Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Experimental and Computational Aerothermodynamics of Internal Flows Lyon, July 2007

Paper reference: ISAIF8-00117

An Innovative Passive Tip-Leakage Control Method for Axial Turbines: Basic Concept and Performance Potential
Markus Hamik, Reinhard Willinger
Institute for Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/302, A-1060 Vienna, Austria, Email: reinhard.willinger@tuwien.ac.at

The present paper introduces a new concept for passive turbine tip-leakage control. The basic idea of the method is the connection of the blade leading edge and the blade tip by an internal channel. Due to the difference between the stagnation pressure at the leading edge and the low pressure at the blade tip, a small amount of the working fluid is extracted from the blade passage. At the blade tip, a jet is injected roughly perpendicular to the tip gap flow driven by the blade pressure difference. It is proposed that the jet blocks at least a part of the tip gap flow. Since the tip-leakage losses are proportional to the tip gap mass flow rate, the tip injection results in a reduction of the associated losses. After the introduction of the concept, an analytical model is presented which describes the reduction of the tip gap discharge coefficient due to the tip injection. Furthermore, the analytical model is supported by the results of a preliminary CFD analysis. Finally, the potential of the efficiency improvement by the passive blade tip injection method is reported.

Keywords: Axial Turbine, Tip-Leakage Flow, Blade Tip Injection, Efficiency

Introduction
The highest efficiencies in thermal electricity generation are achieved today by combined cycle powerplants. The maximum values are reaching nearly 60% and an ongoing trend to increase the thermal efficiencies can be observed. There are different options available to increase the thermal efficiency of a combined cycle powerplant. One way is to improve the performance of the bottoming as well as of the topping cycle. This can be achieved for example by three pressure levels in the steam process, compressor intercooling, gas turbine sequential combustion or closed loop steam cooling of the gas turbines hot gas components. Another option is to increase the component efficiencies of the gas as well as
M. Hamik: PhD student, R. Willinger: associate professor

of the steam turbine. The present paper focuses on the concept and the performance potential of a new method of efficiency improvement for axial turbines. The losses in axial turbine blade rows are usually divided in profile, secondary and tip-leakage losses. Depending on the blade aspect ratio, the tip-leakage losses can contribute up to one third of the total losses [7]. In unshrouded turbine blades, the radial gap allows the working fluid to pass from the pressure to the suction side. This tip-leakage flow, which is driven by the blade pressure difference, does not contribute to the work output of the turbine stage. It is now generally understood that the tip-leakage loss has two major sources: (1) the entropy generation inside the tip gap as the fluid passes through it, (2) the mixing loss as the tip-leakage flow

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Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Experimental and Computational Aerothermodynamics of Internal Flows

merges with the main flow in the form of the so-called tip-leakage vortex. Usually, the second component is the dominant loss source. Therefore, any technique which tends to reduce the tip-leakage losses has the objective to decrease the tip gap mass flow rate. A detailed review of the various aspects of axial turbine tip-leakage flow is given by the VKI Lecture Series 1997-01 [16] and more Nomenclature CD discharge coefficient (-) constant, C = 0.09 C d tip gap length (m) h blade height (m) k turbulent kinetic energy (J/kg) turbulent length scale (m) lt & mass flow rate (kg/s) m & injection mass flow rate (kg/s) m Re Reynolds number (-) s blade chord length (m) Tu turbulence intensity (-) w velocity (m/s) nondimensional wall distance (-) y+

recently by the VKI Lecture Series 2004-02 [1]. Reducing the negative effects of the tip-leakage flow is generally referred to as tip desensitization. Common methods result in blade tip geometries which differ from the simple flat tip. These are squealer tips and winglets [4] or tip chamfering [17]. The present paper proposes a new method for tip desensitization: passive blade tip injection. Greek letters Subscripts 0 1 2 3 T

area ratio (-) orientation angle () turbulent dissipation rate (W/kg) stage efficiency (-) efficiency decrement (-) injection velocity ratio (-) pipe friction coefficient (-) contraction coefficient (-) tip gap width (m) without tip injection vena contracta plane gap exit plane tip injection plane related to the tip gap flow

Literature Overview
Pouagare et al. [14] performed an experimental investigation on the effect of tip injection on the reduction of tip-leakage losses in turbomachines. A single blade NACA 65-0012 with a gap width to chord length ratio /s = 4% was placed in a wind tunnel test section at an angle of attack of 8. Along a straight line, a number of injection holes were placed at the blade tip and fed with air by an external compressor. The injection mass flow rate was approximately 0.12% of the mass flow rate through an equivalent cascade. The leakage flow visualization, the blade pressure distribution and the total pressure measurements downstream of the blade indicate that tip injection can reduce the tip-leakage flow and losses. Hohlfeld et al. [12] and Couch et al. [6] investigated the effect of blowing from dirt purge holes at the tip of a gas turbine blade numerically as well as experimentally. Dirt purge holes are typically manufactured in the blade tip to extract dirt from the coolant flow through centrifugal forces such that these dirt particles do not block smaller diameter film-cooling holes. A linear turbine cascade with two different gap width to chord length ratios was used for the investigation: /s = 0.56% and 1.68%, respectively. The injection mass flow rate varied from 0.05% to 0.38% of the total mass flow rate. The flow injected from the blade tip through the dirt purge holes serve to block the leakage flow through the tip gap.

This blockage worked quite well for the small tip gap, but was not as efficient for the large gap. Blade tip injection is frequently used in cooled gas turbine rotor blades to reduce the material temperatures at the blade tip. The design of the tip injection for gas turbine blades is usually dictated by the cooling requirements. Since the cooling air is extracted from the gas turbine compressor, it produces less work in the turbine. Therefore, it is a primary objective to keep the cooling air mass flow rate as low as possible. Dey [8] investigated experimentally the aerodynamic effect of blade tip injection in a gas turbine rotor blade row. The cooling air mass flow rate was 0.3% of the total mass flow rate. The experimental results show that this mass flow rate is too low for a reduction of the tip-leakage flow. Rao [15] used the same turbine test stand for further experimental investigations. The coolant injection mass flow rates have been varied from 0.41% to 0.72% of the total mass flow rate and different positions for the injection holes have been performed. Coolant injection from the tip trench is successful in filling the total pressure defect originally resulting from the tip-leakage vortex without injection. At higher injection rates, the leakage vortex is also seen to have moved towards the blade tip. Injection from combinations of holes has a great effect in reducing the size of the tip-leakage vortex and the total pressure deficit associated with the vortex. Following the literature mentioned above, it can be concluded that turbine blade tip injection can reduce the

Hamik M., Willinger R.: An Innovative Passive Tip-Leakage Control Method for Axial Turbines

gap mass flow rate as well as the associated tip-leakage losses. However, someone has to be careful with the interpretation of these findings. The reason is that the injection mass flow rate is produced by an external system (compressor) throughout all the investigations. This means that work is added to the turbine cascade or turbine stage. Therefore, the changes in the total pressure distribution downstream of the blade row due to the tip injection are not a direct measure for an efficiency improvement. Nevertheless, taking into account these experimental results, it can be expected that the tip injection can be used as a method to reduce tip-leakage losses in axial turbines if the injection mass flow rate is extracted from the turbine stage itself rather than supplied by an external compressor. This idea has been used by Auxier in a US patent on aerodynamic tip sealing for rotor blades [2]. Figure 1 provides a cut through the rotor blade. This cut is roughly perpendicular to the chordwise direction. A number of curved slots are arranged along the whole blade chord length and one of these slots can be seen in Fig. 1. The slots connect the blade pressure side with the blade tip. It is stated in the patent that the pressure difference between the pressure side and the blade tip should provide a pumping action which tends to block the tip-leakage flow. To the authors knowledge, the effectiveness of this method has not been documented in the open literature. Furthermore, it can be expected that this method is not very efficient since the pressure at the blade pressure side decreases rapidly as the blade tip is approached. Therefore, the driving pressure difference for the proposed pumping action will not be very high and the blockage effect will be small.

Basic Concept
The basic concept of the proposed tip desensitization method is as follows (see Fig. 2): The blade leading edge is connected with the blade tip by a channel. The diameter of this channel is small compared with the blade chord length. A small amount of the working fluid of the turbine stage will be extracted at the blade leading edge (stagnation point) and supplied to the injection hole at the blade tip. The resulting injection jet acts as a blockage for the tip-leakage flow from the blade pressure to the blade suction side. Therefore, it can be expected that the intensity of the tip-leakage vortex and the losses associated with this vortex will be reduced. The injection mass flow rate will be driven by the pressure difference between the stagnation region at the blade leading edge and the blade tip region. This means that the tip injection mass flow rate is produced by the turbine stage itself (passive method), rather than by an external system (compressor).

Fig. 2 Axial turbine rotor blade with tip injection channel

Fig. 1 Cut through axial turbine rotor blade with injection slot. US patent according to [2]

The proposed method can be applied to unshrouded steam turbine blades or gas turbine blades which have no cooling requirements. Due to the fact that the fluid which is injected at the blade tip has no cooling purposes, a number of degrees of freedom are available to optimize the tip injection system for maximum tip desensitization: The number and the diameters of the injection channels. The spanwise location of the injection channel inlets at the blade leading edge. The location and the orientation of the injection holes at the blade tip. After the introduction of the basic concept of the passive tip desensitization method, the remaining part of the paper will provide a preliminary investigation on its performance potential.

Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Experimental and Computational Aerothermodynamics of Internal Flows

Analytical Model
Various tip-leakage models are available in the literature to predict the influence of the tip-leakage flow on the losses in axial turbine blade rows. Yaras and Sjolander [19] compared some of these models which are either based on momentum or energy considerations. Furthermore, models based on mass flow considerations can be found in the literature [3]. All these models require the tip gap mass flow rate. At typical tip gap widths, the tip gap mass flow rate is driven by the pressure difference between the blade pressure side and the blade suction side. Therefore, this process can be approximated by the flow in a plane roughly perpendicular to the chordwise direction (Fig. 3).

/2 111 000 111111111 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 000000000 111 111111111 000 000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000

111 111111111 000 000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 w 111111111111111111 0000000000000000003
w1 control volume 111111111111111111 0000000000000000003 w 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 w2

111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111 000 111111111 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 000000000 111 111111111 000 000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111 111111111 000 000000000
/2
Fig. 4 Control volume for the analytical approach

endwall blade pressure side blade suction side blade tip injection channel

Fig. 3 Blade tip geometry

Many tip-leakage models are using a so-called discharge coefficient CD. This is the ratio of the actual tip gap mass flow rate to the tip gap mass flow rate at one-dimensional ideal conditions. The latter one can be calculated from the undisturbed blade pressure difference at midspan. The tip-leakage losses are proportional to the tip gap mass flow rate or its kinetic energy. These losses can be reduced if the discharge coefficient is decreased. A discussion of the tip discharge coefficient for axial turbine blades is given by Heyes et al. [10] or Willinger and Haselbacher [18]. Their results are valid for blades with flat tips as well as squealers. However, no tip injection is taken into account. This effect has been investigated by Chen et al. [5] using numerical predictions as well as experimental investigations. Assuming two-dimensional conditions, they concluded that the mass flow rate which enters the tip gap is blocked by the tip injection jet. The blockage effect is proportional to the injection mass flow rate. Based on these findings, the discharge coefficient model without any tip injection, presented by Willinger and Haselbacher [18] will be extended to take into account the blade tip injection.

The two-dimensional model is based on the following assumptions: The tip gap flow at the pressure side is accelerated without any losses up to the vena contracta. This is the plane with the maximum contraction due to the flow separation at the sharp corner between the blade pressure side and the blade tip. The velocities and the static pressures are assumed to be uniform across the plane at the vena contracta as well as across the tip gap exit plane. The mixing of the flow is fully completed at the gap exit. Following Heyes and Hodson [11], this condition is valid for /d 1/6. According to Fig. 3, is the tip gap width and d the gap length, respectively. The flow is assumed to be incompressible and total pressure losses are approximated by the assumption of fully-developed pipe flow. Finally, the model assumes that the endwall is stationary. Figure 4 shows the control volume bounded by the vena contracta plane at the left and the gap exit plane at the right hand side. Furthermore, a plane of symmetry is introduced since the control volume is bounded by a blade tip at the bottom as well as at the top. If the mass as well as the momentum balance are applied to this control volume, the following expression for the discharge coefficient can be derived:

CD =

d 1 2 2 2 2 + (1 + ) + 2 + 2 cos 2

(1)

In Eq. (1), is the pipe friction coefficient. For a hydraulically smooth surface,

0.266 0.25 ReT

(2)

can be used in the range 1160 ReT 50000. ReT is the gap Reynolds number, defined with the mean velocity in the gap and the gap width . The contraction coefficient is given by Milne-Thomson [13] assuming potential flow

Hamik M., Willinger R.: An Innovative Passive Tip-Leakage Control Method for Axial Turbines

through a sharp-edged orifice:

+2

& the tip gap mass flow rate mT 0 without any tip injec(3) tion. The discharge coefficients according to the analytical model of Eq. (1) are plotted in Fig. 6 versus the area ratio . The curves are valid for /d = 0.1, ReT = 10000 and = 1.0, respectively. The discharge coefficient decreases for increasing area ratio . Similar to Fig. 5, the blockage effect is more pronounced if the injection slot is oriented against the tip gap flow.
0.85 discharge coefficient CD [-] 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.00 analytical model, = 90 analytical model, = 45 CFD, = 90 CFD, = 45 0.05 0.10 area ratio [-] 0.15 0.20

= 0.611.

The geometry of the tip injection slot is described by the orientation angle and the area ratio . Finally, the injection velocity ratio is defined as

w10

w3

(4)

with w10 as the velocity at the vena contracta at zero injection. Figure 5 shows the influence of the injection velocity ratio on the discharge coefficient according to Eq. (1). The two curves are valid for /d = 0.1, ReT = 10000 and = 0.05, respectively. The injection velocity ratio = 0 represents the gap flow without any tip injection. For this case, CD = 0.81 and the discharge coefficient decreases for increasing injection velocity ratio . This means that the flow entering the tip gap is blocked by the tip injection. If the curves for = 90 and = 45 are compared, it can be seen that this blockage effect is more pronounced if the injection slot is oriented against the tip gap flow.
0.85 discharge coefficient CD [-] 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.00 0.25 analytical model, = 90 analytical model, = 45 CFD, = 90 CFD, = 45

Fig. 6 Discharge coefficient versus area ratio

For = 0 and = 1.0, Eq. (1) can be transformed using a Taylor series expansion for small area ratios . The result is the ratio of the discharge coefficient CD with tip injection to the discharge coefficient CD0 without any tip injection:

CD 2 = 1 (2 + cos )C D 0 . CD 0
1.00 discharge coefficient ratio CD/CD0 [-] 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 analytical model, = 90 analytical model, = 45 CFD, = 90 CFD, = 45

(6)

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

injection velocity ratio [-]

Fig. 5 Discharge coefficient versus injection velocity ratio

Since the proposed tip injection method assumes that the injection mass flow rate is driven by the difference between the stagnation pressure at the blade leading edge and the pressure at the blade tip, an injection velocity ratio = 1.0 can be assumed. As a result, the area ratio can be interpreted as the relative injection mass flow rate

0.80 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 area ratio [-]

& m . & mT 0

(5)

Fig. 7 Discharge coefficient ratio versus area ratio

& This is the ratio of the injection mass flow rate m to

Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Experimental and Computational Aerothermodynamics of Internal Flows

As can be seen from Eq. (6), there is a linear relationship between the area ratio and the discharge coefficient ratio. The results according to Eq. (6) are plotted in Fig. 7 for = 90 and = 45, respectively. The results are similar to the one obtained from Fig. 6 for small area ratios . The discharge coefficient ratio decreases for increasing area ratio and the blockage effect is more pronounced if the injection is orientated against the direction of the tip gap flow.

taking into account the width of the injection slot as well as its orientation angle . Assuming isotropic turbulence, the turbulent kinetic energy boundary condition is calculated from the mean velocity at the inlet and an estimated turbulence intensity Tu = 5%. The same turbulence intensity is used for the turbulent kinetic energy boundary condition at the tip injection. The turbulent dissipation rate is calculated according to

Numerical Investigation
Numerical method and finite-element mesh The numerical investigation is based on the governing equations for steady, two-dimensional, incompressible, turbulent flow. To take into account the turbulent behavior of the flow, the standard k/-model with wall functions is used. The set of governing equations is solved numerically using a commercial finite-element based Navier-Stokes solver [9]. Figure 8 shows the computational domain which is bounded by the inlet, the endwall, the blade pressure side, the blade tip and the gap exit. The inlet domain comprises a square with a side length of 20 gap widths. Some preliminary computations have shown that this inlet domain size is acceptable for the application of the far field inlet boundary condition. The mesh density near the solid walls is set to fulfill the requirements of the turbulence model concerning the nondimensional distance y+ of the grid point next to the wall.

= C 3 / 4

k3/ 2 lt

(7)

using a turbulence length scale lt = 2/3 at the inlet and lt = 0.0025 at the injection plane, respectively. At the gap exit, the so-called traction-free condition which is equivalent to a prescribed constant static pressure distribution is set. Finally, the streamwise gradients of the turbulent quantities are set to zero at the gap exit. Numerical results To verify the analytical model, numerical results are presented for the tip gap without injection at /d = 0.1 and ReT = 10000. As can be seen from Fig. 5 and 6, the computed discharge coefficient CD = 0.77 is somewhat lower than the analytical value CD = 0.81. The influence of the tip injection on the discharge coefficient is computed for = 0.05 and = 1.0 at two different injection angles: = 90 and 45, respectively. The results can be seen in Fig. 5, 6 and 7. The discharge coefficient decreases with increasing are ratio . Furthermore, the injection against the tip gap flow ( = 45) is more effective than the injection in the spanwise direction ( = 90). It can be concluded that the numerical results are in good agreement with the results of the analytical model. Parameter variations can be provided by the analytical model in an effective manner. Therefore, the analytical model will be used in the next section to demonstrate the effect of the passive tip injection method on the efficiency of an axial turbine stage.

endwall exit 20 inlet 20 injection

blade d

Performance Potential
The effect of the passive tip injection on the work output of the turbine stage is twofold: As a positive effect, the tip injection jet blocks the flow entering the tip gap and enhances the turbine work output. On the other hand, the injection mass flow rate produces no work since it is extracted from the blade passage. The first effect can be taken into account by the tip-leakage model of Bammert et al. [3]. Since it is based on mass flow rate considerations, it assumes that the mass flow rate through the rotor tip gap is not turned and, therefore, produces no work. The second effect can be modeled under the assumption that the tip injection mass flow rate extracted from the blade passage produces no work. As a result, the ratio of the efficiency decrement due to the tip gap flow to the

Fig. 8 Computational domain (not to scale)

Boundary conditions At the inlet boundary of the computational domain, a velocity distribution according to a planar sink flow is applied. The origin of this sink flow is located at the endwall at the gap inlet and its strength results from the chosen gap Reynolds number ReT = 10000. At the stationary endwall, at the blade pressure side and at the blade tip, a no-slip boundary condition is applied. The tip injection is located at one half of the gap length. It is modeled by a constant velocity inlet boundary condition

Hamik M., Willinger R.: An Innovative Passive Tip-Leakage Control Method for Axial Turbines

stage efficiency without any tip gap flow can be predicted as follows:

& m 2 = ((2 + cos )CD 0 1) m . & 0

(8)

relative efficiency decrement / [%]

Equation (8) takes into account that the tip injection & mass flow rate m is extracted from the blade passage and, therefore, produces no work. Furthermore, Eq. (8) reflects the reduction of the discharge coefficient due to tip injection according to the linearized Eq. (6). The index 0 indicates the relative efficiency decrement due to & the tip-leakage flow without any tip injection and m is the blade passage mass flow rate. Results from a large number of rotating rig and gas turbine engine tests have been compiled by Harvey in the VKI Lecture Series 2004-02 [1]. The results indicate that as a rule of thumb for the relative efficiency decrement due to the tip-leakage flow without blade tip injection

the exit of the tip injection channel increases. Since the stagnation pressure at the entrance of the injection channel is constant, this means that will decrease. At zero tip gap width, the tip injection channel is completely blocked by the endwall and the tip injection has no influence on the gap flow. This qualitative behavior at very narrow gaps is plotted in Fig. 10. However, it is expected that these narrow gaps are not of interest for practical turbine applications. This is due to the fact that a minimum gap width is required by the operational safety of the turbine.
4 no tip injection tip injection, = 90 tip injection, = 45

2h 0

(9)

can be set in Eq. (8). In Eq. (9), h is the blade height in radial direction. The results from the analysis of the performance potential are plotted in Fig. 9. Without any tip injection, there is a linear relationship between the relative efficiency decrement and the nondimensional tip gap width according to Eq. (9). Two further lines are plotted in Fig. 9 using Eq. (8) with a relative injection mass flow & & rate m / m = 0.5%. According to Eq. (8), there is a constant performance improvement due to the blade tip injection. This performance improvement is independent of the tip gap width. This result is somewhat different from common tip desensitization methods, since they tend to decrease the sensitivity of the relative efficiency decrement versus the nondimensional tip gap width. Furthermore, it can be seen that the positive effect of tip injection is more pronounced when the tip injection jet is orientated against the gap flow: = 45 versus = 90. At a typical nondimensional gap width /h = 1%, the relative efficiency decrement can be reduced from 2% to 1.5%. This means that the performance loss as a result of the rotor tip-leakage flow is decreased by 25% using the passive tip injection method. Equation (8) assumes that the injection velocity ratio = 1.0, independent of the tip gap width. This assumption is valid for tip gap widths which are typical for axial turbine applications. At these tip gap widths, the pressure difference across the gap is balanced by inertial forces and the pressure difference driving the injection jet is virtually independent of the gap width. However, at very narrow gaps, the pressure difference across the tip gap is balanced by viscous forces. As a result, the pressure at

0 0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

nondimensional tip gap width /h [%]

Fig. 9 Relative efficiency decrement of the turbine stage versus nondimensional tip gap width

rel. efficiency decrement

no tip injection

tip injection

gap width

Fig. 10 Qualitative behavior of the blade tip injection system at very narrow tip gaps

Summary and Conclusions

The present paper introduces a new concept for turbine efficiency improvement by the reduction of the tip-leakage losses. The passive blade tip injection system reduces the over tip mass flow rate. This effect is pro-

Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Experimental and Computational Aerothermodynamics of Internal Flows

nounced by a reduction of the associated discharge coefficient. Following the analytical model, the discharge coefficient depends on the following quantities: contraction coefficient , area ratio , injection velocity ratio and injection angle . This is for fixed gap length to width ratio d/ and fixed gap Reynolds number ReT. Since it is the objective to decrease the discharge coefficient, the analytical model can be used for a preliminary design of the passive injection system. The following basic design rules can be derived from the analytical model: The injection velocity ratio should be as high as possible. Therefore, the injection channel should have low friction losses. The injection mass flow rate should be as high as possible. Therefore, the cross section of the injection channel should be large. This requirement can be fulfilled by the arrangement of multiple channels instead of one single tip injection channel. The orientation of the injection channel at the blade tip should be against the direction of the tip gap flow. This is equal to the requirement that the direction of the injection jet should be oriented against the blade pressure side. The preliminary analysis shows that the passive tip injection system increases the turbine efficiency by a constant decrement. Since the relative effect of the tip injection on the efficiency is more pronounced at small tip gap widths, it is still the objective to keep the radial gap as small as possible. From the viewpoint of the operational safety of the turbine, tip rubs have to be avoided. This requirement dictates the minimum radial gap width. To quantify the effect of the passive blade tip injection system in more detail, linear cascade wind tunnel investigations as well as three-dimensional CFD simulations are in progress.

References
[1] Arts, T.: Turbine Blade Tip Design and Tip Clearance Treatment. VKI Lecture Series LS 2004-02 (2004) [2] Auxier T.A.: Aerodynamic Tip Sealing for Rotor Blades. United States Patent No. 5.403.158, (1995) [3] Bammert K., Klukens H., Hartmann D.: Der Einflu des radialen Schaufelspaltes auf den Wirkungsgrad mehrstufiger Turbinen. VDI-Z., 110, Nr. 10, pp. 390 395 (1968) [4] Booth T.C., Dodge P.R., Hepworth H.K.: Rotor-Tip Leakage: Part I Basic Methodology. ASME Journal of Engineering for Power, Vol. 104, pp. 154 161 (1982) [5] Chen G., Dawes W.N., Hodson H.P.: A Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Turbine Tip Gap Flow.

AIAA Paper 93-2253 (1993) [6] Couch E., Christophel J., Hohlfeld E., Thole K.A., Cunha F.J.: Comparison of Measurements and Predictions for Blowing from a Turbine Blade Tip. AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 335 343 (2005) [7] Denton J.D.: Loss Mechanisms in Turbomachines. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol. 115, pp. 621 656 (1993) [8] Dey D.: Aerodynamic Tip Desensitization in an Axial Flow Turbine. PhD Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University (2001) [9] FLUENT: FIDAP8Users Manual. FLUENT Inc., (1998) [10] Heyes F.J.G., Hodson H.P., Dailey G.M.: The Effect of Blade Tip Geometry on the Tip Leakage Flow in Axial Turbine Cascades. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol. 114, pp. 643 651 (1992) [11] Heyes F.J.G., Hodson H.P.: Measurement and Prediction of Tip Clearance Flow in Linear Turbine Cascades. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol. 115, pp. 376 382 (1993) [12] Hohlfeld E.M., Christophel J.R., Couch E.L., Thole K.A.: Predictions of Cooling From Dirt Purge Holes Along the Tip of a Turbine Blade. ASME Paper GT2003-38251 (2003) [13] Milne-Thomson L.M.: Theoretical Hydrodynamics. 5. ed., London: MacMillan (1974) [14] Pouagare M., Lazarus K., Weinhold W.P.: Tip Leakage Reduction Through Tip Injection in Turbomachines. AIAA Paper 86-1746 (1986) [15] Rao N.M.: Desensitization of Over Tip Leakage in an Axial Turbine Rotor by Tip Surface Coolant Injection. PhD Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University (2005) [16] Sjolander S.A.: Secondary and Tip-Clearance Flows in Axial Turbines. VKI Lecture Series LS 1997-01 (1997) [17] Tallmann J., Lakshminarayana B.: Methods for Desensitizing Tip Clearance Effects in Turbines. ASME Paper 2001-GT-0486 (2001) [18] Willinger R., Haselbacher H.: On the Modelling of Tip-Leakage Flow in Axial Turbine Blade Rows. ASME Paper 2000-GT-633 (2000) [19] Yaras M.I., Sjolander S.A.: Prediction of Tip-Leakage Losses in Axial Turbines. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol. 114, pp. 204 210 (1992)