What Are the Six Common Air Pollutants?

The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six common air pollutants. These commonly found air pollutants (also known as "criteria pollutants") are found all over the United States. They are particle pollution (often referred to as particulate matter), groundlevel ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. These pollutants can harm your health and the environment, and cause property damage. Of the six pollutants, particle pollution and ground-level ozone are the most widespread health threats. EPA calls these pollutants "criteria" air pollutants because it regulates them by developing human health-based and/or environmentallybased criteria (science-based guidelines) for setting permissible levels. The set of limits based on human health is called primary standards. Another set of limits intended to prevent environmental and property damage is called secondary standards. Click on one of the pollutants below for information on sources of the pollutant, why the pollutant is of concern, health and environmental effects, efforts underway to help reduce the pollutant, and other helpful resources.

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Ozone Particulate Matter Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides Sulfur Dioxide Lead Ozone (O3) is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at ground-level is created by a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Ozone has the same chemical structure whether it occurs miles above the earth or at ground-level and can be "good" or "bad," depending on its location in the atmosphere. In the earth's lower atmosphere, ground-level ozone is considered "bad." Motor vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents as well as natural sources emit NOx and VOC that help form ozone. Ground-level ozone is the primary constituent of smog. Sunlight and hot weather cause ground-level ozone to form in harmful concentrations in the air. As a result, it is known as a summertime air pollutant. Many urban areas tend to have high levels of "bad" ozone, but even rural areas are also subject to increased ozone levels because wind carries ozone and pollutants that form it hundreds of miles away from their original sources. "Good" ozone occurs naturally in the stratosphere approximately 10 to 30 miles above the earth's surface and forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful rays. Learn

more about how ozone can be beneficial up high in the stratosphere but harmful at ground level.

Basic Information
Ground-level or "bad" ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC. Breathing ozone, a primary component of smog, can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. Ground-level ozone also can reduce lung function and inflame the linings of the lungs. Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissue. Ground-level ozone also damages vegetation and ecosystems. In the United States alone, ozone is responsible for an estimated $500 million in reduced crop production each year. Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has set protective health-based standards for ozone in the air we breathe. EPA and others have instituted a variety of multi-faceted programs to meet these healthbased standards. More about EPA s ozone standards andregulatory actions. Throughout the country, additional programs are being put into place to cut NOx and VOC emissions from vehicles, industrial facilities, and electric utilities. Programs are also aimed at reducing pollution by reformulating fuels and consumer/commercial products, such as paints and chemical solvents that contain VOC. Voluntary and innovative programs also encourage communities to adopt practices, such as carpooling, to reduce harmful emissions. More about EPAs innovative programs to reduce air pollution. Sunlight and hot weather help form ground-level ozone. Both also contribute to global warming and heat island effect.

"Particulate matter," also known as particle pollution or PM, is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets. Particle pollution is made up of a number of components, including acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles. The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. EPA is concerned about particles that are 10 micrometers in diameter or smaller because those are the particles that generally pass through the throat and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects. EPA groups particle pollution into two categories:

y "Inhalable coarse particles," such as those found near roadways and dusty industries, are
larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter.

y "Fine particles," such as those found in smoke and haze, are 2.5 micrometers in diameter and
smaller. These particles can be directly emitted from sources such as forest fires, or they can form when gases emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles react in the air.

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Basic Information
Particle pollution (also called particulate matter or PM) is the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small, they can only be detected using an electron microscope.

Particle pollution includes "inhalable coarse particles," with diameters larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers and "fine particles," with diameters that are 2.5 micrometers and smaller. How small is 2.5 micrometers? Think about a single hair from your head. The average human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter making it 30 times larger than the largest fine particle. These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different chemicals. Some

How Big is Particle Pollution?

particles, known as primary particles are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires. Others form in complicated reactions in the atmosphere of chemicals such as sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides that are emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles. These particles, known as secondary particles, make up most of the fine particle pollution in the country. EPA regulates inhalable particles (fine and coarse). Particles larger than 10 micrometers (sand and large dust) are not

Health and Environment

The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. Small particles less than10 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems, because they can get deep into your lungs, and some may even get into your bloodstream. Exposure to such particles can affect both your lungs and your heart. Small particles of concern include "inhalable coarse particles" (such as those found near roadways and dusty industries), which are larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter; and "fine particles" (such as those found in smoke and haze), which are 2.5 micrometers in diameter and smaller. The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set air quality standards to protect both public health and the public welfare (e.g. crops and vegetation). Particle pollution affects both. Health Effects Particle pollution - especially fine particles - contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can get deep into the lungs and cause serious health problems. Numerous scientific studies have linked particle pollution exposure to a variety of problems, including:

y increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the airways, coughing, or difficulty y y y y y y

breathing, for example; decreased lung function; aggravated asthma; development of chronic bronchitis; irregular heartbeat; nonfatal heart attacks; and premature death in people with heart or lung disease.

People with heart or lung diseases, children and older adults are the most likely to be affected by particle pollution exposure. However, even if you are healthy, you may experience temporary symptoms from exposure to elevated levels of particle pollution. For more information about asthma, visit www.epa.gov/asthma.

Environmental Effects Visibility reduction Fine particles (PM2.5) are the major cause of reduced visibility (haze) in parts of the United States, including many of our treasured national parks and wilderness areas. For more information about visibility, visit www.epa.gov/visibility. Environmental damage Particles can be carried over long distances by wind and then settle on ground or water. The effects of

this settling include: making lakes and streams acidic; changing the nutrient balance in coastal waters and large river basins; depleting the nutrients in soil; damaging sensitive forests and farm crops; and affecting the diversity of ecosystems. More information about the effects of particle pollution and acid rain. Aesthetic damage Particle pollution can stain and damage stone and other materials, including culturally important objects such as statues and monuments. More information about the effects of particle pollution and acid rain.

1 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as "oxides of nitrogen,"
or "nitrogen oxides (NOx)." Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid and nitric acid. While EPAs National Ambient Air Quality Standard covers this entire group of NOx, NO2 is the component of greatest interest and the indicator for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. NO2 forms quickly from emissions from cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road equipment. In addition to contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, and fine particle pollution, NO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system. EPA first set standards for NO2 in 1971, setting both a primary standard (to protect health) and a secondary standard (to protect the public welfare) at 0.053 parts per million (53 ppb), averaged annually. The Agency has reviewed the standards twice since that time, but chose not to revise the standards at the conclusion of each review. All areas in the U.S. meet the current (1971) NO2 standards.

Health
Current scientific evidence links short-term NO2 exposures, ranging from 30 minutes to 24 hours, with adverse respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. Also, studies show a connection between breathing elevated short-term NO2 concentrations, and increased visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory issues, especially asthma.

NO2 concentrations in vehicles and near roadways are appreciably higher than those measured at monitors in the current network. In fact, in-vehicle concentrations can be 2-3 times higher than measured at nearby area-wide monitors. Near-roadway (within about 50 meters) concentrations of NO2 have been measured to be approximately 30 to 100% higher than concentrations away from roadways. Individuals who spend time on or near major roadways can experience short-term NO2 exposures considerably higher than measured by the current network. Approximately 16% of U.S housing units are located within 300 ft of a major highway, railroad, or airport (approximately 48 million people). This population likely includes a higher proportion of non-white and economically-disadvantaged people. NO2 exposure concentrations near roadways are of particular concern for susceptible individuals, including people with asthma asthmatics, children, and the elderly The sum of nitric oxide (NO) and NO2 is commonly called nitrogen oxides or NOx. Other oxides of nitrogen including nitrous acid and nitric acid are part of the nitrogen oxide family. While EPAs National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) covers this entire family, NO2 is the component of greatest interest and the indicator for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. NOx react with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form small particles. These small particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and can aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and premature death. Ozone is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds react in the presence of heat and sunlight. Children, the elderly, people with lung diseases such as asthma, and people who work or exercise outside are at risk for adverse effects from ozone. These include reduction in lung function and increased respiratory symptoms as well as respiratory-related emergency department visits, hospital admissions, and possibly premature deaths. Emissions that lead to the formation of NO2 generally also lead to the formation of other NOx. Emissions control measures leading to reductions in NO2 can generally be expected to reduce population exposures to all gaseous NOx. This may have the important co-benefit of reducing the formation of ozone and fine particles both of which pose significant public health threats.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as oxides of sulfur. The largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at power plants (73%) and other industrial facilities (20%). Smaller sources of SO2 emissions include industrial processes such as

extracting metal from ore, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and non-road equipment. SO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system. EPA first set standards for SO2 in 1971. EPA set a 24-hour primary standard at 140 ppb and an annual average standard at 30 ppb (to protect health). EPA also set a 3-hour average secondary standard at 500 ppb (to protect the public welfare). The last review of the SO2 NAAQS was completed in 1996 and the Agency chose not to revise the standards. In the last review, EPA also considered, but did not set, a five minute NAAQS to protect asthmatics at elevated ventilation rates from bronchoconstriction and respiratory symptoms associated with 5-10 minute peaks of SO2.

NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS* Concentration in Ambient Air Industrial Area 80 g/m3 120 g/m3 80 g/m3 120 g/m3 360 g/m3 500 g/m3 120 g/m3 150 g/m3 1.0 g/m3 1.5 g/m3 5.0 g/m3 10.0 g/m3 Residential, Rural Sensitive Area and other 60 g/m3 80 g/m3 60 g/m3 80 g/m3 140 g/m3 200 g/m3 60 g/m3 100 g/m3 0.75 g/m3 1.00 g/m3 2.0 g/m3 4.0 g/m3 15 g/m3 30 g/m3 15 g/m3 30 g/m3 70 g/m3 100 g/m3 50 g/m3 75 g/m3 0.50 g/m3 0.75 g/m3 1.0 g/m3 2.0 g/m3

Pollutant

Time Weighted Average Annual 24 hours Annual 24 hours Annual 24 hours

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2) Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)

Respirable ** Annual Particulate Matter (RPM) 24 hours Annual Lead (pb) 24 hours Carbon Monoxide(CO) 8 hours 1 hour

* Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India notification,1994 ** Particle size less than 10

Air Pollution
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (NATIONAL)
Pollutants Timeweighted average Annual Average* 24 hours** Oxides Nitrogen (NO2) Suspended Particulate (SPM) of Annual as Average* 24 hours** Annual Matter Average* 24 hours** RespirableParticulate Annual Matter (RPM) (size Average* less than 10 microns) 24 hours** Lead (Pb) Annual Average* Concentration in ambient air Method of measurement Industrial Residential, Sensitive Areas Rural & Areas other Areas 80 g/m3 60 g/m3 15 g/m3 - Improved West and Geake Method - Ultraviolet Fluorescence 120 g/m3 80 g/m3 30 g/m3 80 g/m
3

SulphurDioxide (SO2)

60 g/m

120 g/m3 360 g/m3 500 g/m3 120 g/m 150 g/m 1.0 g/m
3

80 g/m3 140 g/m3 200 g/m3 60 g/m

3

15 g/m - Jacob & Hochheiser Modified (Na-Arsenite) Method 30 g/m3 Gas Phase Chemiluminescence 70 g/m3 - High Volume Sampling, (Average flow rate not less than 1.1 m3/minute). 100 g/m3 50 g/m - Respirable particulate matter sampler 3 75 g/m 0.50 g/m - ASS Method after sampling using EPM 2000 or equivalent Filter paper 3 0.75 g/m . 3 0.1 mg/m .
3 3 3

100 g/m

3 3

0.75 g/m

Ammonia1

CarbonMonoxide (CO)

24 hours** 1.5 g/m 3 Annual 0.1 mg/ m Average* 3 24 hours** 0.4 mg/ m 3 8 hours** 5.0 mg/m 1 hour 10.0 mg/m
3

1.00 g/m 3 0.1 mg/ m

3

0.4 mg/m 0.4 mg/m . 3 3 2.0 mg/m 1.0 mg/ m - Non Dispersive Infra Red (NDIR) 3 3 4.0 mg/m 2.0 mg/m Spectroscopy

* **

Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval. 24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. However, 2% of the time, it may exceed but not on two consecutive days.

NOTE: 1. National Ambient Air Quality Standard: The levels of air quality with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public health,, vegetation and property.

2. Whenever and wherever two consecutive values exceeds the limit specified above for the respective category, it would be considered adequate reason to institute regular/continuous monitoring and further investigations. 3. The standards for H2S and CS2 have been notified seperately vide GSR No. 7, dated December 22, 1998 under Rayon Industry - for details please see Sl. No. 65 of this document.
[S.O. 384(E), Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, dated April 11, 1994 ] [EPA Notification: GSR 176 (E), April 02, 1996] 1. Included vide Notification SO. 955 (E), Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 dated October 14, 1998)

Air Pollution And Human Health

AIR POLLUTION : Generation and Consequences Air pollution encompasses a diverse array of natural and anthropogenic emissions, including gaseous constituents, volatile chemicals, aerosols (particulate) and their atmospheric reaction products. Ambient air acts as an atmospheric sink, where all emissions are released . Many such emissions are in such small quantities that they get immediately dissipated and absorbed but continuous release of these pollutants build up in the air and pose hazards to human health. Despite pollution control effects, the air quality has been threatened to alarming levels in several cities throughout the world. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that as many as 1.4 billion urban residents in the world breathe air exceeding the WHO air quality guidelines (World Resource Institute, 2000). The health consequences of exposure to dirty air are considerable. On a global basis, estimates of mortality due to outdoor air pollution is estimated to be around 2.0 to 5.7 lacs, representing about 0.4 to 1.1 percent of total annual deaths. The adverse effects of air pollution are more pronounced in the developing countries. On the one hand, the developing countries are grappling with the environmental problems associated with inadequate economic developments, the hallmarks of which are malnutrition, poor sanitation and lack of basic human needs. On the other hand , in their pursuit for rapid economic development , the developing countries are confronted with a newer set of environmental problems due to increasing air pollution on account of industrialization, urbanization and motorization. Severe air pollution episodes during last century have shown that breathing dirty air can be dangerous and at times deadly. The 1948 'Killer Fog' in small town of Donora, Pennsylvania that killed 50 and the particularly virulent 'London Fog' of 1952, in

which some 4000 died, were associated with widespread use of dirty polluting fuels. Since then, many countries have adopted ambient air quality standards to safeguard the public against the most common and damaging pollutants, which include sulphur dioxide, suspended particulate matter, ground level ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and lead, which are directly or indirectly released by the combustion of fossil fuels. Although substantial investments in pollution control in some countries have lowered the levels of these pollutants in many cities, poor air quality is still a major concern throughout the industrialized world.

1.1 Indoor Air Pollution There are four principal sources of pollutants in indoor air viz. combustion, building material, the ground under the building and biological agents. As dangerous as polluted outdoor air can be to health, indoor air pollutants can pose even a greater health risk. Indoor air pollution is a concern where energy efficiency improvements sometimes makes the house relatively air tight thereby reducing ventilation and raising indoor pollutant levels. Indoor air pollution is usually associated with occupational situation particularly through combustion of biomass fuels. The greatest threat of indoor pollution exists where the people continue to rely on traditional fuels for cooking and heating. Burning such fuels produces large amounts of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space of home, a perfect recipe for high exposures. Liquid and gaseous fuels such as kerosene and bottled gas although not completely pollution free is many times less polluting than unprocessed solid fuels (Fig 2). In these circumstances, exposure to pollutants is often far higher indoors than outdoors. The health problems due to indoor air pollutants are more widespread than those caused by outdoor air pollutants for the following reasons.

y y

y y

The exposed persons are in close proximity to the source of indoor air pollutants. A recent report of WHO asserts 'the rule of 1000' which states that a pollutant released indoor is one thousand times more likely to reach the lungs than a pollutant released outdoors. Women and children, particularly those in rural sector spend more time indoors than outdoors. In rural areas, indoor air pollution is responsible for much greater mortality than ambient air pollution.

Epidemiological studies have linked exposure to indoor air pollution from dirty fuels with at least four major categories of illness. These are:
y y y y

acute respiratory infections (ARI) in children chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) such as asthma and bronchitis; lung cancer and pregnancy related problems. Of these, ARI appears to have the greatest health impact in terms of the number of people affected .

Traditional biomass fuels amount for 80% of domestic energy consumption in our country. When these fuels are burnt in simple cook stoves during meal preparation, air inside homes get heavily polluted with smoke that contains large amounts of toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), aldehydes, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and respirable particulate matter. The resulting human exposures exceed the permissible norms by a factor in multiples.

SOME KEY FINDINGS OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTION STUDIES (ESMAP,World Bank 2000)
y

Exposure to biomass smoke increases the risk of acute respiratory infection (chest infection, coughs, colds and middle ear infections). Children in the Gambia Island found riding on their mother's back, during cooking over smoky stoves were more likely to develop Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) then unexposed children. A study in Tanzania reported that the children below five years age died of ARI, were more likely to sleep in a room with an open cook stove than healthy children in the same age group.

Studies in India and Nepal show that non-smoking women who have cooked on biomass stoves exhibit a higher prevalence of chronic lung disease (asthma and chronic bronchitis). The incidence of moderate and severe ailments among two year olds, increased as they spent greater hours near the fire. Exposure to high indoor smoke levels is associated with pregnancy related problems such as still births and low birth weights. One study in Western India found a 50% increase in stillbirths in women exposed to indoor smoke during pregnancy. Considerable amount of carbon monoxide has been detected in the blood stream of women cooking with biomass. Other than these four major categories of illness; indoor air pollution is associated with blindness and changes in the immune system. Eighteen percent of blindness may be attributed to the use of biomass fuels. Further, a 1995 study in Eastern India found the immune system of new borns to be depressed due to the presence of indoor air pollution. Table 1. Annual Deaths Due To Air Pollution In Urban and Rural Areas

Region

Urban Outdoors 14 (0.5) 186 (6.2) 200 (6.7)

Urban Indoors 252 (8.4) 644 (21.5) 896 (29.9)

Rural Indoors 28 (0.9)

1876 (62.5)

Total

Developed Countries Developing Countries Total

294 (9.8)
2706 (90.2)

1904 (63.5)

3000 (100)

Source: Report of the Committee on Environment and Health (MoEF), May 2000

Source: Indoor Air Quality, ESMAP, World Bank, September 2000

Source: Indoor Air Quality, ESMAP, World Bank, 2000

Major Air Pollution Episodes

MEUSE VALLEY, BELGIUM (1930) A strong atmospheric inversion got settled over Meuse Valley on December 1, 1930 and remained until December 5. Effluents from several factories in the valley, chiefly oxides of sulphur, various inorganic acids, metallic oxides, and soot were then trapped in the stable atmosphere. Sixty three people (generally the old and infirm) died, and several hundred others deemed ill. Although many suspected sulphur oxides and hydrofluoric acid, the actual lethal substance could not be proved.

DONORA, PENNSYLVANIA, 1948 Donora, Pennsylvania is an industrial town on the banks of the Monongahela River about 30 miles south of the heart of Pittsburgh. The major industrial installations were steel and wire mill, a zinc smelter and a sulphuric acid plant. During a particularly calm and meteorologically stable period from October 27 to 31, 1948, air pollutants accumulated because of this many people were hospitalized and 20 died. Illness of several thousand persons was blamed on the episode, and over 130 separate lawsuits were filed. The causative agent of the deaths and illness could never be determined incontrovertibly but sulphur compounds were present in the air in abnormally high quantities. LONDON SMOG, 1952 Historically, the longest record of intermittent air pollution problems belongs to the city of London, England. The notorious pea-soup fogs become especially offensive when mixed with coal smoke. The word smog (smoke and fog) was coined to describe this foul condition. In 1661, John Evelyn got published his well-known pamphlet, 'Fumifugium: or The Inconvenience of the Air and Smoke of London Dissipated'. His major recommendation had been the removal of all smoke-producing plants from London. But London did little about it until the famous London smog of December 1952, truly a major air pollution disaster. The smog lasted 5 days from 5th to 9thDecember and caused 4000 deaths (principally among the old, the infirm, and those with respiratory diseases). The onset of fog was followed by acute respiratory symptoms. Almost exactly ten years later, December 3 to 7, 1962 London experienced another black fog, with 340 excess deaths. The improvement over the 1952 episode was laid to smoke reduction brought about by the Clean Air Act and public awareness of the harmful effects of smog, which restrained many respiratory cripples from going outdoors. BHOPAL MIC GAS TRAGEDY (1984) The Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas leak in Bhopal during 1984 has been regarded the worst industrial accident in India, which is related to air pollution. Around 2,00,000 people were affected by the leak of poisonous Methyl isocyanate gas from a pesticide plant. The actual scenario of what went wrong at the Bhopal plant just after the midnight on the morning of December 3, 1984 is not exactly known. But several circumstantial evidences point to the total breakdown of the essential safety provisions within the plant. MIC can react with almost any chemical to generate considerable heat and CO2. The heat released accelerates the reaction and pressure goes on building up till it reaches an explosive level. The gas emitted from the factory spread over some 40 sq. kms area and affected people seriously as distant as 5 kms. MIC is invariably accompanied by Phosgene (COCl2) . The toxic effect of MIC is enhanced by COCl2.

SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ITS HEALTH EFFECTS Sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) is a colourless gas readily soluble in water. Natural sources such as sulphur bacteria activities, volcanoes, forest fires etc. contribute to

environmental levels of SO2. Man made contributions include the use of sulphur containing fossil fuels for transportation, domestic purposes and power generation. Of greater interest, with respect of outdoor air quality are the effects on health, of the lower concentration to which human beings may be exposed in the ambient air. The effects have been studied in a number of different ways, including exposure of volunteers to sulphur dioxide in the air, which they breath and by examination of effects on members of the population who have been exposed to episodes of atmospheric pollution. Sulphur dioxide causes its irritant effects by stimulating nerves in the lining of the nose, throat and the lung airways. This later affects the people suffering from asthma and chronic lung disease, whose airways get inflamed and easily irritated. Studies of normal healthy volunteers, exposed to sulphur dioxide in chambers have shown that measurable narrowing of the airways may occur after breathing the gas for 5 minutes at concentration of 4-5 ppm but the effects were not detectable at concentrations below 1 ppm. The most common acute exposure to SO2 concentration 0.4 ppm is indication of broncho-constriction in asthmatics after exposure lasting only 5 minutes. The effects of SO2 on airway of asthmatics are reversible with recovery occurring within one hour. Exposure at lower levels can cause increased upper respiratory symptoms such as cough, sore throat and changes in lung function. The morbidity effects are associated with long-term exposure to particulates and or sulphur dioxide. The acidic aerosols composed of particulate matter and acids cause inflammation of airways and lungs and reduce the ability of small airways to clear mucous and particles. The health morbidity indices are lung function decrement, upper and lower respiratory disease symptoms, increase in rates for cough, bronchitis and other health problems. Table 4 Summary of Health Effects of Basic Air Pollutants
Pollutant Carbon Monoxide Health Effects Poor reflexes Ringing in the ears Headache Dizziness Nausea Breathing Difficulties

Drowsiness Reduced work capacity Comatose state (can lead to death) Lead (Pb) Kidney Damage Reproductive system damage Nervous system damage (including brain dysfunction and altered neurophysical behaviours) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX ) Increased risk of viral infections Lung irritation (including pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema) Higher respiratory illness rates Airway resistance Chest tightness and discomfort Eye burning Headache Ozone (O3 ) Respiratory system damage (lung damage from free radicals) Reduces mental activity Damage to cell lining (especially in nasal passage) Reduces effectiveness of the immune system Headache Eye irritation Chest discomfort Breathing difficulties Chronic lung emphysema) diseases ( including asthma and

Nausea Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Aggravates heart and lung diseases Increases the risk for respiratory illness (including chronic bronchitis, asthma, pulmonary emphysema) Cancer ( may not show for decades after exposure) Respirable Particulate Matter (PM10 ) Respiratory illness (including chronic bronchitis, increased asthma attacks, pulmonary emphysema) Aggravates heart disease

NITROGEN DIOXIDE AND ITS HEALTH EFFECTS of nitrogen are released in all the types of combustion as they are formed by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen at high temperature. Nitric oxide usually emitted from the automobile exhaust is oxidised to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) by reaction with oxidants (prominently ozone) present in the ambient air. Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish brown gas with a characteristic pungent odour. It is corrosive and a strong oxidising agent. Nitrogen dioxide is the predecessor of gaseous nitric acid and nitrate aerosols, which has the biggest health impact. The major sources of NO2 are combustion-associated processes, such as motor vehicles, power plants as well as any high temperature combustion process used in industrial work. Oxides of nitrogen particularly nitrogen dioxide are toxic gases. The uptake of these gases in human body occur during breathing. Large percentage of inhaled NO2 is removed in the respiratory tract, which depend on mode of breathing, ventilation rate, increased penetration of NO2 to lower respiratory tract. Some of the major health effects of NO2 exposure are as follows Table 5 Average Concentration Levels of Air Pollutants on Exposure Assessment
Pollutant Personal Exposure PM (g/m3) 330 175 (RPM5) Occupational Exposure 358 187 (RPM5) Residential Exposure 308 225 (RPM5) 140 102 (PM10) 100 (PM10) Ambient Quality Air NAAQS
Oxides

NOx (ppb) CO(ppm) Pb (g/m3) K (g/m3) Mn(g/m3) Cd (g/m3) PAH (ng/m3) B(a)P(g/m3)

2.4 2.4 2.32 1.28 7.7 6.9 0.33 0.41 0.15 0.16 23.83 2.69

3.4 3.4 2.6 2.5 7.9 10.71 0.55 0.64 0.27 0.39 42.36 4.89

2.0 2.0 2.47 2.16 6.32 2.74 0.12 0.13 0.06 0.35 5.2 0.48

BDL BDL 0.34 0.25 0.54 .042 0.15 0.18 0.017 0.027 21.2 1.4

3.2 3.2 1.0 -

Source: CPCB Report PROBES/77/200-01 Airway Reactivity and Pulmonary Effects Nitrogen dioxide exposure can cause decrement in lung function (i.e. increased airway resistance), increased airway responsiveness to broncho-constrictions in healthy subjects at concentration exceeding 1 ppm. Below 1 ppm level, there are evidences of change in lung volume, flow volume, characteristics of lung or airway resistance in healthy persons. It has been established that continuous exposure with as little as 0.1 ppm NO2 over a period of one to three years, increases incidence of bronchitis, emphysema and have adverse effect on lung performance. Respiratory Morbidity in Childern The dysfunction of host defence, increased susceptibility to infections are generally caused due to affects on muco-ciliary clearance, functional and bio-chemical activity of alveolar macrophages and immunological competence. Exposure to excessive NO2, affect the defence mechanism leaving the host susceptible to respiratory illness. Chronic Lung Disease Nitrogen dioxide exposure may lead to chronic lung disease and variety of structural/morphological changes in lung epithelium conducting airways and air -gas exchange region. Exposure to high levels (>1.0 ppm) of NO2 cause estuation of bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium, inflammation of epithelium and definite emphysema.

Effects on Immune System and Host Defence Nitrogen dioxide in large doses can result in dysfunction of host defences by causing structural alteration in ciliated cells of mucociliary escalator, in alveolar macrophages, decrease in phagocytosis, morphological and metabolic changes. The respiratory tract provide first time protective barrier against inhaled, viable and non-viable airborne agent. Breaches in defence system might increase the risk of diseases.

CARBON MONOXIDE AND ITS HEALTH EFFECTS Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas with relatively poor solubility in water. Anthropogenic emissions of CO originate primarily from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. The largest carbon monoxide emissions are produced as exhaust of internal combustion engines, especially of vehicles with petrol engines. The lungs are the only significant routes for CO uptake from the environment. Carbon monoxide diffuses rapidly across alveolar, capillary and placental membranes. Inhaled CO has no direct toxic affects on lungs but rather appears to exert its effects by interfering with oxygen transport through the formation of carboxy-haemoglobin (COHb). Exposure to CO is often evaluated in terms of COHb levels in blood measured as percentage of total Hb bound CO. Approximately 80% to 90% of absorbed CO binds with haemoglobin to form carboxy-haemoglobin, which reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and impair the release of oxygen from haemoglobin (Table 7). COHb levels in non-smokers range between 0.3% to 0.7% and 5% to 7% in smokers. COHb levels in excess of 15% in a significant proportion of urban non-smoking populations can be considered as evidence of widespread exposure to environmental carbon monoxide. In a study conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, healthy subjects exposed to CO, sufficient to result in 5% COHb levels exhibited reduced duration of exercise performance and consumption of oxygen. Studies involving subjects with deficient blood supply to the heart (Ischemic Heart Disease) who were engaged in exercise during exposures have shown that COHb levels as low as 2.2% can lead to: a. earlier onset of electrocardiograph change indicative of increased deficiency of oxygen supply to the heart; b. earlier onset of chest pain; c. increase in the duration of chest pain; and

d. decrease in oxygen consumption.

Table 6 Symptoms Based on Blood Carboxy-haemoglobin Levels

Table 7 Symptoms Based on Carbon monoxide in Ambient Air CO (PPM) 35 Exposure 8 hours Symptoms Maximum exposure limit allowed by OSHA in the workplace over an eight hour period. Mild headache, fatigue, nausea and dizziness Serious headache and other symptoms intensify. Life threatening after 3 hours Dizziness, nausea and convulsions. Unconscious within 2 hours followed by death within 2-3 hours

200 400 800

2-3 hours 1-2 hours 45 minutes

COMMON RESPIRATORY DISEASES RELATED TO AIR POLLUTION 13.1 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) which encompasses chronic bronchitis and emphysema is one of the commonest respiratory disease. In the western world, COPD is probably the fourth commonest cause of death in middle aged to elderly men after ischemeic heart disease, lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. According to 'Dutch Hypothesis', asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis are different manifestations of a single disease. 13.1.1 Bronchitis Bronchitis is a type of swelling in the bronchial tubes which are the air passages leading from the windpipe to the lungs. When these passages become clogged with thick mucus that prevent air from flowing freely to and from the lungs the body's natural reflex is to try to cough up this mucus to clear the airways. Acute Bronchitis Acute bronchitis is usually a short, severe illness that may show up along with cold or follow other viral infections such as measles or whooping cough.

Chronic Bronchitis Chronic bronchitis is a long term, serious condition characterized by frequent coughing and mucus production and often happens along with another lung disease called emphysema. In severe cases, when the bronchial tubes become narrowed and clogged with mucous, the resulting lack of oxygen in the blood may give the skin a bluish colour. 13.1.2 Emphysema Emphysema is a condition in which there is over inflation of structure in the lungs known as alveoli or air sacs. This over inflation results from a breakdown of the walls of the alveoli, which causes a decrease in respiratory function and often breathlessness. Early symptoms of emphysema include shortness of breath and cancer. Emphysema begins with the destruction of air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs where oxygen from the air is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the blood. The walls of the air sacs are thin and fragile. Damage to the air sacs is irreversible and results in permanent 'holes' in the tissues of the lower lungs. As air sacs are destroyed, the lungs are able to transfer less and less oxygen to the bloodstream, causing shortness of breath. The lungs also loose their elasticity. Emphysema doesn't develop suddenly, it comes on very gradually, and years of exposure to the air pollutants or cigarette smoke usually precede the development of emphysema. 13.1.3 Asthma Asthma is a disease in which the breathing tubes (also known as airways or bronchi) get narrowed and the person experiences difficulty in breathing. What causes this process is a biologically active compound called Leukotriene which, in turn is formed by the oxidation of Arachiodonic acid (AA) . This phenomenon causes the asthmatic symptoms e.g., wheezing, coughing or difficulty in breathing. Asthma is one of the biggest worldwide public health problem. As per WHO report 15 to 20 million Asthmatic cases are in India and over 150 million worldwide. As per WHO report there has been about 40% increase in asthma cases during the last decade worldwide. Although asthma is considered primarily a disease of airways, virtually all aspects of pulmonary functions are compromised during an acute attack. Common causes of asthma are: n Cigarette Smoke n Wood Smoke

n Chemical fumes n Cleaning agents (such as phenyl) n Perfumes and hair sprays n Strong odours while cooking, especially frying n Atmospheric pollution (industrial or through automobile exhaust fumes) Asthmatics suffer from breathing difficulty associated with whistling or wheezing sound in breathing. Along with these there is cough and phlegm production and chest tightness, very often, sleep is disturbed and the patient may have limitation in carrying out daily activities. 13.2 Respiratory Mechanism

The lungs and skin (including nose and ages) are the organs of first contact for most of the environmental exposures.

The human body accomplishes 75 percent of its energy requirement through breathing. By breathing we take in oxygen, the most fundamental unit of fuel. Further we eliminate 70 percent of toxins via the breath. Oxygen also cleanses the cells by oxidation and enables waste products to be carried back to the lungs via the blood stream. Good breathing according to the standards of medical texts and the World Health Organization, is about four to six litres air per minute. During attacks, it may go up to 27 litres per minute. The betterment in the breathing patterns means less number of

breaths per minute. Twelve breaths per minute would be about the upper limit of what we should be breathing, even less than that is better. Stress, anxiety and emotions all stimulate our breathing rate and heart rate. The strongest immediate stimulus to our breathing comes through stress, from our sympathetic nervous system.