffected by high temperatures produced from friction between the ground and tires. Tires must also produce enough traction to allow the automobile to effectively transfer power to the road. The tire must be able to maintain this traction even when the roads are covered with water or snow. At the same time, it is important that the tires do not produce high roll resistance that would cause the vehicle to burn excessive amounts of fuel. Another important consideration is the comfort of a vehicles occupants. No matter how smoothly paved a road may be, there is always debris that can transfer shock into the cabin of the vehicle. Tires must be able to absorb the shock and vibrations produced by roughness of the road. In order to absorb the shock of passing over bumps in the road, tire materials must be flexible. The tire must also be made of a material that can retain a constant air cushion in the tube.

2.2. Required Properties

The intended functionality of the tire is achieved though careful considerations of the properties of candidate tire materials. A balance between rigidity and flexibility of the tire is important to simultaneously provide both structure and shock absorption. This necessary balance between rigidity and flexibility is achieved by reinforcing the relatively soft rubber with rigid fibers. The rubber must have a low modulus of elasticity such as styrene-butadiene rubber (i.e. SBR) which has a modulus of 1.5 GPa [24]. Conversely, tread reinforcing fibers such as ASTM 1070 steel wire offer an elastic modulus of 205 GPa [26]. When the tire experiences strain as it rolls over uneven pavement, it must possess elastomer properties to absorb the shock. This means that the material should be able to successfully elongate over 200% of its original length without breaking and then return to its normal shape [11]. Once again, SBR is an excellent candidate material because it offers up to 480% elongation before it breaks at its ultimate tensile strength of 28.5MPa [24]. The tire should also be resistant to fatigue as it will be strained sporadically. Friction between the tire and the road creates heat that tends to build up in the belts of radial tires. The edge of a belt can reach temperatures of up to 100C as the tire rolls down the road [9]. Accordingly, it is important to design the rubber compound in such a way that the melting temperature of the tires undertread is high enough to withstand operating temperatures. SBR has been tested to operate safely at 110C which is slightly higher than the safe operating temperature of 100C for natural rubber [25]. The tire tread material must provide enough traction to prevent the tire from spinning or sliding on the pavement. A high coefficient of friction will allow the weight of the vehicle to keep the tires adhered to the ground. Tire tread materials must also be resistant to abrasion wear and cuts from road debris. The addition of carbon black fillers to SBR increases its wear resistance and produces Shore hardness values of approximately 75 [6]. 2.3. Tire Materials As tire designs have progressed throughout history they have addressed each functional requirement more successfully. However, it wasnt until the last few decades that tire manufacturers have directed their focus on improving tire functionality with new materials. The

7 first tires where made only using natural isoprene rubber which has high abrasion resistance compared to many other rubbers [4]. More recently, synthetic rubbers such as styrene-butadiene copolymers have been used for their fatigue resistance [4]. Random configuration styrenebutadiene copolymers are commonly used because they are more pliable than block configurations (i.e. styrene-butadiene-styrene or SBS). Chlorobutyl rubber can also be used in tire compounds to make them more resistant to high temperatures [4]. Another important rubber in the tire industry is polyisobutylene because it is impermeable to gases. Polyisobutylene is used to create the inner liner of the tire that prevents air leakages [5]. Today, most tires are made of a compound of rubbers and other materials to obtain a balance of desired material properties. Table 2 shows the composition of four common tire compounds and their respective locations within a tire.
Table 2: Composition of common tire compounds [23].

Natural Rubber Styrene-Butadiene Rubber Isobutylene-Isoprene Rubber Carbon Black (Grade N110) Carbon Black (Grade N330) Carbon Black (Grade N765) Processing Oil Antioxidant Antioxidant Wax Stearic Acid Zinc Oxidant Accelerator (High) Accelerator (Middle) Accelerator (Low) Sulfur

Tread (PHR) 50.0 50 50 7.5 1 2 5 1.25 2.5

Base (PHR) 100 15 25 5 0.75 4 5 1 3

Sidewall (PHR) 75 25 20 35 5 1 2 3 5 0.7 2.8

Innerliner (PHR) 100 50 3 1 1.5 5 0.4 0.4 2

*PHR = Per Hundred Rubber *Carbon grade = ASTM grading: Particle size and structure of carbon are different.

Fillers are a very important part of tire rubber compounds because they offer abrasion resistance and reinforcement. Fillers are solid granular materials that are suspended in the rubber compound such as carbon black. Carbon black not only increases the abrasion resistance of the

8 rubber but also increases the rate of vulcanization [4]. Smaller granules of carbon black are used to extend the tread life of tires but if the granules are too small it is difficult to attain proper dispersion of the filler [4]. Vulcanization can also occur prematurely if the granules of carbon black are too small [4]. In 1992, Michelin patented a new tire tread compound using silica as the primary filler instead of carbon black [6]. The silica filler is more expensive to use than carbon black but it produces less roll resistance. For a long time silica had been used in small quantities to increase tear resistance and decrease cut growth in tires. The reason it was never used as the primary filler was a lack of compatibility between silica and the other polymers used in tire treads. In addition, silica did not disperse very well during the mixing process. To overcome this problem, Michelin developed a new high dispersal silica and added an organosilane as a coupling agent [6]. The new silica/silane filler still does not disperse as well as carbon black but it has proven to be the best filler for reducing roll resistance [7]. One of the most essential components of any tire compound is the sulfur which allows the rubber to be vulcanized. The sulfur creates cross-links between the carbon backbones of adjacent polymer chains when the compound is heated [3]. Cross-linking increases the strength of the rubber by preventing polymer chains from slipping past one another. Tire compounds typically contain low amounts of sulfur (1-5% wt. S) to prevent too many cross-links from forming which causes the rubber to become hard [3]. Tire rubber is given structure and support by fibers embedded in the rubber. In early tires cotton was used because it bonded well with the rubber and prevented the tire plies from separating during operation [8]. Synthetic rayon eventually replaced cotton but after a few years nylon replaced rayon because of its superior strength and low cost [8]. Today the most common fiber used in tire production is polyester due to its low cost per unit strength [8]. Radial tires also implement the use of metal fibers to form the circumferential belts that provide structure for the tread. The metal fibers are made of woven ASTM 1070 steel wires that are coated with brass. Brass allows the steel wire to bond with the rubber since steel alone cannot to bond with rubber. ASTM 1070 steel is also used to form the bead bundles that support the inner diameter of the sidewalls. Table 3 shows the composition of ASTM 1070 steel and the brass compositions used to coat the steel.

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Table 3: Composition of metal fibers used in tire belts and bead bundles [23].

Carbon Manganese Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Copper Chromium Nickel COATING

STEEL BELTS 0.67 - 0.73% 0.40 - 0.70% 0.15 - 0.03% 0.03% max. 0.03% max. Trace Trace Trace 66% Copper 34% Zinc

BEAD WIRE 0.60% min. 0.40 - 0.70% 0.15 - 0.30% 0.04% max. 0.04% max. Trace Trace Trace 98% Brass 2% Tin

2.4. Tire Manufacturing All of the materials described above come together in the manufacturing process to form a tire. A tire has several components including the inner liner, bead bundle, bead filler, bead chafer, body plies, carcass, side wall, belts, edge covers, cap plies, undertread, and tread. The cross-sectional diagram in Figure 2 illustrates the position of each component in the tires construction. The first step in manufacturing a tire is to create the rubber compounds for different parts of the tire. Compounds for the tread are designed on the basis of the intended use of the tire such as wet, dry, and snow covered surfaces while also taking the desired performance into consideration. Tread compounds are typically made with either natural rubber, styrenebutadiene rubber, polybutadiene rubber, or a combination of these rubbers [12]. Fillers are also incorporated into the compounds based on the desired performance of the tire. Degussa, for example, distributes fillers such as Corax HP 160 carbon black for high performance passenger car treads or Utrasil 7005 for low roll resistance wet passenger tires [13]. Curative and accelerator materials are added to the compound to encourage elasticity of the rubber. Sidewall compounds contain different concentrations of materials than tread compounds because of the difference in required properties. In order to ensure that the rubber compounds contain the correct proportions of materials, machines are used to distribute precise amounts of each material into every batch of rubber compound.

10 Once the compounds are made, they are mixed at temperatures of 160-170C without the curative package being added [12]. Then the curative package is added after reducing the temperature to approximately 100C which minimizes the likelihood of scorching [12]. Some of the mixed compounds are extruded to form tread and sidewall strips while others are milled into thick sheets for calendaring. Extrusion is the process of forcing the rubber through an extruder head to produce a particular shape. Since the tire tread and undertread are made of different compounds, multiple extruder barrels feed the individual compounds to the same extruder head. This process joins the necessary layers of the tread together. Calendaring is the process of embedding fibers into the sheets of rubber. Calendaring processes differ slightly depending on what part of the tire must be produce. During calendaring of the carcass and body plies, adhesive coated cords are pressed into the rubber strips by a series of rollers. The calendaring process for the belts involves pressing brass coated steel cords into the rubber. The inner lining is also produce by a calendaring process using an impermeable halogenated butyl rubber. Halogen atoms (normally bromine or chlorine) create a better bond between the butyl rubber and the carcass [8]. Once the wire bead bundles are wrapped, all of the components of the tire are ready to be assembled. The first stage of assembling the tire takes place on a large drum that is approximately the same diameter as a tire. Figure 3 shows a simple illustration of a tire building drum. Initially, the inner liner is wrapped on the drum followed by the body plies with bead bundles positioned at either end. A tire-shaped air bladder is inflated at the center of the drum to allow the side walls to be added. At the same time, the edges of the plies are wrapped over the bead bundles and then the sidewalls are pressed on either side. A second machine is used to put the belts, edge covers, nylon cap, and tread in place. The final assembly is referred to as a green tire until it has been cured. Green tires are placed in tire molds where they receive tread patterns as shown in Figure 4. Once the mold is closed an air bladder inflates within the tire pressing it against the tread pattern plates. The tire is subjected to heat and pressure while additional rubber flows into the mold to produce sidewall markings and tread patterns.

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Figure 3: A tire building drum [20].

Figure 4: The tire mold creates tread patterns and vulcanizes the rubber [20].

After the tire has been heated long enough for vulcanization to reach completion, the tires are removed for inspection. The mold flash is trimmed off and a visual inspection of the tire is performed. An x-ray examination determines if there are any unseen or internal defects in the tire. Finally, the tire is subjected to durability and balance testing before it can be shipped to retailers. 3. Tire Disposal After tires have completed their lifecycle, it is difficult to known what to do with them. Recycling used tires is a formidable task because the polymer cross-linking that occurs during vulcanization prevents the rubber from being melted and reused. Studies have shown that crosslinked polymer chains can be separated by ultrasonic treatment but this technology has only been used experimentally [14].

12 In the early twentieth century, rubber recycling was very common because it was, ouncefor-ounce, as expensive as silver [15]. However, by the 1960s, rubber was becoming significantly less expensive and the steel belted radial tires were more expensive to recycle than bias ply tires. This caused the rubber recycling industry to steadily decline until only 2% of scrap tires were being recycled in 1995 [15]. In response to the increasing number of scrap-tire dumps, the Rubber Manufacturers Association has helped to organize a new scrap tire market. Parts of scrap tires are being used for re-treading tires to extend their lifecycles. Tires are also being burned as an alternative to coal in electric plants and cement kilns [16]. Many unique products such as rubber garden mulch are being made from ground scrap tires [16]. The Rubber Manufacturers Association is also working on several other scrap tire markets for the future including playground and athletic surfaces. 4. Tire Innovations for the Future Many innovative tire designs for the future are currently in the prototype stage. Figure 5 shows a polyethylene prototype tire designed by Amerityre. Urethanes have many advantages over rubber including lower material cost, ease of mixing, and they are chemically inert in their solid state. Polyurethane can also be recycled more easily than rubber since it does not require vulcanization. Amerityre claims that the manufacturing processes required for polyurethane tires are so advantageous that in a few years polyurethane will replace rubber in tire manufacturing. Polyurethane manufacturing is faster and less expensive because it requires fewer machines and personnel to construct the tires. Manufacturing facilities would only require 20% of the floor space required by the average rubber facility [17]. Amerityre also estimates that the initial capital investment required for a polyurethane plant would be approximately 7% of the capital investment for a rubber plant [17]. The tire prototype itself is advantageous due its solid construction which means it cannot be punctured like a pneumatic tire. Polyurethane tires can be produced to very precise They have lower operating dimensions making them ride smoother than rubber tires.

13 temperatures and better abrasion resistance which translates into long tread life. They also create less roll resistance and will improve the fuel economy of vehicles.

Figure 5: Amerityres Arcus polyurethane prototype tire [17].

Another interesting innovation in tire products that has recently hit the market is run-flat tires. These tires have extra rigid side walls and steel belts that can safely support the vehicle when the tire goes flat for approximately 50 miles at speeds of up to 55 mph [18]. Since the invention of vulcanization in 1839, tires have developed from solid rubber rings to complex radial tires. As technology continues to progress it will be interesting to see what the next generation of tires will look like. If Amerityre is successful in selling their products, then there is a good chance that polyurethane tires will be the next generation. References [1] History of the Passenger Tire, General Tire, <http://www.generaltire.com/generator/www/us/en/generaltire/automobile/themes/generaluniver sity/history/tire_history_en.html>. [2] R. Rajan et al.: The Eclipse of the U.S. Tire Industry, Proc. of NBER Conf. on Mergers and Productivity, edited by unknown, 1997, pp. 3.

14 [3] W. Callister: Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, pp.105-107. [4] W. Frates: Tire Technology, Tire Accidents, <http://www.tireaccidents.com/tire_technology.htm>. [5] L. Mathias: Kinds of Polymers, Polymer Science and Learning Center, <http://www.pslc.ws/mactest/kidsmac/rubber.htm>. [6] J. Byers: Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 2002, vol. 75, no. 3, pp.527-548. [7] C. Wang, et al.: Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 2005, vol. 78, no. 1, pp.17. [8] Wikipedia contributors: Tire manufacturing, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tire_manufacturing&oldid=39141943>. [9] S. Laube: Improving Carcass Durability Trough Filler Selection Proc. of Conf. on Fillers, edited by unknown, 2002, pp. 4. [10] D. Hall: Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 2004, vol. 77, no. 5, pp.891-914. [11] P. N. Anyalebechi: Essentials of Materials Science and Engineering, Padnos College of Engineering and Computing, Grand Rapids, 2006, pp. 82. [12] How a Tire is Made, Maxxis, <http://www.maxxis.com/Services/how_a_tire_is_made.asp#tire_curing>. [13] Our Products for the Tire Industry, Degussa, <http://www.degussafp.com/en/anwendungen/reifen.html>. [14] A. Isayev, et al.: Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 2005, vol. 78, no. 4, pp.606-620.

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[15] Recycling Tires, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, <http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/tires/rubberrecycling.htm>. [16] S. Ahluwalia: Real Answers, 2006, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 22-25. [17] R. Steinke: A Summary of Amerityre Corporations Polyurethane Elastomer Tire Technology and Its Advantages Over Existing Rubber Tire Technology, Amerityre Corporation, <http://www.amerityre.com/news/Summary_of_Amerityre_PU_Tire_Technology.pdf>. [18] R. Demeis: Design News, 1998, vol. 53, no. 9, pp. 80-82. [19] Construction, Yokohama Tire, <http://www.yokohamatire.com/utconstruct.asp>. [20] R. Miller: Tire, How Products are Made, <http://www.madehow.com/Volume1/Tire.html>. [21] Bias-ply Tire, Your Dictionary, <http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/b/b0226700.html>. [22] Aircraft Tire Construction Radial Ply, Desser Tire and Rubber Company, <www.desser.com/ tech/radial.html>. [23] E. Yamaguchi: Anatomy of a Tire, Waste Tire Recycling, <http://www.p2pays.org/ref/11/10504/html/intro/tire.htm>. [24] Dow Buna SB 1500 cold polymerized emulsion styrene butadiene rubber E-SBR, Matweb, <http://www.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=PDOW1017>. [25] W. Hofmann: Rubber Technology Handbook, Hanser, Cincinnati, 1980, pp.162-163.

16 [26] AISI 1070 Steel, cold drawn, spheroidized, annealed, 19-32 mm (0.75-1.25 in) round, Matweb, <http://www.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=M1070A>.