Fiber optic system

1.0 Introduction:
1.1 What are Fiber Optics?
Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin strands of very pure glass about the diameter of a human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit light signals over long distances.

1.2 Optical Fiber parts:

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Core: Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels. Cladding: Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the core. Buffer: Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture. Jacket: Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers are arranged in bundles in optical cables. The bundles are protected by the cable's outer covering.

1.3 History of Fiber optic: Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London a dozen years later. Tyndall also wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an in introductory book about the nature of light in 1870: "When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular... When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendic ular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface.... The angle which marks the limit where total reflexion begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 4827', for flint glass it is 3841', while for diamond it is 2342'. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was demonstrated indepe ndently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for internal medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade. In 1952, physicist Narinder Singh Kapany conducted experiments that led to the invention of optical fiber. Modern optical fibers, where the glass fiber is coated with a transparent cladding to offer a more suitable refractive index, appeared later in the decade. Development then focused on fiber bundles for image transmission. The first fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope was patented by Basil Hirschowitz, C. Wilbur Peters, and Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at the University of

Michigan, in 1956. In the process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass clad fibers; previous optical fibers had relied on air or impractical oils and waxes as the low-index cladding material. A variety of other image transmission applications soon followed. In 1965, Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer, allowing fibers to be a practical medium for communication. They proposed that the attenuation in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities, which could be removed, rather than fundamental physical effects such as scattering. The crucial attenuation level of 20 dB/km was first achieved in 1970, by researchers Robert D. Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter C. Schultz, and Frank Zimar working for American glass maker Corning Glass Works, now Corning Incorporated. They demonstrated a fiber with 17 dB/km attenuation by doping silica glass with titanium. A few years later they produced a fiber with only 4 dB/km attenuation using germanium dioxide as the core dopant. Such low attenuations ushered in optical fiber telecommunications and enabled the Internet. In 1981, General Electric produced fused quartz ingots that could be drawn into fiber optic strands 25 miles (40 km) long. Attenuations in modern optical cables are far less than those in electrical copper cables, leading to long-haul fiber connections with repeater distances of 50 80 km (3050 miles). The erbium-doped fiber amplifier, which reduced the cost of long-distance fiber systems by reducing or even in many cases eliminating the need for optical-electrical-optical repeaters, was co-developed by teams led by David N. Payne of the University of Southampton, and Emmanuel Desurvire at Bell Laboratories in 1986. The more robust optical fiber commonly used today utilizes glass for both core and sheath and is therefore less prone to aging processes. It was invented by Gerhard Bernsee in 1973 of Schott Glass in Germany. In 1991, the emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development of photonic-crystal fiber which guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than total internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000. Photonic crystal fibers can be designed to carry higher power than conventional fiber, and their wavelength dependent properties can be manipulated to improve their performance in certain applications.

2.0 Principle Optical fibers

2.1 Index of refraction: The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The actual speed of light in a vacuum is about 300 million meters (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the more slowly light travels in that medium.

2.2 Total internal reflection When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.

2.3 Single-mode fibers

Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes. The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not completely confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding as an evanescent wave. The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 810 micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a small number of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometres. The normalized frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel function J0 (approximately 2.405).

2.4 Multi-mode fibers

Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometric optics. Such fiber is called multi mode fiber, from the electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not co nvey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. A low numerical aperture may therefore be desirable.

3.0 Basic Fiber Optic Transmission System

3.1 The Optical Transmitter The transmitter converts an electrical analog or digital signal into a corresponding optical signal. The source of the optical signal can be either a light emitting diode, a VCSEL, or a solid state laser diode. The most popular wave-lengths of operation for optical transmitters are 850, 1310 or 1550 nanometres. 3.2 The Fiber Optic Cable The cable consists of one or more glass fibers, which act as waveguides for the optical signal (light). Fiber optic cable is similar to electrical cable in its construction, but provides special protection for the optical fiber within. For systems requiring transmission over distances of many kilometres, or where two or more fiber optic cables must be joined together, an optical splice is commonly used. 3.3 The Optical Receiver The receiver converts the optical signal back into a replica of the original electrical signal. The detector of the optical signal is either a PIN-type photodiode or avalanche-type photodiode.

4.0 Appli ations of Fi

Opti s and Future development

4.1 Appli ations of Fi er Opti s 4.1.1 ommuni ations:

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Fi Opti Datali Telephone, long haul, met opolitan. FTTH, FTTH Architectures, FTTH PON Protocols. Internet. CATV. Premises Net orks, LANs, Section on Premises Net orks . CCTV for surveillance. Industrial, building automation. Consumer entertainment. Supporting wireless. Military. Media Conversion: Converting copper or wireless to fiber, etc. Attenuating Power In Overloaded Datalinks .

4.1.2 Non Communi ations Appli ations:

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Sensors. Fiber Optic Lighting (TT). Inspection/ Viewing Using Fiber Optics.

4.2 Future development

4.2.1. Offshore Oil Industry
Fiber optics continues to provide a flexible enabling technology for future subsea oilfield development. Higher demand on oilfield performance and profitability is driving the industry into deeper waters, increasing the complexity of subsea systems. The resulting growth in control systems functionality and update rates is pushing the need for increased communication bandwidth, and the need for more flexible and fault tolerant communication systems using Bus architectures. The search for improved profitability is also driving the development of new and improved subsea and, particularly, down -hole sensors and sensor arrays.

4.2.2. Future Aircraft Efficiency

NASA Evaluates Fiber Optic Technology for Future Aircraft Efficiency is evaluating an advanced, fiber optic-based sensing technology that could aid development of active control of an aircrafts wing shape. Controlling a wing's shape in flight would allow it to take advantage of aerodynamics and improve overall aircraft efficiency. The Fiber Optic Wing Shape Sensor system measures and displays the shape of the aircraft's wings in flight. The system also has potential for improving aircraft safety when the technology is used to monitor the aircraft structure.

Generations of aircraft and spacecraft could benefit from work with the new sensors if the sensors perform in the sky as they have in the laboratory," said Lance Richards, Dryden's Advanced Structures and Measurement group lead. The weight reduction that fiber optic sensors would make possible could reduce operating costs and improve fuel efficiency. The development also opens up new opportunities and applications that woul not be d achievable with conventional technology. For example, the new sensors could enable adaptive wing -shape control. Active wing-shape control represents the gleam in the eye of every aerodynamicist," Richards said. "If the shape of the wing can be changed in flight, then the efficiency and performance of the aircraft can be improved, from takeoff and landing to cruising and maneuvering." Six hair-like fibers located on the top surface of Ikhana's wings provide more than 2,000 strain measurements in real time. With a combined weight of less than two pounds, the fibers are so small that they have no significant effects on aerodynamics. The sensors eventually could be embedded within composite wings in future aircraft. When using the fiber optic sensors, researchers do not require analytical models for determining strain and other measurements on the aircraft because data derived with the sensors include all of the actual measurements being sought. Another safety-related benefit of the lightweight fiber optic sensors is that thousands of sensors can be left on the aircraft during its lifetime, gathering data on structural health and performance. By knowing the stress levels at thousands of locations on the aircraft, designers can more optimally design struc tures and reduce weight while maintaining safety, Richards explained. The net result could be a reduction in fuel costs and an increase in range.

4.2.3 Future of Fi er Optic Communication 4.2.3.1 All-Optical Network:

All-optical network has been a top topic in fiber optic communication industry for over a decade now. Its ultimate goal is to process all signals in the optical domain without any conversion and controlling to electrical domain at all.

4.2.3.2 Multi-Tera it Networks:

DWDM opens the door to multi-terabit transmission. The interest in developing multi-terabit networks is driven by the increasing availability of more bandwidth in fiber optic networks. There are some other major trends in the fiber optic industry too. The most important ones include expansion into mass markets (FTTH, FTTB, FTTC, etc), miniaturi ation, new technology development, cost reductions and even more. 

5.0 Advantages and disadvantage of Fi er Optic Systems

5.1 Advantages of Fi er Optic Systems: 1. The ability to carry much more information and deliver it with greater fidelity than either twisted pair wire or coaxial cable. 2. Fiber optic cable can support much higher data rates,and at greater distances, than coaxial cable, making it ideal for transmission of serial digital data. 3. The fiber is totally immune to virtually all kinds of interference, including lightning, and will not conduct electricity. It can there- fore come in direct contact with high voltage electrical equipment and power lines. It will also not create ground loops of any kind. 4. As the basic fiber is made of glass, it will not corrode and is unaffected by most chemicals. It can be buried directly in most kinds of soil or exposed to most corrosive atmospheres in chemical plants without significant concern. 5. Since the only signal in the fiber is light, there is no possibility of a spark from a broken fiber. Even in the most explosive of atmospheres, there is no fire hazard, and no danger of electrical shock to personnel repairing broken fibers. 6. Fiber optic cables are virtually unaffected by outdoor atmospheric conditions, allowing them to be lashed directly to telephone poles or existing electrical cables without concern for extraneous signal pickup. 7. A fiber optic cable, even one that contains many fibers, is usually much smaller and lighter in weight than a wire or coaxial cable with similar information carrying capacity. It is easier to handle and install, and uses less duct space. (It can frequently be installed without ducts.) 8. Fiber optic cable is ideal for secure communications systems because it is very difficult to tap but very easy to monitor. In addition, there is absolutely no electrical radiation from a fiber.

5.2 The disadvantages of Fi er Optic Systems: 1. Price - Even though the raw material for making optical fibres, sand, is abundant and cheap, optical fibres are still more expensive per metre than copper. 2. Fragility - Optical fibres are more fragile than electrical wires. 3. Affected by chemicals - The glass can be affected by various chemicals including hydrogen gas (a problem in underwater cables.) 4. Opaqueness - Despite extensive military use it is known that most fibres become opaque when exposed to radiation. 5. Requires special skills - Optical fibres cannot be joined together as a easily as copper cable and requires additional training of personnel and expensive precision splicing and measurement equipment.

6.0 Some common fi er ca le types

6.1 Distri ution Ca le: Distribution Cable (compact building cable) packages individual 900m buffered fiber reducing size and cost when compared to breakout cable. The connectors may be installed directly on the 900m buffered fiber at the breakout box location. The space saving (OFNR) rated cable may be installed where ever breakout cable is used. FIS will connectorize directly onto 900m fiber or will build up ends to a 3mm jacketed fiber before the connectors are installed.

6.2 Indoor/Outdoor Tight Buffer: FIS now offers indoor/outdoor rated tight buffer cables in Riser and Plenum rated versions. These cables are flexible, easy to handle and simple to install. Since they do not use gel, the connectors can be terminated directly onto the fiber without difficult to use breakout kits. This provides an easy and overall less expensive installation. (Temperature rating -40C to +85C). 6.3 Indoor/Outdoor Breakout Ca le: FIS indoor/outdoor rated breakout style cables are easy to install and simple to terminate without the need for fanout kits. These rugged and durable cables are OFNR rated so they can be used indoors, while also having a -40c to +85c operating temperature range and the benefits of fungus, water and UV protection making them perfect for outdoor applications. They come standard with 2.5mm sub units and they are available in plenum rated versions. 6.4 Corning Ca le Systems Freedm LST Ca les: Corning Cable Systems cables are OFNR-rated, UVresistant, fully waterblocked indoor/outdoor cables. This innovative DRY cable with water blocking technology eliminates the need for traditional flooding compound, providing more efficient and craft-friendly cable preparation. Available in 62.5m, 50m, Singlemode and hybrid versions.

6.5 Krone Indoor Outdoor Dry Loose Tube Cable : KRONEs innovative line of indoor/outdoor loose tube cables are designed to meet all the rigors of the outside plant environment, and the necessary fire ratings to be installed inside the building. These cables eliminate the gel filler of traditional loose tube style cables with super absorbent polymers.

6.6 Loose Tube Cable: Loose tube cable is designed to endure outside temperatures and high moisture conditions. The fibers are loosely packaged in gel filled buffer tubes to repel water. Recommended for use between buildings that are unprotected from outside elements. Loose tube cable is restricted from inside building use, typically allowing entry not to exceed 50 feet (check your local codes).

7.0 Safety in Fiber Optic

When most people think of safety in fiber optic installations, the first thing that comes to mind is eye damage from laser light in the fiber. They have an image of a laser burning holes in metal or perhaps burning off warts. While these images may be real for their applications, they have little relevance to most types of fiber optic communications. Eye safety is an issue, but usually not from light in the fiber. However, fiber optics installation is not without risks. 7.1 Eye Safety Optical sources used in fiber optics, especially LEDs used in premises networks, are of much lower power levels than used for laser surgery or cutting materials. Even the output of OTDRs, WDM and fiber amplifier systems, which are much higher than LED systems, are still well below that used in laser surgery or machining. The light that exits an optical fiber is also spreading out in a cone, so the farther away from the end of the fiber your eye is, the lower the amount of power your eye receives. If you are using a microscope, which can efficiently focus all the light into your eye, it should have infrared filters to reduce the danger of invisible infrared light. The infrared light in fiber optic links is at a wavelength that cannot penetrate your eye easi y l because it's absorbed by the water in your eyeball. Light in the 1300-1550 nm range is unlikely to damage your retina, but might harm the cornea or lens. A typical laser pointer, which has a beam that is collimated (not expanding), and is at visible wavelength (650 nm) where the eye is transparent, is probably more danger to the retina than a fiber optic link. That being said, it's not a good idea to look into a fiber unless you know no source is being transmitted down it. Since the light is infrared, you can't see it, which means you cannot tell if there is light present by looking at it. You should always check the fiber with a power meter before examining it. The real issue of eye safety is getting fiber scraps into the eye. As part of the termination and splicing process, you will be continually exposed to small scraps of bare fiber, cleaved off the ends of the fibers being terminated or spliced. These scraps are very dangerous. If they get into your eyes, they are very hard to flush out and will probably lead to a trip to the emergency room at the hospital. Whenever you are working with fiber, wear safety glasses.

7.2 Bare Fiber Safety The broken ends of fibers and scraps of fiber created during termination and splicing can be extremely dangerous. The ends are extremely sharp and can easily penetrate your skin. They invariably break off and are very hard to find and remove. Sometimes a pair of tweezers and perhaps a magnifying glass will get them out. Most of the time, you have to wait to let them infect and work themselves out, which can be painful! Be careful when handling fibers to not stick the broken ends into your fingers. Dispose of all scraps properly. Some people keep a piece of double stick tape on the bench to stick fiber scraps onto. I prefer to use a dedicated container for all fiber scraps. In our training programs, we use the same paper containers used for takeout at the deli, in the pint size, with a lid. We put all the scraps in the container, then when finished, put on the lid, tape it and dispose of it later. Do not drop fiber scraps on the floor where they will stick in carpets or shoes and be carried elsewhere-like home! Obviously do not eat or drink anywhere near the work area. Fiber scraps can get into food or drink and be swallowed. The scraps can imbed themselves in you digestive system and never be found. 7.3 Materials Safety Fiber optic splicing and termination use various chemical cleaners and adhesives as part of the processes. Normal handling procedures for these substances should be observed. If you are not certain of how to deal with them, ask the manufacturer for a MSDS. Always work in well-ventilated areas. Avoid skin contact as much as possible, and stop using chemicals that cause allergic reactions. Even simple isopropyl alcohol, used as a cleaner, is flammable and should be handled carefully. 7.4 Fire Safety Note that fusion splicers use an electric arc to make splices, so care must be taken to insure no flammable gasses are contained in the space where fusion splicing is done. Splicing is never done in manholes where gasses can accumulate. The cables are brought up to the surface into a splicing trailer where all fiber work is done. Of course the splicing trailer is temperature-controlled and kept spotlessly clean to insure good splicing. Smoking should also not be allowed around fiber optic work. The ashes from smoking contribute to the dirt problems with fibers, in addition to the chance of explosions due to the presence of combustible substances. 7.5 Electrical Safety You might be wondering what electrical safety has to do with fiber optics. Well fiber cables are often installed around electrical cables. Electricians are well-trained in electrical safety, but some fiber optic installers are not. We've heard rumors of fiber installers being shocked when working around electrical cables, but know that two fiber installers were killed when working on aerial cables because we heard about it from OSHA. 7.6 Fiber Optic Installation Safety Rules:
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Keep all food and beverages out of the work area. If fiber particles are ingested they can cause internal hemorrhaging Wear disposable aprons to minimize fiber particles on your clothing. Fiber particles on your clothing can later get into food, drinks, and/or be ingested by other means.

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Always wear safety glasses with side shields and protective gloves. Treat fiber optic splinters the sarne as you would glass splinters. Never look directly into the end of fiber cables until you are positive that there is no light source at the other end. Use a fiber optic power meter to make certain the fiber is dark. When using an optical tracer or continuity checker, look at the fiber from an angle at least 6 inches away from your eye to determine if the visible light is present.. Only work in well ventilated areas. Contact wearers must not handle their lenses until they have thoroughly washed their hands. Do not touch your eyes while working with fiber optic systems until they have been thoroughly washed. Keep all combustible materials safely away from the curing ovens. Put all cut fiber pieces in a safe place. Thoroughly clean your work area when you are done. Do not smoke while working with fiber optic systems.

7.7 Safety notes

7.7. 1. Most Frequent Industry Recognized Safety Violations a. Improper drop bonding with power b. Poor workmanship c. Incomplete construction 7.7. 2. Project Site Safety a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. Material storage Parking Break areas Bathroom/cleanup facilities First aid equipment availability Work areas Power hazards Stray voltage possibilities Ladders Working in public access areas

7.7. 3. Outside Plant Safety a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. Traffic/defensive driving Traffic control plan with permits where needed Power hazards Clearance issues when working and driving Off-road access issues Weather hazards Unsafe work areas (Including people) State mandated regulations (General Orders) Aerial construction issues Underground construction issues (800-USA DIG) Aerial lifts Ladders Working in public access areas

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8.0 Conclusion:
Nowadays most of the factories uses fiber optics in their workshops and products to improve their works because it will reduce their costs and improve their. Also, Fiber optics is a developed knowledge and its.

9.0 References:
a)

Gambling, W. A., "The Rise and Rise of Optical Fibers", IEEE Journal on Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 1084-1093, Nov./Dec. 2000. Hecht, Jeff, Understanding Fiber Optics, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA 2002 (ISBN 0-13-027828-9). Mirabito, Michael M.A; and Morgenstern, Barbara L., The New Communications Technologies: Applications, Policy, and Impact, 5th. Edition. Focal Press, 2004. (ISBN 024-080586-0). Nagel S. R., MacChesney J. B., Walker K. L., "An Overview of the Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD) Process and Performance", IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, Vol. QE-18, No. 4, p. 459, April 1982. Ramaswami, R., Sivarajan, K. N., Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, 1998 (ISBN 1-55860-445-6). Under Water Magazine, Summer 1999, PetroComs Fiber Web Bringing Broadband Communication to Offshore. Fiber Optic Connectors, An enabling Technology for High Noise Subsea Environments: Shadi Awwad, Offshore Technology Conference paper no 12150, Houston, May 2000. Optical Fiber Sensors, VOL 1-4, B Culshaw & J Dakin, ARTECH HOUSE BOOKS, 1996 Mechanical Behavior of Optical Fibers Removed From a Field Aged Cable, Jeffrey L Smith, Anurag Dwivedi & Patrick T Garvey, Corning Incorporated, Corning, NY 14831 Web sites:
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www.nasa.gov www.thefoa.org www.fabila.com www.arcelect.com www.streetdirectory.com www.ziddu.com Images.google.com

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