UNIT 1 LESSON 3 CARGO PIPING SYSTEMS

INFORMATION SHEET TOPIC VALVES AND FITTINGS TOPIC PUMPS TOPIC PIPING SYSTEM ARRANGEMENT 1.16 1.15 1.14

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INTRODUCTION This lesson will cover the basics of cargo piping and pumping systems. It will address the components of the piping systems and the various type of pumps. Additionally, piping system arrangements for cargo handling are discussed. Every piping system must have a means of controlling the amount and direction of flow of the contained fluid. The control is accomplished by the installation of valves. Pressure and flow are accomplished in the system by use of pumps. Most piping systems have fittings installed for many various reasons such as forming in intersection, or terminating a line are two examples of what fittings are used for. The various components of a piping system utilize different materials depending on the type of service the system is designed for. For example, copper-nickel, bronze, and copper are well suited for corrosive type liquids. However, these materials are NOT well suited for systems subject to severe pressure, temperature, shock, or vibration. On the other hand steel piping components handle pressure, temperature, vibration, and shock well, but corrode easily.

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INFORMATION A. VALVES AND FITTINGS (1.14) Valves Many valves and fittings are marked with identification symbols developed by the Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS). Identification markings of this system usually include the manufacturers name or trademark, the pressure, service and size in inches. When appropriate, material identification, limiting temperatures, and other identifying data are included. MSS service designations include: A = air G = gas L = liquid O = oil W = water D-W-V = drainage, waste, and vent An example would be 600 WOG refers to a valve or fitting suitable for 600 Pounds Per Square Inch (PSI) of pressure of Water, Oil, or Gas (WOG). Every piping system must have a means of controlling the amount and direction of the flow of the contained fluid through the lines. The control of fluid flow is accomplished by installing valves in the system. Valves are usually made of bronze, brass, iron, or steel. Steel valves are either cast or forged, and are made of either plain steel or alloy steel. Alloy steel valves are used in high pressure, high temperature systems; the disks and seats of these valves are usually surfaced with Stellite, which is an extremely hard chromium-cobalt alloy. Bronze and brass valves are NOT used in high temperature systems. These valves are NOT used in piping systems which are exposed to severe conditions of pressure, vibration or shock. Bronze valves are widely used in salt water piping systems. Bronze valve' seats and disks used in salt water systems are often made of Monel, a metal that is highly resistant to corrosion and erosion. Many different types of valves are used to control the flow of liquids and gases. The basic valve types are divided into two groups; stop valves and check valves.

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Stop valves - Those valves which are used to shut off, or partially shut off the flow of fluid. Stop valves are controlled by moving the valve stem. Check valves - Those valves which are used to permit the flow of fluid in only ONE direction. Check valves are designed to be controlled by the movement of the fluid itself. The following is a discussion of common piping system "stop" valves: Butterfly Valves - Butterfly valves are stop valves that use a flat disc to stop or start the flow of fluids (figure 1-3-1, left side). When the valve handle is rotated to the open position, (handle is in-line with the piping), the valve's disc rotates open allowing fluids to pass through the valve body. When the handle is rotated a quarter turn to close the valve, (at a 90 angle from the piping line), the disc is rotated across the pipe closing it off and stopping the flow of fluids. Butterfly valves are desirable in that they are quick acting, easy to operate, and require little maintenance. Gate Valves - Gate valves (figure 1-3-1, right side) are used when a straight-line flow of fluid with a minimum of restriction is required. The name "gate valve" is due to the fact that this valve can either stop the flow or allow a full flow through the valve. The valve and seat are wedge shaped in design which permits a good seating surface and positive closing action. When the valve is in the wide-open position, the gate is fully drawn up into the valves' bonnet. This leaves an opening for flow through the valve body that is the same diameter as the pipe in which the valve has been installed. This is why there is little pressure drop or flow restriction through the valve. Gate valves are only used in the fully opened or closed position. They are not suitable for use as a throttle to restrict fluid flow in a pipeline. Controlling fluid flow with a gate valve would be difficult because of the valve design. The flow of fluid slapping against a partially opened gate can cause extensive damage to the valve. Gate valves are classified as either rising stem or non rising stem valves. On the non rising stem, the valve stems lower end is machine threaded. The lower end of the stem is threaded into the valve gate. As the handwheel on the stem is rotated, the gate travels up and down on the stem by means of the machine threads, while the stem remains vertically stationary. This type of valve will normally have a pointer type indicator threaded onto the upper end of the stem to show the gates position within the valve body. Rising stem gate valves, have the stem attached to the gate. Both the gate and the stem move upward when the valve is opened.

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The gate and the stem rise and lower together as the valve handwheel is operated. The valve body and bonnet are segregated from the stem by a fluid tight gland, which contains packing. The stem runs from the yoke and the yoke sleeve, through the gland and packing, into the bonnet and valve body. In the open position, the gate is located up inside the bonnet. In the closed position, the gate is seated down into the guide rib and body seat rings to stop the flow of fluids through the valve. A cutaway view of a non rising stem gate valve is shown in right side of the figure.

Figure 1-3-1. Butterfly and Gate Valves

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Globe - The globe valve is probably the most common valve in existence. Globe valves are used throughout most engineering plants and systems on board ships and boats. The globe valve is so named because the body of the valve has a globular shape. Globe valve inlet and outlet openings are arranged in several ways to suit varying requirements of flow. For proper operation the fluid should flow from below the seat towards the top of the seat. Common globe valve body types are (figure 1-3-2, left side) straight, angle, and cross. In the straight type, the fluid inlet and outlet openings are in line with each other. In the angle type, the fluid inlet and outlet openings are at an angle with each other. An angle type globe valve is used where a stop valve is needed at a 90 in a line. The cross type valve has three openings rather than two; it is often used in connection with bypass piping. Globe valves are commonly used in steam, air, oil, and water lines. Globe valves are also used as stop valves on the suction side of many pumps, as recirculating valves, and as throttle valves. The globe valve is shut by operating the handwheel. The threaded stem moves downward until it seats the disk into the valve seat, shutting the valve. To open the valve, the handwheel is rotated to raise the stem and disk off the valve seat, this allows the flow of liquid or fluids through the valve body. Unlike the gate valve, a globe valve may be used as a throttle valve. They may be used in the partially open as well as fully opened or fully closed positions. A cutaway view of a globe stop valve is shown in right side of the figure.

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Figure 1-3-2. Globe Valve Body Types and Globe Stop Valve

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The following is a discussion of common piping system "check" valves: Check Valves - Check valves are designed to permit flow through a line in one direction only. Checks valves are used to prevent the back flow of fluids in the line. These valves are used in many pump assemblies, and in any line where it is important to prevent the back flow of fluids. The port in a check valve may be closed by a disk, a ball, or a plunger. The valve opens when the pressure on the inlet side is greater, and closes when the pressure on the outlet side is greater. All check valves open and close automatically. A typical check valve is a swing-check type (figure 1-3-3) actuated by the flow of the fluid and closes when the flow stops. Leaks are common problems encountered with check valves, which is usually caused by pitting of the disc and seat. Pitting usually is a result of abrasives, such as grit or dirt, being caught between the disk and valve seat. Check valves may also be spring actuated, or ball type valves.

Figure 1-3-3. (A) Swing-Check Valve (B) Lift Check Valve Stop-Check - Most valves can be classified as either stop valves or check valves. Some valves, however, can function as either a stop or a check valve, depending on the position of the valve stem. These valves are known as stop-check valves.

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On stop-check valves (figure 1-3-4) the valve stem is long enough that when it is screwed all the way down, it holds the disk firmly against the seat. This prevents any flow of fluids through the valve. In this position, the valve acts as a stop valve. When the stem is raised, the disk can be lifted off the seat by pressure from the inlet side of the valve. In this position, the valve acts as a check valve, allowing the flow of fluid only in one direction.

Figure 1-3-4. Stop-Check Valve Stop-check valves are used in various locations throughout an engineering plant. Stopcheck valves are often used in drain lines, on the discharge side of pumps, and as exhaust steam valves on auxiliary machinery.

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Special Valves - In addition to the basic types of valves, a good many special valves, which cannot really be classified either as stop or check valves are found in a vessel's engineering spaces. Relief - Relief valves (figure 1-3-5) are installed in piping systems to protect them from excessive pressure. These valves have an adjusting screw, a spring, and a disk. The force exerted on the disk by the spring presets the relieving pressure in pounds. Most relief valves simply open when the preset pressure is reached and close when the pressure drops slightly below the lifting pressure. Many relief valves will also have a lever so the valve can be opened by hand for testing purposes. Relief valves are often fitted between the discharge side of a pump and the discharge valve. When line pressure reaches the preset lifting pressure, the relief valve opens. Normally relief valves are fitted to a return line, which delivers the fluid or liquid being relieved, back to the suction side of the pump. Pressure-Vacuum (PV) relief valves when the open position allows free passage of air and vapors between tanks and atmosphere. In the closed position PV valves will seal the vapors in the tank unless a unless a preset pressure or vacuum is reached in the tanks.

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Figure 1-3-5. Relief Valve Safety - Safety valves, also called sentinel valves, are small relief valves installed in some systems to warn of impending over pressurization. Sentinel valves relieve the pressure of the system. If the situation causing the sentinel valve to lift is NOT corrected, a relief valve (if installed) will lift to protect the system or component. If a relief valve is NOT installed, action must be taken quickly to secure the piece of equipment or system to reduce the pressure. Do not confuse sentinel valves with the safety valves that are used on steam boilers. The safety valves on steam boilers open completely (pop) when a specified steam pressure within the boiler is reached and remains open until a specified pressure drop occurs (blow down).

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INFORMATION SHEET

The majority of fittings found in subassemblies of piping systems are welded to the pipes, especially in high pressure applications. Bolted Flange Joints - Bolted flange joints are used to attach components to piping systems. They are generally attached to the pipes by welding, but may be threaded and screwed on also. Two flanges are then bolted together using appropriate nuts and bolts for the service. Tee - Tee's are used to allow a pipe branch line to run off from another pipe. It is named a Tee because of its y shape. Cross - A cross is a four way intersection in a piping system. A cross allows two pipes to cross each other. Elbow - An elbow is a bend in a piping system. The most common elbows are 45 and 90 bends. Union - A union is a fitting (figure 1-3-6) that attaches to a piping system to allow removal of a component or subassembly. It has two mating halves that have ground surface joints, for a the sealing surface. One half of the unit has a female threaded union ring that screws to the male threads on the other half. Couplings - Pipe couplings are fittings that are used to join two lengths of pipe together to form a long run. Couplings are usually threaded and have female threads so they are of a larger diameter than the pipe. Nipples - Pipe nipples are fittings used when a short length of pipe is needed. They are usually used to join components of the system and are fabricated of various short lengths. In this aspect they could be thought of as couplings with male threads. Because nipples have male threads they are the same diameter as the pipe.

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Figure 1-3-6. Various Unions Manifolds - Manifolds are a series of pipes and valves that are used to transfer common liquids to or from several spaces or tanks. An example of a manifold is in bilge systems where a series of valves are fitted on the suction side of a pump for various areas of the bilge. The valve for a particular bilge area which is to be pumped, is opened and bilge water is transferred out through the pump. Other examples where manifolds may be used are fuel oil fill and transfer and ballast systems Bell-mouth - The end of suction lines in tanks are fitted with what is known as a bellmouth. It is given this name due to its bell shape and the fact that one end is arranged so that a pump can take suction directly from the tank.

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Spectacle Flange - The spectacle flange is fitted in locations where it is desired to have a positive stoppage of fluid flow, and at other times have a full flow of the fluids. B. PUMPS (1.15) Pumps are used to move substances that flow from one location to another. It is a device that does not produce energy, it uses external sources of power, but transforms that energy to mechanical kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is then used to produce work. This work is developed every time a fluid is forced through a pipe against some resistance. Every pump has two ends, the power end and the fluid end. The power end is the unit that produces the external source of energy, such as an electric motor, or an engine. The fluid end is the end where the fluid enters and leaves the pump. These are known as the suction and discharge sides respectively. The addition of energy to a liquid by a pump results in an increase in pressure, which is usually referred to as a "head." This pressure developed by a pump, when confined in a container (pipe), is transmitted equally in all directions There are four types of heads connected to the operation of pumps (1) new positive suction head, (2) suction head, (3) discharge head, and (4) total head. Net Positive Suction Head - Is the suction pressure minus the vapor pressure expressed in feet of liquid at the pump suction. This term is used when the pump suction is located below the liquid to be pumped and is expressing the height of the liquid above the pump. Suction Head - Is the total pressure of the liquid entering the pump. This may be expressed as a pressure above "Pounds Per Square Inch of Pressure," or below atmospheric pressure in "inches of vacuum." When a pump is operated below the level of the liquid its suction side receives liquid under pressure due to gravitational forces. When a pump operates above the level of the liquid it must create a vacuum so the liquid will be raised to the sump by atmospheric pressure. Because of this atmospheric pressure has an important bearing on the suction of the pump. The lower the atmospheric pressure the greater vacuum is required to move the liquid. Since the vacuum is limited by design the ability of pump to lift the liquid is decreased.

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Discharge Head - Is the pressure of the liquid leaving the pump usually expressed in pounds per square inch. Total Head - Total head is the difference between the suction head and the discharge head. A positive pressure total head is expressed in feet of water. A negative total head is expressed in inches of mercury or as vacuum. Pumps are classified according to their design and operational features. Pumps may be classified based on the type of movement, which causes the pumping action, such as, reciprocating, centrifugal, rotary, propeller. They are also classified by the rate of speed, rate of discharge, and method of priming. Pumps may run at variable or constant speed. Some have a variable capacity while others have a constant discharge rate. Some pumps are self-priming and others require a positive pressure on the suction side before they begin to move liquid or fluids. Reciprocating Pumps - As the name implies the reciprocating pump relies on the back and forth, or up and down motion of a piston or plunger inside a cylinder. An example of a simple single-acting pump is an old hand well pump. These were classified as single acting pumps, because it takes a suction on the liquid, drawing it into the cylinder, caused by the motion in one direction of the plunger or piston; the suction stroke. Then the liquid is discharged from the cylinder through a port on the stroke where the plunger or piston is moved in the opposite direction; the discharge stroke. The principal parts of the pump are the cylinder, piston, and valve system. Reciprocating pumps may also be double-acting pumps. The liquid is discharged from the cylinder on each stroke. During one stroke it will discharge liquid from one side of the piston and on the next stroke it will discharge liquid from the opposite side of the piston. The parts of the double-acting pump are the same as for the single-acting pump. Double-acting reciprocating pumps are classified as positive displacement pumps, because each stroke displaces a definite amount of liquid regardless of the resistance under which it is operating. This requires that a relief valve be installed in the piping on the discharge side, between the pump and the discharge valve, to relieve any excess pressure. Relief valves are arranged with a piping systems which will return released liquid to the suction side of the pump. When positive displacement pumps are operating properly they do not need to be primed to operate.

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Rotary Pump - Rotary pumps are also positive displacement pumps, which operate with rotating parts that delivers a definite quantity of liquid with each revolution. Rotary pumps are most useful for pumping oil and other heavy fluids. In many cases, rotary pumps have replaced reciprocating pumps, for this purpose as they have a greater capacity in relation to their weight and physically occupy less space. The theoretical displacement of a rotary pump is the volume of liquid displace by the rotating elements on each revolution of the shaft. The capacity of a rotary pump is defined as the quantity of liquid, Gallons Per Minute (GPM) actually delivered under specified conditions. Therefore, the capacity is calculated by multiplying the displacement times the speed, Revolutions Per Minute (RPM), minus losses such as slippage, suction lift, and viscosity of the liquid. All rotary pumps are designed with very small clearances between rotating parts and stationary parts. The small clearances are necessary in order to minimize slippage from the discharge side back to the suction side. With these small clearances, rotary pumps operate at relatively low speeds. Operation at higher speeds will accelerate corrosion and excessive wear on pump components . Classes of Rotary Pumps - The classification of rotary pumps is generally based on the type of rotating element. These elements include but are not limited to gears, screws, lobes, and vanes. The following are examples of classes of rotary pumps: Simple Gear Pump - The simple gear pump (figure 3-1-7) has two spur gears which mesh together and revolve in opposite directions. One gear is the driving gear, while the other is the driven gear. Clearances between the gear teeth and the casing are a few thousands of an inch. The action of the meshing gears draw the liquid into the suction side of the pump. The liquid is then trapped in the root of the gear teeth and the pump casing. The liquid is forced into motion. The liquid is forced out on the discharge side by the meshing action of the gears. Herringbone Gear Pump - The herringbone gear pump (figure 1-3-7) is a modification of the simple gear pump. In this type of pump one discharge phase begins before the previous discharge phase is entirely complete. This overlapping tends to give a steadier discharge than that of the simple gear pump.

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Simple rotary gear pump Herringbone gear pump Figure 1-3-7. Rotary Pumps Helical Gear Pump - The helical gear pump (figure 1-3-8) is another variation of the simple gear pump. Because of the design, the overlapping of successive discharges from the spaces between the teeth is even greater than in the herringbone gear pump. This feature makes the discharge even smoother, allowing gears with a smaller number of teeth, thus allowing increased capacity without sacrificing smoothness of flow. Screw Pumps - The screw pump (figure 1-3-8) is another type of positive displacement rotary pump. In the screw pump, the liquid is trapped and forced through the pump by the action of rotating screws. Screw pumps have few moving parts and no valves. The primary difference between the various types are the number of screws and the pitch. Lobe Pumps - Lobe Pumps (figure 1-3-9) are designed with two or three lobes on each rotor. They driven by external spur gears on the rotor shafts. Some lobe pumps are made with replaceable inserts installed on the extremities of the lobes. These inserts take up the wear which would be otherwise be experienced by the lobes. The inserts are usually seated on a spring, and are able to compensate for considerable wear.

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Screw pump Helical gear pump

Figure 1-3-8. Helical Gear and Screw Pumps

Figure 1-3-9. Lobe Pump

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Vane Type Pump - The vane type pump consists of a cylindrically bored housing with a suction inlet on one side and a discharge outlet on the other side. A rotor that is smaller in diameter than the cylinder, is rotated around the axis slightly off center to the cylinder, with the minimum clearance on the top and the maximum clearance on the bottom. The rotor carries valves which move in and out as it rotates to maintain sealed spaces between the rotor and cylinder wall. The vanes trap liquid in the suction side and carry it to the discharge side where contraction of the space forces the liquid out. A common pump of this type is the sliding vane type (figure 1-3-10).

Figure 1-3-10. Sliding Vane Pump Centrifugal Pumps - Centrifugal pumps (figure 1-3-11) can handle large quantities of liquid at high pressure. They are driven by electric motors, steam turbines, or diesel engines. They do NOT operate on the positive displacement principle, but depend on centrifugal force to move the liquid through the pump and maintain the desired pressure. Centrifugal pumps use impellers to perform this. The liquid is pulled in through the center or eye of the impeller, and is discharged at the outer rim.

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By the time the liquid reaches the outer rim of the impeller it has acquired a considerable velocity. The liquid's velocity is slowed as it passes through a spiral shaped passage called the volute. As the velocity of the liquid decreases, its pressure increases, in other words, some of the mechanical kinetic energy of the liquid is transformed into mechanical potential energy.

Figure 1-3-11. Centrifugal Pump Impellers used in centrifugal pumps (figure 1-3-12) may be classified as single-suction or double-suction, depending on the way in which liquid enters the eye of the impeller. The single-suction impeller (view A) allows liquid to enter the eye from one side only; the double-suction impeller (view B) allows liquid to enter the eye from both sides. The double-suction arrangement has the advantage of balancing the end thrust in one direction with the end thrust in the other direction. Because centrifugal pumps are NOT positive displacement pumps the discharge (capacity) varies when the speed is constant. Capacity and discharge pressure can be varied by changing the pump speed. Whenever possible, centrifugal pumps should be operated at or near their rated capacity and discharge pressure. Impeller vane angles and the sides of the pumps passages can be designed for maximum efficiency at only one speed and discharge pressure combination. Under other conditions of operation, the impeller vane angles and sides of the waterways will be too large or too small for efficient operation. Therefore, a centrifugal pump cannot operate satisfactorily over long periods of time at excess capacity and low discharge pressure or at a reduced capacity and high discharge pressure. It should be noted that centrifugal pumps are not self-priming. The pump casting must be flooded before the pump can function. For this reason, most centrifugal pumps are located below the level liquid or tank where it will be taking a suction. 1-120
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Figure 1-3-12. Centrifugal Pump Impellers Priming can also be effected by using another pump to supply liquid to the pump suction. Because of the danger of overheating, centrifugal pumps can operate at zero capacity for only short periods of time. Centrifugal pumps that are required to operate at low capacity or in shutoff condition for long periods of time should be fitted with a recirculation line from the discharge side of the pump the suction side. Centrifugal pumps must always have a slight leak off through the packing in order to keep the packing lubricated and cool. The packing is used to prevent gross leakage of liquid from the pump or to prevent entrance of air into the pump. The packing's purpose depends upon whether the pump is operating with a positive suction head or is taking suction from a vacuum. If the pump is operating with a positive suction head the pressure inside a pump is sufficient to force a small amount of liquid through the packing when the packing gland is properly adjusted. If the pump is operating with a vacuum on the suction side a supply of sealing liquid must be furnish to the packing gland to ensure the exclusion of air. This is done to seal and lubricate the packing. If insufficient liquid is bled to the packing excessive air will enter the pump and cause it to operate below efficiency or even loose suction.

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UNIT 1 LESSON 3 C. PIPING SYSTEM ARRANGEMENT (1.16)

INFORMATION SHEET

Most modern tank vessels are fitted with a direct pipeline system for handling cargo. The direct pipeline system is where the tanks are divided into groups or systems and a different pump and line is provided for each system. For example, one type (figure 1-3-13) of direct pipeline system would be an arrangement for a ship with eighteen tanks with 3 main cargo pumps. Each pump handles 2 center, and 4 wing tanks. A separate pipe line runs from each pump along the bottom of the tank range to each individual tank in the system.

Figure 1-3-13. Three Cargo Pump System

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Another direct pipeline system (figure 1-3-14), which includes an arrangement for a ship with eighteen tanks, two pumps and two main lines. One pump is for center tanks and the other is for the wing tanks. In both cases a separate line runs from each pump along the bottom of the tank range to the tanks in its system. Shorter sections of pipe branch off from the main lines to the individual tanks.

Figure 1-3-14. Two Cargo Pump System The Cargo System - The main pipeline carries oil along the bottom of the tank range. Along the way it connects to one branch line for each tank. At the end of each branch line the piping attaches to a bell mouth to allow for suction from the tank. In addition, a "tank valve" is fitted near the end of the branch line.

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These valves may be an automatically operated valve, which is operated from the cargo control room. If the ship is not fitted for automatic operation it will be operated manually from the deck above, by way of installed metal reach rods. Often the handwheel at the end of the reach rod if fitted with a tell tale indicator to indicate the "open" or "closed" position of the valve. Beware of these indicators because they often may become jammed or stuck, causing inaccurate readings. Cargo is loaded through filling lines called "drops". Drops are located on each line in the pump room and at various locations on the main deck. Each drop is fitted with a valve which must be opened when loading cargo through that line. These valves must be closed when discharging cargo to prevent the liquid from recirculation to the tanks. Line drops route liquid to the under deck piping system so individual tank valves must be opened to load cargo in that tank. Tank drops on the other hand serve single tank, oil bypasses the main piping system and flows directly to the tank. Tank drops are likely to be found on ships carrying refined cargoes, or where the need for separation of the cargo makes it desirable to bypass the main system. The various systems are connected by sections of pipe known as "crossovers". Each crossover is fitted with a valve, or valves, to allow for isolation of the systems that it connects together. When loading crude carriers, the crossovers are usually open to allow cargo to flow freely through the entire system. However, on product carriers the crossovers must be closed to prevent mixing the cargo. Where each bottom piping passed through a bulkhead and enters the next tank, it is fitted with a valve. This valve is a "master valve." Master valves provide separation between tanks on the same lines, they even make it possible to isolate a single tank completely. Transfers from ship to shore, or shore to ship are accomplished through flexible The cargo is then routed to line drops along the main deck or to the pump room, or both simultaneously. Also, the manifold is equipped with pressure gauges and thermometers for each line. When learning the cargo systems, it is important to know which systems tie into each manifold line. Another important component to know is the crossovers between manifold lines, and how they are used to route cargo between systems.

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The central station of all pipelines is the "pump room." This is where all pipes usually meet and interconnect in a small area, which is usually located aft of the cargo tanks. It is very important to know each system, the pump that is connected to it, and the designation or each pump. Know the location and purpose of each valve, along with all vent conks and line drains. Some specialized product tankers do not have pump rooms. These carriers use centrifugal pumps, called deep-well pumps, each deep-well pump moves the cargo. Many ships use a separate "stripping system" to pump out the last few barrels from each tank. Such systems usually employ reciprocating, rotary pumps, or eductors. Explosion is an ever present risk on tankers. This is especially true on vessels using high velocity washing systems, such as crude oil washing system. A method to reduce this problem is an "inert gas system". This system pipes boiler flue gasses, or in some cases gasses from a special inert gas generator to the tanks. These gases, mostly nitrogen and carbon dioxide, are cooled, filtered and blown into the tanks by special fans. The purpose of this is to reduce the oxygen content of the tank below 8 percent, and thereby, reducing the possibility of explosion. Lines that allow tanks to stay at atmospheric pressure are the "vent system" lines. These lines allow pressure to escape when filling the tank. They also allow atmospheric pressure to enter when taking suction on the tank. The ends of the vent lines are fitted usually fitted with pressure-vacuum relief valves. On some vessels tanks have individual vent lines on others several tanks may be connected to the same vent piping. The size of the vent piping is determined by the volume of the tank or tanks being serviced. Vent lines are generally fitted with risers that route the gasses well above the main deck. On vessels with inert gas systems, the gas piping sometimes serves also as the vent. Some Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCCs), cargo piping can be bypassed. This is accomplished by the "free flow system" consisting of sliding gates at each tank bulkhead. When the vessel has the usual trim by the stern the gates are opened, which causes the oil to flow by gravity to the after tanks.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE 1.13 through 1.15
For items 1 through 9, circle the letter of the correct response. 1. The valve on the discharge side of a pump on a vessel will usually be a __________. A. B. C. D. 2. butterfly valve spectacle valve stop-check valve globe valve

Which characteristic is an advantage of a butterfly valve as compared to a gate valve? A. B. C. D. Precise control over cargo flow Quick operation No resistance to cargo flow when open Less maintenance required

3.

Which of the following is a positive-displacement pump? A. B. C. D. Rotary pump Centrifugal pump Deepwell pump (impeller type) Single-acting reciprocating pump

4.

Which pump must be primed? A. B. C. D. Centrifugal pump Reciprocating pump Rotary pump All of the above

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

A relief valve for a cargo pump is generally installed ______________. A. B. C. D. after the between after the between discharge valve the pump and discharge valve suction valve the pump and suction valve

6.

The system of valves and cargo lines in the bottom piping network of a tanker that connects one section of cargo tanks to another section is called a __________. A. B. C. D. come-along crossover manifold runaround

7.

The piping that routes an oil cargo from the manifold directly to a cargo tank and serves only one tank is known as a ____________. A. B. C. D. cargo fill filler line tank drop branch line

8.

The valve on the discharge side of a cargo pump on a tank vessel will usually be a __________. A. B. C. D. butterfly valve spectacle valve stop-check valve globe valve

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

The fitting at the end of a cargo line in a tank that allows suction to be taken close to the bottom of a tank is a _____________. A. B. C. D. suction end strainer bell-mouth vacuum valve

Complete item 10 by circling either True or False. 10. Bronze or brass valves may be used in piping systems, which are subject to high temperature and/or severe pressure conditions. A. True B. False

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UNIT 1 LESSON 4 LIQUID CARGO LOADING OPERATIONS

TOPIC PRELOADING PRECAUTIONS TOPIC LOADING OPERATIONS TOPIC DISCHARGING TOPIC LOAD-ON-TOP PROCEDURES TOPIC CRUDE OIL WASHING (COW) SYSTEMS

1.16

1.17

1.18

1.19

1.20

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INFORMATION SHEET

INTRODUCTION This lesson describes the various operations carried out in the normal cargo handling of liquid cargo carriers. Most spills occur while loading, therefore, the loading operation should command extra diligence. Nearly all spills are preventable. Most spills that cause pollution of the waterways are caused by human error. Carelessness, impatience, or simple negligence lead the list of causes. This does not mean to imply that the other operations of the carrier are not as important. Safety and caution should be observed in all operations on board the vessel. INFORMATION A. Preloading Precautions (1.16) Preloading - To prevent spills, while loading, some precautions should be taken prior to receiving any liquid. The list of precautions should include the following items: 1. Install scupper plugs. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ensure all sea suction valves in the pump room have been lashed closed. Do NOT lock the valves closed. Check hose connections for tightness. Make sure drip pans are in place under each connection. "Bravo" flag and red light must be prominently displayed. Check cargo system lineup. Not less than two officers should check lineup paying particular attention to crossovers and drops. The appropriate drops must be open and if loading two or more products, the crossovers separating these systems must be closed. Check to ensure all soundings are accurate. Make sure each tank valve is closed, and remove the handwheel lashings from tanks to be loaded. Tanks already containing cargo should be lashed closed in order to prevent accidental opening. Also check void spaces to ensure they are empty.

6.

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7.

INFORMATION SHEET

Hold a preload conference with all parties involved. This is done to ensure the following information is known: What sequence will the various products will be loaded? What loading rate is expected? How many shore pumps will be used? How much notice does the terminal need before the cargo loading is finished? What signal should be used for shutting down? Will there be a line displacement (the terminal may want to fill the line with another product)? Mark hoses with chalk indicating the direction of flow, and products carried. In the event of a spill or broken hose this makes it easier to identify the proper line. Keep the cargo status board up to date. This will ensure all personnel involved with loading will have an accurate picture of tank status at all times.

8.

9.

10. Secure the inert gas system. Open the main riser bypass valves to allow the inert gas to freely vent to the atmosphere as it is displaced by the incoming cargo. 11. Fill out and sign the "Declaration of Inspection". This form lists certain inspections which the law requires tankerman to perform prior to transfer of cargo, and it must be signed by each watch officer and the shore operator. Post a copy of this form in a prominent place in the ship's office. 12. Loading can now start. Open the block valve at the manifold, plus the tank valve for each tank to be loaded. Note this on the status board and give the dock the okay to commence loading. B. Loading Operations (1.17) Loading Operations - Begin transfer slowly to ensure that are no leaks at the hoses or manifold. Ensure that cargo is actually entering the tanks at this time. This can be done by way of the control console ullage reading, sounding the tanks, or checking movement of air out of the appropriate vent.

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INFORMATION SHEET

If the ship has a list this may cause problems when loading the wing tanks. Steps should be taken to remove the list. This can be done by loading cargo in a wing tank on the high side of the ship. Due to the small size of the wing tanks, caution should be taken to ensure they are not overfilled, causing a spill. A vital consideration on tankers is stress on the ships structure. When empty, tankers tend to hog, so it is important to avoid loading cargo at the extreme ends without placing some weight in the middle. The best way to load is to spread the load as uniformly as possible through the tank range. This would equalize the stress and prevent a dangerous hog or sag condition. There are many methods of loading so it is difficult to generalize or offer a single procedure to fit all circumstances. One rule holds true though, if the method you use, fills all tanks without a spill it is a good one. An important fact to remember is that the center tanks are larger than the wing tanks. This means they will fill much slower than the wing tanks so the margin of error is much greater. For guidance on loading the "Loading Orders," which are usually filled out by the chief mate. It is then posted in a prominent place in the ship's office or cargo control room. WHEN IN DOUBT SHUT IT DOWN - Never hesitate to shut down when in doubt that everything is going as it should be. After you shut down, straighten out the problem. It's better to shut down than to spill product. Shut down without hesitation if one of the following situations occurs: 1. The pressure raises suddenly for no apparent reason. 2. Oil is observed in the water adjacent to the ship. 3. The hose fouls between the ship and dock. 4. A tank valve jams. 5. A fire is spotted on the ship, dock, or a nearby ship. 6. The ship begins to drift away from the dock, or the mooring lines become excessively slack.

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7. A mooring line parts 8. Smoke is observed or smelled. 9. Another vessel approaches too closely. 10.

INFORMATION SHEET

Another situation develops that could prove to be a hazard.

Listed below are a few good practices that should be observed when loading: Watch the Pressure - Pressure on the system is usually low at the beginning, as tanks fill the pressure tends to rise slightly. This rise should be kept in established limits for the vessel. Another factor is the number of tanks being filled at a time. If the tank's valve is closed the pressure will rise, and conversely if a tank's valve is opened the pressure will fall. This may be used to slowly fill a tank that is nearly full to reduce the possibility of overflowing. Never Close Off Against Shore Pressure - Keep at least one tank open at all times or you will risk breaking a hose. Watch Mooring Lines - As a ship fills with cargo, it sinks lower in the water causing the mooring lines to become slack. In conjunction with a falling tide this may cause the ship to drift away from the dock causing the hoses and/or the loading arm to break. Two Men On Deck - It is a good idea to keep at least two men on deck, besides yourself, while loading. This will help ensure all safety factors are being observed. Closing Valves - The proper method for closing a valve is to close the valve, then open it one or two times to flush the sediment from the seat, then close it firmly again. Two Valve Separation - When caring refined products that should not be mixed, it is best to keep two valves closed between the cargo. This is especially important on older ships where there is a greater possibility of a valve leaking. If there is any doubt of the reliability of both valves a spectacle flange may be used between the valves.

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Ullage - Since ullage are measured from an above-deck datum a full tank may show a ullage of several feet. Hoses and Loading Arms - Check for proper alignment and support. Remember that hoses and loading arms form a fragile bond between ship and shore. They are easily broken. Heating Coils - Certain cargoes (heavy fuel oils, for example) must be heated during the voyage to the discharge port. Steam heating coils are used for this purpose. As tanks top off, the chief mate may want the watch officer to turn on the heating coils. Check with him if in doubt. Logbook Entries - The logbook is an important document. Tanker companies rely on it as a vital source of information, and officers can be certain their entries receive careful scrutiny in the main office. In that regard be sure to make entries required by government and company regulations. Include the following times: Hoses connected/disconnected, start/finish of each product; any delays in the loading operation and their cause. Smoking - Make sure that crew members smoke in authorized areas only. Be particularly wary of visitors and workers from ashore who may "light up" without thinking. Vessel Security - Security has become an important consideration in recent years. Be careful not to allow unauthorized individuals aboard, and stay alert for suspicious activity on (or under) the water adjacent to the ship. Line Displacement - During the final phases of loading, the terminal may want to fill their pipeline with another product, possibly in preparation for the next ship due at the dock. This is called a line displacement. For example, if the pipeline from shore tank to ship holds 3,000 barrels, the terminal will ask to be notified when the ship's gauges indicate 3,000 barrels to go. At this point they will stop their pumps and switch tanks (or they may do a "flying switch"). A flying switch is a switch where the pumps are not stopped, the switching of tanks is done by resetting the valve line up. By the time loading is completed 3,000 barrels of new product will displace the old product and push it on board the ship.

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Generally speaking, the two products involved must be similar (two grades of gasoline, for example) so that a few barrels of mixing, which is inevitable, won't matter. On the other hand, lines containing heavy crude or fuel oil are often displaced with a light product, such as diesel. This is particularly true at offshore moorings where submerged hoses would otherwise become clogged by the heavier products. Loading to Final Draft - Unlike some types of merchant ships, tankers - most notably crude carriers - frequently load to the maximum draft permitted by law. In other words, many petroleum cargoes are heavy enough to load a ship "down to her marks." Classification societies (such as the American Bureau of Shipping, Lloyd's Register of Shipping, and Norske Veritas) place draft marks on newly built vessels. When the chief mate draws up the cargo plan, he calculates the exact amount of cargo needed to submerge the ship to her marks. He must, however, work with information which may not be completely accurate. For example, final values for specific gravity and temperature often differ significantly from initial estimates. Then again, the chief engineer may have a few extra tons of fuel oil "up his sleeve." With these potential inaccuracies in mind, it would not be surprising for the final draft to differ by several inches from the calculated value. Such a discrepancy causes one of two things: An overloaded ship, which is illegal, or an under loaded ship, which is less profitable for the company. To avoid these pitfalls it is necessary to monitor the draft from the dock during the final minutes of loading, signalling the terminal to shut down just as the ship submerges to her marks. As a rule, the chief mate does this while one of the other officers keeps track of the ship's tanks. (It is usually impossible to take an accurate draft at offshore moorings; the common practice is to rely on the calculated values.) Before loading the draft, it is necessary to take a sample of the water alongside the ship. All tankers carry a simple hydrometer for measuring specific gravity; this value tells how much dock water allowance to use. The sample should not be taken within the final hour of loading, since water densities often change with the tide.

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INFORMATION SHEET

After Loading - When the last tank has been topped off and secured, the vessel is made ready for sea. Hoses and loading arms are drained and disconnected. Cargo tanks are ullaged, and temperatures are taken. Pressure vacuum (PV) valves are closed, and ullage covers are pinned shut. The inert gas system, if fitted, is pressurized. The vessel is now ready to proceed to the next port and a different phase of the transfer operation - the discharge. C. Discharging (1.18) Some tankermen may regard discharging as a time to relax, however, discharging a tanker can be just a risky as loading one. The same meticulous care is required in discharging operations as in other operations. Pretransfer Checkoff - Devote as much care and effort to discharging as you do loading and you will avoid serious problems. This effort begins with the pretransfer checkoff. As when loading, it pays to use a checkoff list. Make sure scuppers are plugged, sea suctions closed and lashed, hoses securely bolted and supported, loading arms properly aligned, and warning signals displayed. Check the lineup carefully. Drop valves must be closed; otherwise cargo could recirculate and cause a spill. In addition, check each tank valve and remove the handwheel lashings from tanks to be discharged. Mark the hoses and status board carefully, and sign the Declaration of Inspection. Check with the terminal regarding cargo sequence, size of shore line, line displacements, and emergency shutdown signals. If there is a booster pump on the shore line make sure that the pump is started in the right direction (pumping oil away from the ship). If your ship is equipped with an Inert Gas (IG) system, it must be operating before the discharging begins. The system will need to supply a steady pressure of inert gas to replace cargo drawn off during the discharge. Check the IG system carefully before pumping any cargo.

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INFORMATION SHEET

The Pumpman - As the title implies, the pumpman operates and maintains the cargo pumps. He goes into action anytime the pumps are used; while discharging, ballasting, tank cleaning, or whenever cargo is transferred between tanks. Because the job is physically exhausting and requires long hours, some ships carry two pumpmen. More than any other member of the crew, the pumpman must know the lineup intimately. However, the officer on watch wields the authority and bears the final responsibility. If you suspect the pumpman is doing something unwise or illegal, don't hesitate to speak up. The pumpman may not know the pollution regulations as well as you do. Types of Cargo Pumps - Although the pumpman operates and maintains the pumps, it is important for the ship's officer to understand this equipment thoroughly. The following pump types are likely to be encountered on tankers: Reciprocating Pumps - The development of centrifugal pumps has largely eclipsed the use of reciprocating pumps, however, they are still used on some ships, mainly as stripping pumps. A basic reciprocating pump consists of a piston - usually powered by steam which slides back and forth in a cylinder. On the intake stroke, the movement of the piston creates a vacuum, thus drawing oil into the cylinder through the intake valve. On the discharge stroke, the piston forces oil through the discharge valve, creating a pressure on the discharge side of the pump. Reciprocating pumps are essentially two pumps in one, designed such that the intake stroke of one pump synchronizes with the discharge stroke of the other. Reciprocating pumps are sometimes called positive displacement pumps. Unlike centrifugal pumps, they need not be fed by gravity, and so can pump a tank to the bottom until dry. This is an important advantage. Reciprocating pumps have one serious drawback, they are slow. It would take days or weeks to discharge a modern tanker with reciprocating pumps; time which translates into lost revenues. Modern tankers, therefore, require a much faster means of discharging cargo.

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Centrifugal Pumps - Centrifugal pumps are a continuous-flow, gravity-fed pumps, consisting of one or more spinning impellers. These impellers draw oil through a central inlet and hurl it outward by centrifugal force. This action creates a vacuum on the inlet side and pressure on the discharge side of the pump. Centrifugal pumps cannot function without a continuous gravity-flow of cargo. For this reason they are generally located in an after pumproom, thus using the normal stern trim to drain cargo more efficiently. From their position at the bottom of the pumproom, centrifugal pumps can draw cargo to within a meter or less of the tank bottom. If the pumps are self-priming - or if they are otherwise carefully primed by "cracking" a full tank - it is often possible to strip tanks with a centrifugal pumps alone. Otherwise, it is necessary to remove the residue with a separate stripping pump. Centrifugal pumps are superior to reciprocating pumps in several ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. They pump more cargo in less time. They are smaller, more compact, and easier to install. They are more reliable and require less maintenance. They produce a steady flow, rather than pulsating. They produce less noise and vibration. They are less expensive. Since they are usually located in an after pumproom adjacent to the engine room, they can adapt to various power sources including; steam turbines, electric motors, and diesel engines. This is usually accomplished as follows: A drive shaft runs from the engine room to each pump via a gastight gland in the engine room-bulkhead, thus allowing the power source (an electric motor, for example) to be segregated from possible explosive vapors in the pumproom.

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Centrifugal pumps are controlled in a variety of ways. For example, when steam turbines are used as the power source, the pumps are started and stopped by operating the turbine steam valves, either remotely from the cargo control room or manually at the turbine itself. On many ships the pumps are controlled from the engine room; it is therefore necessary to call the engine room to start or stop a pump. This situation is one of many requiring good communication between deck and engine departments. Advise the engine room of your pumping plans well ahead of time. When using centrifugal pumps always be careful to switch tanks in ample time to avoid losing suction. Learn the characteristics of your ship and ascertain how low each tank may be taken before switching tanks is necessary. Deepwell Pumps - Deepwell pumps are centrifugal pumps of a special design. These pumps are primarily used on ships that carry a diversity of refined products. The pump is located above an individual cargo tank and is permanently installed. The pump's impeller is located at the bottom of the cargo tank. A long vertical shaft, which is enclosed in a discharge pipe, connects the pump to the impeller. The oil product is moved by the rotating impeller taking a suction, which forces the oil product up the discharge pipe to the above deck piping. This arrangement takes advantage of the speed and efficiency of a centrifugal pump. Because the impeller is located so close to the tank bottom, nearly all cargo is discharged before it will lose suction. Stripping the tank is usually unnecessary. Eductors - All eductors work on a simple principle. A "driving fluid" is pumped down a main line, then through a constriction, and past a relatively smaller opening, which creates a vacuum. When an eductors is used for clean ballast, the driving fluid is sea water. If used for stripping crude oil, the driving fluid would be the cargo itself, which is delivered by the means of a bypass from one of the main cargo pumps. When an eductor is used for stripping tank washings, the driving fluid often will be drawn from the slop tank, then recirculated back to the slop tank in a closed system.

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INFORMATION SHEET

Eductors are rugged, simple and have no moving parts. Also eductors will not become air bound like other pump types. Eductors are widely used on tank vessels of all types and sizes. Priming the Pumps - Reciprocating and centrifugal pumps both will occasionally become air bound. An air bound pump will then fail to take a suction on the liquid. In cases of an air bound pump, it is necessary to prime the pump from a full tank, or sometimes it is necessary to bleed air from the discharge side of the pump by opening the vent cock. Unless a steady flow of cargo is provided continuously to centrifugal pumps, air may get into the pipeline and these pumps will then lose suction fairly quickly. When a tank level becomes low, there is always a danger of centrifugal pumps losing suction. If the suction is lost completely, and a pump "trips," is best to restart the pump in a full tank, where it should regain suction quickly. Many modern pumps are now fitted with self-priming systems, which have caused this problem to be reduced considerably. Discharging Procedure - There are as many ways to discharge a tanker as there are to load one. There is no precise step-by-step procedure that can apply to all tanker discharges. However, certain principles do exist. The following includes general principles that would apply to all discharge operations: Get the Bow Up - Normally it is best to start discharging from the forward tanks first. This trims the vessel up at the bow, which will provide a better suction head to the pumps in the tanks located farther aft in the vessel. Also, with increased trim, the tanks drain more effectively while stripping. Strip Residual Oil into a Single Tank - Stripping pumps are not powerful enough to move cargo against, high pressure cargo pumps. Instead of trying to strip tanks ashore against the main line pressure, it is standard practice to accumulate stripped oil into one tank on board the tanker. Then the accumulated stripped oil can be discharged from that tank using the cargo pumps. The last few barrels can be stripped from this tank and discharged ashore after the main cargo pumps have been shut down.

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INFORMATION SHEET

Often, the aftermost tank on the vessel that also adjoins the pumproom, is used for this purpose. A special filling line runs from the stripping system into the tank. This tank is normally full at the time discharging commences, therefore, it is necessary to pump this tank down part way before stripping into it. This tank must always be watched carefully, if left unattended, it could easily overflow causing a spill. Checking Pumproom - Make regular inspections of the pumproom, checking for leaks and excessive vapor accumulation (this is also a good idea when loading). Check the pumps for smooth operation, and make sure that the drive-shaft seals, where the pump drive shafts enter the engine room, are not overheating. A gassy pumproom can kill you. Before entering, always make sure the ventilation system is operating. Have a man stand by topside while you're below, in case you should be overcome by vapors (pumproom gassing is perhaps the most common serious accident on tankers). This simple precaution has saved numerous lives. Two Valve Separation - If possible, try to keep at least two closed valves between systems containing unlike cargoes. Pressure - While discharging, pressure on the cargo system is normally much higher than it is while loading. As a typical example, a product carrier might discharge with a manifold pressure of 8.5 kilogram (kg) per square centimeter (cm) or 121 pounds per square inch (psi). Later, while backloading at the same terminal, the manifold pressure might be 1.0 kg/cm or 14 psi. Chief Mate's discharging orders - The chief mate generally writes a set of discharging orders detailing sequence, pumps to use, maximum pressure, keys valves to open or close, and anything else he thinks important. Study these orders carefully before taking charge of the deck. Logbook entries - Pay the same scrupulous attention to logbook entries as you would while loading.

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INFORMATION SHEET

When in doubt, shut down - Learn the location of the emergency shutdown switches, or similar controls, for each pump - and don't be afraid to use them. Tape floats - After the discharge of heavy or sticky products such as bunker fuel, ullage tape floats tend to stick to tank bottoms. If your ship is fitted with a tapefloat system - and you suspect the floats may stick - have the pumpman or another crew member roll up the tapes. Also, to prevent broken tapes, always roll tapes up before crude oil washing. Heating coils - To avoid damage to the heating coils, turn off the steam to individual tanks well before each is empty. Mooring lines - At most docks, mooring lines tend to tighten as the ship rises. A rapidly rising tide combined with a fast discharge could easily part one or more lines. Watch the mooring lines carefully and, if necessary, shut down while the sailors tend them. Stress - Plan the discharge carefully to avoid excess stresses on the hull. When starting the discharge most of the cargo will come from the forward tanks, but don't overdo it. A certain amount should be pumped from the aft and midships sections as well, in order to equalize the stress. Inert Gas Systems - During the discharge the inert gas system operates continuously. As cargo leaves each tank, an equal amount of inert gas must take its place; otherwise a vacuum will form, drawing air into the tanks. IG systems are designed to maintain a given pressure of inert gas inside the tanks. Watch the pressure carefully. If it falls too low, it may be necessary to slow down the cargo pumps until the IG pressure builds back up to an acceptable level. Carefully monitor the oxygen indicator in the cargo control room. Make sure the oxygen content does not exceed permissible limits for your ship (generally below 5 percent). Spills - Spills are less common while discharging than while loading, but they still occur. Several situations can lead to a spill: Broken hose or loading arm - This is a too-common occurrence, caused by defective equipment, improper support, or excessive pressure.

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Improper lineup - An open drop valve on a discharge line will cause cargo to recirculate to the tanks - where it could overflow. Defective check valve - Centrifugal pumps are fitted with check valves to prevent oil from gravitating through the pumps and into the tanks. These check valves are not infallible and they sometimes stick. If the manifold valves are opened several minutes before starting the pumps, back pressure from the shore line could force cargo through the pump and into the tanks. A slight backflow to a full tank could easily cause a spill. With this in mind, always leave the manifold block valves closed until ready to start discharging. Gravitation - When a tanker is trimmed by the stern, cargo tends to gravitate toward the after tanks. Thus, if full tanks forward and aft are opened several minutes before starting the pumps, cargo will have time to flow aft and could cause a spill. Therefore, leave tank valves closed until ready to start discharging. Overflow of stripping fill tank - Keep a careful watch on the tank used to accumulate stripping residues. NEVER allow it to fill above a safe level. On light-oil product carriers, the first phase of the discharge sometimes occurs while still dock at the loading port. This is the pump and line flush. A small amount of oil is discharged with each pump (into the terminal slop line), thus flushing the discharge piping and assuring that each pump and its system are full of the correct product. If the pumps are to discharge more than one product, care should be taken to flush with the first product in the discharging sequence. When a ship arrives at her port of discharge, the terminal sometimes asks for an initial line displacement. This procedure clears the shore line of other products. In order to facilitate gauging, it is best to restrict the discharge to a single tank during the line displacement. Line displacements are also common at the end of the discharge, particularly on black-oil ships. Many heavy fuel oils and some crude oils solidify to the consistency of shoe polish when allowed to cool; they can clog pipelines unless flushed clear.

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A ship loaded with such a cargo will therefore carry on board a tank of diesel or other light stock for the final line displacement. After all cargo has been discharged and stripped, the light stock is flushed through the ship's pumps and pipelines and is then pumped ashore. This clears the heavy oil from all lines, both on board and in the terminal. D. Load-On-Top Procedures (1.19) Load-on-top is a ballast handling technique. This method is used to maintain stability during the in-ballast voyage, minimal free surface and to prepare the tanks to receive cargo at the next port. This procedure is in accordance with the Marine Pollution Regulations (MARPOL). At the discharge port, designated ballast tanks are prepared for the in-ballast voyage. These tanks are selected in order to provide vessel stability and minimum free surface during the in-ballast voyage. Provided the ship is outfitted with a Crude Oil Washing System (COW), each designated tank is crude oil washed and stripped. Slop or oily residue is stripped to the slop tank. The slop tank is a designated tank which will hold only seawater and oily residue and NOT cargo. Prior to departure, these tanks are pressed up with seawater and are known as dirty ballast tanks. Other tanks, designated clean ballast tanks, are also crude oil washed and stripped at the discharge port. Clean ballast tanks will be pressed up with seawater later in the voyage. The oily residue in the dirty ballast tanks is allowed to rise to the top of the seawater. It is at this point that the clean ballast tanks are pressed up with seawater, and at the same time the seawater in the dirty ballast tanks is pumped overboard. This procedure allows the vessel to maintain stability while preparing for the next cargo load. Slop left in the dirty ballast tanks is stripped to the slop tank again, however, there is residue left in the tanks from the slop. Prior to entering port, seaward of the boundary line, the seawater in the clean ballast tanks is pumped overboard and the slop is stripped to the slop tanks. Cargo at the next loading port is loaded on top of the slop in both the clean and dirty ballast tanks (hence the name load-on-top).

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The following is a summary of the load-on-top procedure: 1. The designated dirty and clean ballast tanks are crude oil washed and stripped while the vessel is at the discharge port. The slop from these tanks is stripped to the slop tank. The dirty ballast tank is pressed up with seawater and the clean ballast tanks remain empty until later in the voyage. 2. The oily residue left in the dirty ballast tanks is allowed to rise to the top of the tanks. Water from the dirty ballast tanks is pumped overboard and simultaneously the clean ballast tanks are filled with seawater. Oily residue in the dirty ballast tanks is again stripped to the slop tank. However, all the residue will not be removed. 3. Prior to entering port, seaward of the boundary line, water in the clean ballast tanks is pumped overboard. The oily residue is again stripped to the slop tank. 4. Once in port, cargo is loaded in both the clean and dirty ballast tanks on top of the remaining oily residue. E. Crude Oil Washing Systems (1.20) Crude Oil Washing (COW) is a method of tank cleaning in which crude oil is drawn from the ship's cargo and used to wash down its tanks. This method makes use of the solvent properties of crude oil and the high pressure of the fixed tank cleaning machines to increase the amount of crude oil recovered during discharging. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) requires that tanks be crude oil washed before being pressed up with ballast and that tanks be crude oil washed periodically in order to control the build-up of sludge. COW is normally only used when the ship is in the process of discharging cargo. Crude oil from the ship's discharge cargo system is routed to a special line which carries it to the tank cleaning machines. COW cleaning systems require a certain amount of pressure to operate effectively and the ship's cargo pumps can supply the necessary pressure.

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Only fixed machines specifically designed for crude oil washing can be used. The design of these machines can be either single or twin nozzle. Twin nozzle machines cannot be programmed, such that no specific arc can be selected. These machines run through a complete cycle such that all tank surfaces are washed in a given time period. Generally, when this type of machine is used, COW is not begun until the tank is almost empty of the cargo. The other type of COW machines are the single nozzle type. The single nozzle are deck mounted and specific arcs can be selected. As the level of cargo in the tank drops, the arcs are adjusted such that the spray follows the level of the oil down. COW can only be used on ships which have a properly operating inert gas system in place. The tank cleaning machines must of a type suitable for COW and permanently mounted. In addition, the type of crude oil used must be taken into consideration. Some types of crude oil are not appropriate for COW. Another consideration is the amount of time required to COW the tanks. This tank cleaning method usually increases the amount of time necessary to discharge the cargo and so the additional time required must be taken into consideration when planning the discharge.

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