FARMERS, NOT GARDENERS:

URBAN & PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE IN LA,ACCRA

By the La Group 2011: Rosalind Bacon, Florent Charrasse, Katie Francis, Jessica Gulhane, Nazli Ece Isbasaran, Rozina Kanchwala, Daljeet Kaur, Rodrigo Matabuena, Weiwei Sun.

Contents
Abbreviations Acknowledgements Executive Summary List of Diagrams, Maps &Tables 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background 2.0 Theoretical Framework 2.1 Definition of SUPA 3.0 Research Questions & Hypotheses 4.0 Research Methodologies 4.1 Limitations 5.0 Results & Analysis 5.1 Land & Planning 5.2 Value Chain 5.3 Collective Action 6.0 Strategies 6.1 Land & Planning 6.2 Value Chain 6.3 Collective Action 6.4 A Place for UPA in the Millenium City 7.0 Monitoring & Evaluating 7.1 Land & Planning 7.2 Value Chain 7.3 Collective Action 7.4 A Place for UPA in the Millenium City 8.0 Conclusions 8.1 Conclusions & Lessons Learnt 8.2 Further Research Bibliography Appendices 3 5 6 7 9 9 13 14 17 20 21 23 23 29 32 37 37 39 43 46 48 48 49 49 51 53 53 54 56

Abbreviations
AMA AWGUPA CA CICOL DPU EDDT EPA FA FAO FEDUP FDI FS GAMA GHAFEDUP GIDA GIS GPS LC LAP LIS IFPRI IWMI MDG MoFA MPC NDPC NGO NLP PD PE RUAF SAPs SD SDI Accra Metropolitan Assembly Accra Working Group on Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture Collective Action The Civil Society Coalition on Land Development Planning Unit East Dadekopoton Development Trust Environmental Protection Agency Farmers Association Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Federation of the Urban Poor Foreign Direct Investment Food Sovereignty Greater Accra Metropolitan Area Ghana Federation of the Urban Poor Ghana Irrigation Development Authority Geographic Information Systems Geographical Positioning System Land Commission Land Administration Project Land Information Systems International Food Policy Research Institute International Water Management Institute Millennium Development Goals Ministry of Food and Agriculture Municipal Planning Committee National Development Planning Commission Non Governmental Organisation National Land Policy Peoples Dialogue Political Ecology Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture & Food Security Structural Adjustment Programmes Survey Department Shack and Slum Dwellers International

SUPA TCP ToR UA UCL UoG UPA

Sustainable Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture Town and Country Planning Terms of Reference Urban Agriculture University College London University of Ghana Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture

Acknowledgements
This study would not have been possible without the continued support and involvement from the farmers of La, especially Emmanuel Mensah, Enoch Mensah and Elizabeth Mensah. Thank you all. We thank Ashie Neequaye, from MoFA, for his outstanding facilitation and translation throughout our research. We acknowledge and thank all those people and organisations that contributed to this research, including the representatives of the various stakeholders who engaged,

discussed and provided valuable insight into the intricacies of UPA in Accra. Thanks also go to Adriana Allen our supervisor, for her inspiration and continued support. Further thanks extend to our Development Planning Unit (DPU) staff notably Alexandre Apsan Frediani, Etienne Von Bertrab and Pascale Hofmann. Finally gratitude and appreciation goes to members of the 2010 La study group who were extremely generous with their time and advice, allowing us to continue their research.

Executive Summary
Accra, the capital of Ghana, has undergone rapid and significant changes in the past few decades. Powerful economic and political forces, including liberalisation reforms, remittances from abroad and the recent discovery of oil, have caused the real estate sector to boom, placing a high demand on agricultural land for other uses. Another recent factor influencing Accra is its declaration as a Millennium City by the Earth Institute at Columbia University in an effort to help it achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Despite the existence of an MDG with a focus on environmental sustainability, the initiative stipulates that Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture (UPA) will be pushed to the periphery of the city. All of these factors are leading to the gradual phasing out of urban agricultural sites in Accra. Along with these current driving forces, land in Accra has been contested for generations. The various customary land owning systems, the lack of updated urban and spatial planning and poor coordination between planning departments has resulted in a situation where market forces have overtaken the land-use planning agenda in favour of real estate development over agriculture. This report provides an understanding and insight into the processes behind the reduction of land for UPA and the reasons why this has occurred, using La, located in Eastern Accra, as a case study. La has been subject to a diverse and complex process of

rapid urban development over the last decade, which is reducing available land for agriculture. This process is likely to be irreversible and result in the complete disappearance of agricultural land in the near future. La serves as an entry point to understanding issues dealing with land, planning, Value Chain and collective action (CA) related to UPA and those involved in the practice. In addition, both long and short term strategies are proposed in order to address the challenges described above. Some strategies may be applied to farmers and city authorities specific to La, but the overriding aim of the strategies is to prevent the situation of La from occurring in other UPA sites across Accra and to encourage UPA to be a viable and prominent feature of the Millennium City, other cities in Ghana and worldwide. Since UPA is highly valuable for a citys sustainability, generating economic livelihoods and environmental goals, it must remain a priority for planners and developers who must engage and hear the voices of usually marginalised farmers and members of the value chain. It is our hope that this report highlights the necessity and urgency of advocating for UPA in Accra and globally.

List of Diagrams, Maps &Tables

Map 1: Geographical situation...................................................................................................11 Map 2: EDDT Master Plan for La ..............................................................................................11 Table 1: Six Pillars of Food Sovereignty....................................................................................13 Diagram 1: Criteria for evaluating SUPA ...................................................................................15 Table 2: Methods ......................................................................................................................20 Diagram 2: Land Ownership......................................................................................................24 Map 3: Change in urban development since 2010 ....................................................................25 Map 4: Decrease in agricultural land since 2010 .......................................................................25 Map 5: Four drivers of change ..................................................................................................26 Map 6: Land ownership and comparative land value.................................................................26 Map 7: Gender distribution of farmers .......................................................................................28 Map 8: Level of vulnerability and gender distribution.................................................................28 Diagram 3: Value Chain Flows..................................................................................................30 Diagram 4: Value Chain analysis, La ........................................................................................30 Diagram 5: Value Chain analysis, using the example of Okra ...................................................31 Table 3: Current and future scope for collective action in La .....................................................32 Table 4: How to set up as a MoFA cooperative .........................................................................33

1.0
INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction
Accra is being influenced and shaped by global market forces that are slowly pushing out UPA. Many agricultural sites are under constant threat of disappearing, often due to rapid development. Decision-making and planning processes that have allowed these sites to be zoned for development have excluded the voices of farmers, who are either being forced to work on marginalised lands, or abandon farming altogether. This report summarises the research undertaken by students in 2011 using land in La, located in Eastern Accra (See Map 1), as a case study to understand: The conditions/threats and actual/potential benefits from UPA as perceived by various stakeholders The main improvements in the development of UPA in La and the lessons learnt from it What strategic interventions could be recommended to promote sustainable UPA (SUPA) in La and more widely, in other urban areas

Map 1: Geographical situation of La

1.1 Background
Global economic trends, such as liberalisation policies, the modernisation of agricultural practices, and the recent Millennium Cities Initiative can partly explain why in places such as Accra, UPA is being phased out. Liberalisation policies, which opened the door for the increased presence of foreign companies in Ghana, have largely shaped the way in which Accra has grown and developed. In many cases, this has had a negative impact, in the form of increasing poverty and inequality through a widening gap of resource distribution. This has had a knock-on effect on food security for those becoming relatively poorer. A survey conducted by the Ghana Living Standards Survey indicated that household poverty

The research was conducted in La to better understand the issues related to land, planning, value-chain and Collective Action (CA) that go beyond the site. Thus, the strategies that are put forth apply to farmers and city authorities in La, in addition to other agricultural sites of Accra and cities in Ghana and globally.

had increased during the period of liberalisation in the late 1980s to early 1990s (Grant & Yankson 2003). The Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) of the liberalisation period had a large impact on the housing market in Accra that continues to today. This has led to a financially powerful and growing expatriate community, as well as an emerging middle class, which has intensified pressure on housing and land for UPA. Foreign currency transactions and remittances have led to new gated community housing developments for resident and non-resident Ghanaians. These trends have led to the continual decrease in rights to the city for certain groups of society. In addition to liberalisation policies, the Green Revolution thinking advocated for the movement towards modern agricultural practices globally, which are high-tech, large-scale, chemically heavy, energy intensive, largely unsustainable, and often on the periphery of cities. They are being promoted by many Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and governments who follow Green Revolution thinking and believe that only this type of agriculture can meet increasing food demands. Alongside the declaration of Accra as a Millennium City in 2010 came a large push for citywide economic growth. The Millennium Cities project is a vision of the UN and the Earth Institute at Columbia University and is meant to assist cities in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Earth Institute, Millennium Cities Initiative). However, in this vision there is no provision for UPA within formal plans or strategies.

Global trends have intensified land-use pressures and contributed to poverty. However, certain factors within Ghana are also to blame. Nationally, there is weak land-use and spatial urban planning. This is partly due to the fact that only 20% of land is controlled by the government and the rest by customary land owners. This has led to market forces becoming increasingly prominent in determining land-use as traditional authorities have sought to sell the land to these market forces in exchange for high economic returns. La, once the largest and most prosperous urban agriculture site within the Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) (DPU Terms of Reference 2011) demonstrates these trends. Here, forces have ultimately been phasing out any scope for UPA and have instead focused on increasing profitability of the land through real-estate developments, especially over the past decade. Within La, ownership and land-use are the primary concerns of securing agriculture. Within and among the complex customary and statutory land systems, there exist contentions over land ownership and landuse. The East Dadekotopon Trust (EDDT) was created to settle the disputes between the land owning families in La (See Map 2). However, land development and planning disputes remain poorly managed as the EDDT and other individual families focused on increasing market profitability.

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Based on previous years research, a number of impacts caused by developments encroaching on land that has traditionally been used for agriculture in La were noted: The number of farmers has decreased Urban agriculture and farmers have been pushed to marginalised lands Women are often affected more in the process of moving to marginalised lands because of the labour required in the process The uncertainty of land-use has led to younger generations not partaking in farming resulting in farmers hiring migrant labourers The uncertainty of the land situation also leaves almost no scope for sustainable farming practices as farmers are concerned only with whether they will have access to the land to continue farming The Farmers Association (FA) which exists in La has been weakened in recent years due to the reduced number of farmers because of the developments occurring The land under cultivation in La has drastically decreased and as result, the number of farmers has also reduced The phasing out of UPA not only impacts a large number of peoples livelihoods, but also reduces the likelihood that Accra can

be a self-sufficient, resilient or sustainable city that ensures food sovereignty for its people.

Map 2: EDDT Master Plan for La

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2.0 2.0

CONCEPTUAL THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

FRAMEWORK

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2.0 Theoretical Framework

The combined frameworks of food sovereignty and Political Ecology (PE) will be used as the lens through which to frame the research. Food sovereignty defends the right for people, communities and countries to determine context-appropriate agricultural policies and systems and produce local food for domestic consumption, thus reducing dependence on cheap food imports or foreign aid. It fights against large-scale, industrialised corporate agriculture that focuses on specialised production, trade liberalisation and land concentration. Six Pillars of Food Sovereignty

PE recognises that this is not independent of political, social, economic, historical, cultural and environmental forces, and addresses the power relations between and among actors at work in the food system.PE focuses in particular on the extensive dispossession of small producers and global ecological degradation. (Robbins, 2004; Escobar, 1995) Together, these frameworks are used to examine the political and social power relations that govern the right to the city and the socioeconomic opportunities for, and obstacles limiting UPA. The combined frameworks have adapted the six pillars of food sovereignty as developed by Nylni (2007).

Table 1: Six Pillars of Food Sovereignty

Food for Everyone - The right to access sufficient, affordable, healthy and culturally appropriate food from accessible markets. Values Food Providers - Supports the right for all to grow, process and sell food with access to land, resources, inputs and infrastructure that is safe, of adequate quantity and accessibly located location. Localises Food Systems - Places local providers and consumers closer together and at the centre of decision-making, reducing dependency on large and unaccountable corporations, financial institutions and governments. Puts Control Locally over land, water, resources and inputs to ensure they are used in socially and environmentally sustainable ways and rejects the privatisation of natural resources. Builds Knowledge and Skills that conserve, develop and manage localised food production systems, passing these on to future generations Works with Nature with food production aiming to be low-input, efficient, diverse and closed-cycle, using methods that complement ecosystem function to increase resilience and lead to long-term productivity and enhanced ecological conditions.

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2.1 Definition of SUPA

The above framework of food sovereignty and political ecology allows us to create a definition of sustainable urban and periurban agriculture (SUPA). SUPA is based on the right for local people to provide and consume nutritious, safe, affordable and real-value food, enabled through access to and control over secure, safe, productive, accessible, affordable and local land, inputs, infrastructure and markets. Traditional local knowledge that works with the natural biological system should be utilised, to ensure a closed-loop system, enhancement of the natural environment and long-term productivity for current and future generations. This should be recognised at all levels of governance and planning, and within both statutory and customary legal systems, giving power to local (specifically marginalised) providers and consumers to meaningfully participate in and influence the decision making processes. These conditions should provide a secure and profitable livelihood for local providers and consumers, in particular empowering marginalised groups such as women and the poor.

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Criteria for evaluating SUPA:

Diagram 1: Criteria for evaluating SUPA

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3.0 4.0
RESEARCH RESEARCH QUESTIONS & QUESTIONS & HYPOTHESES HYPOTHESES
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3.0 Research Questions & Hypotheses

Question 1
Since 2010, to what extent has the agricultural land physically changed and what are the processes behind these?
How do the administrative and planning processes influence land use changes? How do the different power relations impact on land development conflicts?

Hypothesis 1
Agricultural land in La has reduced even further from last year. As a result the number of farmers in La has reduced, with some being forced to farm on more marginalised land. Some farmers, particularly women, are being forced to look for alternative livelihoods This is due to: The lack of profitability of land for farming compared to real estate developments. The EDDTs inconsistencies between their Master Plan, which does not recognise UPA, and their stated goals for UPA. Certain stakeholders having little power or influence to change the situation The weakness of the FA.

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Question 2
What are the potentials/constraints throughout the value chain that prevent or promote the stability of urban agriculture as a livelihood and profitable economic activity?

Hypothesis 2
Farmers have restricted power/knowledge/control over the majority of the value chain, in particular the latter stages (transportation and marketing), partially due to lack of accounting. There are few incentives to collaborate with different actors in the value chain due to the current socio-political situation. Due to shifting and diminishing agricultural land, the inputs required by farmers are becoming increasingly costly, reducing their profit margin.

Question 3
What scope is there for collective action among providers to influence decision-making/planning processes, improve access to resources and build resilience to withstand shocks?

Hypothesis 3:
Collective action (CA) between farmers has weakened over the past year and with reduced power in the decision-making sphere. This is due to A lack of recognition. The creation of the splinter group from Klandjii-Argon. Younger generations seeking alternative livelihoods beyond farming. Few incentives to act collectively. A general reduction in the number of farmers. There are informal, social networks of CA between farmers, but they do not operate at a scale large enough, and/or efficiently enough to influence change or to improve the situation for farmers. People act individually, because in the context of uncertainty, they dont perceive any incentives/benefits to act collectively.

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4.0 3.0
METHODOLOGY METHODOLOGY & & LIMITATIONS LIMITATIONS

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4.0 Research Methodologies

The research comprises of three distinct stages of data collection and processing over 5 months. The initial stage involved a literature review of academic papers, International Water

Management Institute (IWMI) and Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture & Food Security (RUAF) reports, internet research on Ghana and previous years research. This was complemented by academic lectures on the context of the study area. See table 2 for methods used and appendices for specific interview questions. Table 2: Methods

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4.1 Limitations
Some general constraints may be identified such as time restrictions, language barriers and weather challenges. Additionally, the large physical area of the site meant the group had to stick closely to a detailed daily fieldwork plan. The poor spatial proximity of farmers across La made it challenging to ensure every strategy was tested with all the farmers. The GPS mapping and transect walk used provided an accurate account of urban development and current farming areas. However, difficulties arose in comparing this years data collection to last years due to different sources and devices used. The maps used for participatory mapping, were not at a large enough scale for farmers to accurately plot their sites. Furthermore, as participatory mapping relies on subjective knowledge it might not be fully representative as some farmers were more outspoken, whilst some could not express themselves spatially in terms of maps. Language barriers and accurate understanding between researchers and subjects also affected our data collection as some details were misinterpreted on both sides of the research.

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5.0
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

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5.1 Land & Planning

Research Question 1: Since 2010, to what extent has the agricultural land physically changed? How do the administrative and planning processes influence land use changes? How do the different power relations impact on land development conflicts?

Diagram 2: Land ownership structure in La

Current agricultural land in La is rapidly disappearing. This is caused by several factors one of which is the complex land ownership system. Diagram 1 outlines the land-ownership structure, which is divided between customary and statutory ownership1. Research conducted across multiple levels of stakeholders and

organisations indicates that power and control over land ownership and use within La and across Ghana is predominantly concentrated within Customary land ownership, beyond the enforcement mechanisms and control of the Town and Country Planning (TCP). Development often occurs before planning in Accra due several factors: poor communication between different departments such as the Survey Department (SD), Lands Commission (LC) and TCP, out-dated land-use planning and development systems and a weak land monitoring and enforcement system. Preservation of passive green spaces for UPA is not a priority at the political and public policy

It is estimated that approximately 80% of the land across Ghana is under Customary ownership and control, with the remaining 20% of land classified as Statutory land. The Statutory land was once Customary owned land and was acquired by the Government during the latter half of the past century during the era of Independence (Abiyeva et al 2010)

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level, or at local levels of planning and development, due to a focus on economic gains from increased international investments induced by globalisation. Powerful private

landowners and institutions advocate for a modern Accra and a development path where the financial profitability of urbanisation is valued more than UPA. 2. Urban development in La has increased from 2.6 km2 to 4.95 km2 i.e. around a 47% increase of urban growth. (See Map 1). 3. Agricultural land at present is 2.29 km2 which has reduced by approximately 55% (See Map 2) 4. There has been a divide in the La area, with Northern areas (Kpeletso and the northern part of Obediben) becoming a new district requiring a different MoFA extension officer

Changes in Land Since 2010

Key findings of land use changes since 2010: 1. 43% of the study area has been developed for residential purposes and the rest is planned for further development.

Map 3: Change in Urban Development since 2010

Map 4: Decrease in Agricultural Land since 2010

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The Four Drivers of Land-Use Change

Urban development in La is found to be occurring at various scales and rates, with diverse purposes and common economic motives unifying the drivers behind land use changes.

The four main drivers of this are identified (see Map 5) as: Military land (Burma Camp) International/National large-scale developers The EDDT Individual families These forces are resulting in different values for land (see Map 6).

Map 5: Four Drivers of Change

Map 6: Land Ownership and Comparative Land Values

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These drivers are urbanising green spaces, minimising land available for UPA and therefore reducing farmers capacity to maintain their livelihoods2. 1) The Military and the EDDT have increased accessibility to the land through the development of road infrastructure. From meeting with the EDDT, it is clear that a Green Belt does not exist. Despite some land to the Western SowateyNmonaa cluster area left reserved for open green space, this can be changed with ease due to weak enforcement and bureaucratic processes surrounding re-zoning procedures. 2) International developer Finali Ltd secured land in 2008 in Kpeletso, building on over 400 acres of land a large-scale luxury housing compound, Airport Hills, and significantly reducing agricultural land previously there. Last years report indicated that areas in the north were more secure for farming; however research this year indicated that this is not likely anymore due to these planned developments. 3) The EDDTs plan for a mini-gated housing community for approximately 180,000 people is currently being developed through discussions with the TCP and an

international developer. Financial backing remains unsecured but the EDDT are in dialogue with Chinese developers. 4) Although individual families are not the legal owners of the land plots, they engage in unauthorised transactions because they often have settled there for generations. Individual families exert their power through legal loopholes and cultural agreements. Both the eviction and urbanisation processes are mutually re-enforced as farmers are resigned to the powerful forces controlling land. 2011 research has also revealed that a number of farmers are being used opportunistically by developers and individual families to be caretakers of the plots, working the land until it is developed. For example, many farmers in the south (Mongonno and Sowatey Nmonaa) are taking up construction jobs as a source of alternative income. Gender divides are clearly shown through the participatory mapping exercises (see map 5). Men have moved from Sowatey Nmonaa, Mongonno and Tseado to the North (Kpeletso and Obediben). Unlike men, women cannot relocate easily, as input acquisition and land preparation is too physically demanding for women in marginal areas. Women have moved instead from Tseado and Mongonno to Kordojor and Sowatey Nmonaa, nearer to water streams not too far from where they live. These areas are more vulnerable to faster urban development (see Map 8). Single

Manipulation of farming resources through processes such as road building and sand winning (the removal of topsoil by developers for sand cement makes land infertile) which predominantly takes place in the Northern areas of La

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female farmers were found to be the most vulnerable, due to their lack of support from husbands for when they are selling and moving to more

marginalised lands. Additionally, female farmers also stressed that seeking alternative livelihoods was not a viable option.

Map 7: Gender distribution of farmers

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Map 8: Level of vulnerability & gender distribution

Administration Findings
Land Administration Project (LAP) was initiated by the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources to tackle the problems in the functioning of land administration and planning, such as those described above. In phase 1 of the project, a digitalised database was proposed to be established to join information regarding land tenure. As it is entering phase 2 of its implementation, a digital system to combine maps and spatial data is in progress in order to ease access to spatial information service.

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5.2 Value Chain

Research Question 2: What are the potentials/constraints throughout the value chain that prevent or promote the stability of urban agriculture as a livelihood and profitable economic activity?
and sales of agricultural products. This approach is taken in order to enhance farmers capacities to increase livelihoods and negotiating power.

An analysis of Value Chain of urban agriculture provides a good understanding of the power relations and repartition of earnings and benefits among actors participating in the production, distribution

Understanding the Value Chain: The Case of La

An analysis of the Value Chain provides a good understanding of the power relations and allocation of earnings and profits among actors participating in the production, distribution and sales of agricultural products. Value Chain analysis looks at the complex range of activities implemented by various actors (linking input suppliers to market sellers) to bring agricultural products to the final consumer. Agricultural products flow down the Value Chain and money flows up. Each actor performs specific functions incurring expenses and gaining income, thereby adding value to the product (See Diagram 3)

In the case of La, the linkages between farmers (producers) and consumers are shortened due to the location of agricultural land requiring shorter transportation distances and also because products are not processed or packaged and middle men are not necessary for taking produce to markets (Diagram 4).

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Diagram 3: Value Chain Flows

Source: RUAF, 2009

Diagram 4: Value Chain analysis, La

II
FARMERS

III
MARKET SELLERS FINAL CONSUMERS

RETAILERS

Can advance to the farmers for covering the expense of inputs

Situation 1: Farmers sell agricultural produce to retailers, which take care of the transport and provide different markets sellers within Accra Metropolitan Area (Most common situation). Situation 2: Farmers sell directly to markets sellers (e.g., markets Queen). Situation 3: Farmers sell products directly on the farm to final consumers (Less common situation).

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Selling Okra is used in Diagram 5 to illustrate the unequal distribution of costs and profits.

Diagram 5: Value Chain analysis, using the example of Okra

dependence on MNCs and ultimately reinforces the inherent power structures
FARMERS RETAILERS MARKET SELLERS FINAL CONSUMERS

Selling of: 7 Okra pesewas

Selling price: 20 pesewas Production costs (inputs + labour): 80% Profit Margin: 20% - 4 pesewas

Buying price: 20 pesewas Selling price: 28 pesewas Margin: 28% - 8 pesewas

Buying price: 28 pesewas Selling price: 35 pesewas Margin: 20% - 7 pesewas

Buying price 7 Okra: 35 pesewas

The value chain example demonstrates that farmers are marginalised in the value-chain process along with other actors, including retailers and market sellers, as their profit margins are similar. In particular, farmers are less likely to move through the valuechain and boost their profit margins because of the increasing risks and financial requirements this entails (particularly with the struggles over land tenure and lack of institutional support). Power, therefore, lies with other actors such as MNCs who provide farmers with chemical fertilisers, pesticides and hybrid seeds, as well as MoFA who provides temporary financial subsidies. This process leads to a

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5.3 Collective Action

Research Question 3: What scope is there for collective action among providers to influence decision-making/planning processes, improve access to resources and build resilience to withstand shocks? Many studies have recognised both the long and short-term benefits of acting collectively to solve a particular outcome, as opposed to rational choice models which believe people only act individually for short-term gains (Ostrom, 2004). Empowerment is often described as one of the major benefits of CA, in addition to collective identity and emotional support (De Volo, 2006). CA could therefore be seen as an effective way for farmers to overcome the unequal power relations present in Accra and to mobilise to reach a collective goal of fighting for UPA to remain in the city. There are a number of factors which act in the La farmers favour in terms of their capacity to act collectively, such as those described in Table 3.

Examples of current CA Sharing water pumps if they are near water Sharing land with friends when they are evicted Sharing vehicles to take their products to market

Scope for CA Easily identifiable group Differentiated from other social groups Strong informal social networks Similar ideology Same cultural identity- all Ga Strong CA through the La FA in the past

Table 3: Current and future scope for collective action in La

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However, through focus groups and interviews, and the triangulation of data, it was noted that while farmers in La do act collectively in a number of ways, the current strength of and scope for social mobilisation and collective action is weak. There are currently two main factors challenging the capacity for strong social mobilisation in La, and Accra reinforcing unequal power dynamics. 1) External conditions leading to a lack of institutional recognition of informal social networks through the La FA and invisibility of the farmers and UPA 2) Internal conditions leading to a lack of organised collective action among the farmers themselves. 1) Farmers are invisible and unrecognised by institutional bodies MoFA

cooperatives. This involves a number of strict steps and guidelines (see Table 4) which once followed mean MoFA will support farmers in a greater capacity. MoFA provides a number of incentives for groups to set up like this, including subsidised machinery for processing sold to farmer groups.

Table 4: How to set up as a MoFA cooperative

1) Register with either the cooperative department, MOFA or registrar department Meet regularly and keep records Open an operational bank account Have a group project apart from just a Value Chain enterprise Pay dues which the group decides on Create a constitution to guide them; written by the famers

2)

3)

4) Every FA in Accra has a MoFA extension officer, which is an incredibly valuable link between farmers and institutions. However, MoFA does not have the capacity to hear the farmers concerns; as it only meets annually to hear critical issues from the extension officers. MoFA also seem to be resigned to the fact that farmers will have to seek alternative livelihoods, suggested by their livelihood unit, especially for women. MoFA does not seem willing to help farmers raise their voice around land issues, and are not able to protect the small-scale famers falling through the gaps when moving into large scale agriculture. In addition, MoFA is currently insisting that farming groups set themselves up as 5)

6)

However when discussing the benefit of cooperatives with the La Farmers in focus groups and interviews , not only were they unaware that they needed to organise themselves like this but they also stipulated that the requirements were not appropriate for them in terms of time and resources. Additionally the incentives were not enough

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or indeed appropriate when the farmers priority is to secure land, not allowing the farmers to set themselves up like this since there exists a constant threat of eviction. Indeed, in an interview with a MoFA representative, it was clear that the creation of cooperatives was a way to make the job of MoFA employees easier and in order to increase time and resource efficiency. Despite these difficulties with farmers in the South district, farmers in the new northern district have said they will be setting up a cooperative there. EDDT

`Unit Committees

The new decentralised government was set up to be more participatory, involving local people in decision making. However in an interview with the La Sub-Metro it was established that there is neither the capacity to deal with land issues faced by La Farmers, nor the ability to help them become more involved in decision-making, due to time, resources and a lack of power. 2) The current power of collective action is weak In addition to a lack of institutional recognition, the current power of the La FA is being eroded by structural conditions lessening the power of farmers to create change and fully and meaningfully participate in decision making to fight encroachments, debate relocations and secure tenure. The power of the La FA is weak for a number of reasons: A general reduction in the number of farmers due to a reduction in agricultural land and some farmers leaving farming for economic gains No chairman/ strong leader No clear goal of the FA other than to fight evictions and push for a greenbelt which some farmers dont think will happen and therefore dont see the benefit of membership Farmers feel powerless after hitting countless barriers in traditional structures and authorities such as those described above

Despite being from the same stool, as discussed above the EDDT is selling agricultural land because housing is more lucrative. In an interview with members of the EDDT they did not recognise the right for individuals to farm on the land as in their eyes farmers do not own the land or pay anything for it either. Chief and Council of Elders

During a meeting with the Chief and the Council of Elders, it was established that they also render the farmers invisible due to their consideration that it is gardening not farming (a hobby, not a livelihood) and again a want to sell the land for more profitable gains. They also felt that in line with modern ideals, agriculture should be more mechanised and large-scale, following that from the Green Revolution, and did not value the products that the La farmers were producing, or indeed really know what they produce.

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A lack of trust as some farmers have done economic deals for compensation The new divide in the La region means some farmers in the old La FA are joining a new cooperative being set up in Airport Hills A perceived high risk within farmers to act collectively and create a savings group Not meeting regularly (many farmers noted that the La FA met every Tuesday when in fact the last time they had met was 2 years ago) The diversity of agents proving to be very divisive and addressing farmers individually and making it seem to be better off to do individual negotiation While the fact that all the farmers are Ga does hold them in good stead for CA, it also means they are only fighting for their right to farm the land that they believe is theirs, rather than recognising the other benefits of them being there, or UPA in general As agricultural land becomes less and less concentrated, the capacity to facilitate contact for collective

action also reduces. By being locked in to their own plots farmers have a much lower possibility of reaching out The La 2010 report discovered the formation of a splinter group in Klandjil-Argon, apparently divided from the La FA due to individual motivations to secure compensation rather than collective group resistance to fight for the right to farm. No information could be found on the group this year however, indicating perhaps that these farmers have received compensation and/or ceased farming.

Furthermore there are very weak social networks between La farmers and other farming groups across Accra meaning there are a number of groups working in isolation from each other with little power to make their voices heard. As a result of all of the above factors, the right to farm in the city is being further eroded and the function of growing food threatened.

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6.0 6.0
STRATEGIES AND STRATEGIES MONITORING INDICATORS

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6.0 Strategies
The following section provides strategies for La, Accra and worldwide. Each section includes why the strategy is important, the motivations behind them, who the actors involved are and what steps are necessary for implementation. They should be seen as complementary; incorporating elements from each in the other.

6.1 Land & Planning

The objective of the following strategies is to secure passive open spaces through building on the existing structures in Accra. The focus is not only on the matters concerning La, but on issues shared citywide.

Strategy 1a: Establish a single system, which unifies the existing LAP, LIS & GIS digital systems and overlaps them with -Current and potential passive open spaces -Farmers maps of land use and movements across lands Timeline: 3 years WHY WHO To provide a single reliable access point with TCP all the required information to restrict urban development and encroachment on urban IWMI agricultural lands GHAFEDUP Farmers LC SD HOW TCP to produce GIS maps of open passive spaces and UPA lands in line with LAP. Technical advice to be provided by IWMI Farmers to engage in city-wide enumerations of open passive spaces with the help of IWMI and GHAFEDUPs technical expertise Create platform for land buyers and sellers to transparently discuss land sales

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Strategy 1b: Rethink and refine specific urban planning mechanisms to protect and preserve passive open spaces for UPA Timeline: 2 years

WHY Conditions for the refining of requirements for urban development should be provided, as Land Act 2008 is passed and the Land Bill and Land Use Bill are in the process of revision & consolidation. Thus there is a room for specific land use laws for open passive spaces to be incorporated within relevant bills A dialogue and consensus between the various institutions involved in the land planning process needs to be established to strengthen and streamline the prepared land-use laws EPA

WHO

HOW

1) Team of consulting lawyers (already mentioned in LAP for Phase 2) TCP examining the laws protecting green spaces within urban development in Customary Authorities developed and developing countries e.g. EDDT or Individual Families 2) Through employing the participatory aspect of LAP, creation A team of consulting of a consultation forum which would lawyers from a private involve EPA, TCP, customary law firm authorities and farmers representatives in order to establish a La FA and other FAs in platform to disseminate information Accra and create awareness on law proposals for open passive spaces. Farmers representatives to be included as a result of social mobilisation strategies. 3) TCP to incorporate planning mechanisms within the system of land use planning and digitalise the information with the help of IWMI

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Strategy 1c: Rethink enforcement mechanisms for the protection of passive open spaces from urban developments Timeline: 2 years

WHY

WHO

HOW 1) Farmers recognise illegal settlements when provided with information by the LAP digital system, Customary Land Secretariats, TCP and their own passive open space enumerations 2) Urban farmers could play a key role in Land safeguarding and protecting open spaces from urban encroachment by identifying threatening developments early in the process, reducing ecological and financial inconveniences from encroachments 3) Articulation of this process within the planning enforcement system and Submetro procedures incorporates local low-level agents within higher level powers to provide real-time information and knowledge to act early on in illegal urban developments

Weak land development TCP controls are leading to illegal urban developments and Sub-Metro Departments inappropriate land-use practices Urban farmers and FAs To prevent unnecessary Customary ecological damage to passive Secretariats green spaces through early enforcement of land & planning rules and laws To deliver potential financial, legal and technical stability for the development of future urban agriculture activities

6. 2 Value Chain
From the Value Chain analysis, it is clear that the farmers are those who make the least profit and they are extremely vulnerable to market inflation and eviction due to real estate development. In this strained situation, three main strategies can be provided to strengthen farmers capacity to increase their income and power of negotiation. However, it is worth noting that these strategies remain difficult to implement in the case of La because of the land tenure and land planning situation, the low organization of the FA and the limited access of financing. Nevertheless these approaches can be scaled up and can be used for other farmers within AMA.

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Strategy IIa: Upgrading farmers through the Value Chain to improve their livelihoods Timeline: From 6 months to one year WHY Increase farmers livelihoods and control over the value chain WHO HOW Farmers Farmers take additional functions like processing, marketing, transporting Sellers and selling their outputs on markets kiosk. Farmers must form savings groups and acquire a new set of skills in order to take on additional activities. Create cooperative businesses between farmers and sellers Farmers need to look for new markets within Accra and enhance alliance with other actors in the Value Chain. Strategy IIb: Developing functional collaboration among farmers to increase profit margins Timeline: 3 to 6 months Why Improve farmers livelihoods and increase their market power Who Farmers How Farmers work together to achieve economies of scales in input markets (e.g. seeds) and bulk up outputs.
Strengthening the FA could help in supporting the collaboration and organization between farmers as well as with other actors (retailers, markets sellers, governments, etc.) because it can take over several functions including transporting agricultural produce and buying collectively. Farmers will have to buy inputs in greater quantity to realize economies of scales and share technical knowledge to improve the quality of their products.

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Strategy IIc: Focusing production on market niches, (such as in Airport Hills located in the North of La) to reserve land for agricultural purpose Timeline: 6 months WHY WHO Lock green spaces to Farmers grow agricultural (In Kpeletso and produce for limited local Airport Hills) consumption Consumers Planning developers HOW Developers should identify and plan green spaces for agricultural purposes within their housing development plans Farmers have to work in close collaboration to claim some land for agricultural purpose with the real estate agency in order to provide food for the local consumption. Farmers have to focus production on strict demands of market niches. In the case of Airport Hills, it can be expected that residents will prefer into ecological/organically grown food Consequently, farmers have to add value to their products by improving production and engaging in simple forms of processing, packaging and direct selling. It will be suitable for farmers to form an association or cooperative business in order to lower transaction costs, create economies of scales and develop greater lobbying and negotiating power with the real estate development agency and the local population.

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Although the strategies explained above differ mainly with respect to the target group they work with, in all cases, there are some limitations to such approaches. Upgrading farmers through the Value Chain does not automatically lead to higher incomes. Adding activities also means adding costs and risks, which in turn necessitate new set of assets and skills that farmers have to meet. Moreover, farmers in La are not a homogeneous group; some are more able to take over roles in the valuechain (because of the relationship with land owners, investment capacity), whereas others are more excluded to the participation in managing various aspects of

their products value. And as stated earlier, this kind of commitment entails greater risks, investments and responsibilities, which farmers should be willing and able to bear. The second approach induces a horizontal collaboration, meaning that farmers have to work together. However, as found out in La, farmers do not collaborate at all. Due to the actual context of uncertainty, farmers do not perceive any incentives/benefits to act collectively. Although the value-chain analysis has highlighted the scope for creating economies of scales by acting collectively, it is still a challenge to change farmers perception.

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6.3 Collective Action

While the strategies described above provide some incentives for farmers to act collectively, they also rely on strong collective action and social mobilisation from the farmers themselves to enable the strategies to be implemented and ensure farmers become more visible in the political arena with greater participation in decision-making. The following strategies all sit under one umbrella strategy, which is to: Strengthen the voice of farmers by mobilising them and other key actors (especially women) through strengthened collaboration, reciprocity and solidarity to harness social capital, strengthen institutional recognition and power of negotiation and ultimately readdress power relations and provide the right to farm in the city by transforming the urban system and its meanings.

Strategy III.a: Reorganise and strengthen the existing La FA by building on existing informal networks to better mobilise farmers to make their voices heard Timeline: 3 months

Why Increased clearer voice in the political arena, especially for women Increased representation in decision-making Increased bargaining power to: Fight encroachments Debate relocation options Receive compensation Open up negotiation to secure tenure Establish channels of cooperation Reverse the mentality that farmers are only fighting

Who La Farmers Airport Hills Cooperative MoFA Extension Officers

How Democratically elect a strong new leader Create a strong shared vision as to the purpose of the FA Agree to meet weekly (or whatever is more appropriate for farmers) Collectively buy

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for land but for their right to farm in the city Establish good relationship with the new co-op in Airport Hills Bypass straight to the TCP, Land Commission and MoFA Support development of the value chain by increasing the organization and collaboration between farmers as well as with other actors (retailers, markets sellers, governments, etc.) to obtain higher incomes

products

Strategy IIIb: Partner the La FA with experienced organisations such as PD, GHAFUP and CICOL to mobilise and empower farmers by learning from other members of the urban poor and gaining a greater capacity to influence decision making Timeline: 6 months

Why Enhance and empower the collective capacities of the La FA for advocacy and influencing policy and decision-making Developing savings groups will give an additional push to farmers business activities. Savings groups are adapted to the needs and characteristics of urban farmers and allow them to avoid having to resort to credits and loans that will make their situation more difficult Farmers said they are willing to start a savings group again but just need support GHAFEDUP already have the capacity and resources to help mobilise and empower farmers through savings group and enumerations, and have links with policy makers

Who La Farmers PD GHAFEDUP CICOL SDI

How La farmers work with GHAFUP and PD to undertake their own enumerations and create a savings group Through PD, organise exchange visits between farmers and PD, GHAFEDUP, CICOL Old Fadama, and an FA which already has a strong savings culture

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Strategy IIIc: Open up new routes for negotiation, by collaborating with other FAs across Accra to create a Farmers Federation as an umbrella group to speak out for issues affecting urban farmers and mobilise farmers by tapping into a more aggregated voice Timeline: 1 year

Why Bring a few demobilised voices together to magnify them across Accra in an aggregated voice Link civil society groups to foster better dialogue across sectors of the urban population and institutions Give farmers a greater ability to by-pass the traditional institutions they have been faced with, and go straight to the TCP, LC and MoFA to make more noise and be heard. Open up new routes for negotiation, by collaborating with other FAs Foster better dialogue across sectors of the urban population and institutions Recognise the right to peoples food sovereignty

Who La Farmers Other FAs in Accra (including cooperatives) MoFA Extension Officers PD GHAFEDUP SDI CICOL

How Through MoFA Extension Officers and PD one farmer from each FA (possibly the chair) go to meet with PD and CICOL to see how they can better mobilise and create an umbrella federation Through MoFA Extension Officers and PD form an Accra Federation of Urban Farmers Organise a city campaign around the importance of UPA for food sovereignty and to put a face and voice to the urban farmers The new umbrella organisation to organise a demonstration/ protest asking for: Land Compensation Relocation options Right to farm in the city Importance of UA to food sovereignty and livelihoods

All of the above strategies will help to foster the integration of UPA into the economic, political and social fabric of Accra.

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6.4 A Place for UPA in the Millenium City

Strategy IV: To reframe and redefine UPA as an integral component within the Millennium City vision. In doing so, UPA can be promoted as a means of poverty reduction, contributing to economic and social livelihoods and help cities achieve food security. In Accras current vision of a Millennium City, UPA has been neglected in the favour of urban development and economic profits of real estate market.

Why Many MDGs (environmental sustainability, women empowerment, and poverty reduction) can be achieved through promoting and sustaining UPA. UPA contributes to food security and sustainable livelihoods, which go beyond the Millennium Citys sole focus on economic profitability Since universal benefits of UPA are not fully recognised by the wider society, protection of UPA and environmental benefits need to be publicised. This strategy could help reframe UPA at the policy and civil society level and in doing so emphasize its importance in wider society.

Who MoFA

Farmers Educational Institutes

AWGUPA

Media

The Earth Institute, Columbia University

How Through AWGUPA, provide a forum for dialogue with relevant stakeholders from different levels such as policy-makers, MoFA extension officers, Customary Land owners, FA representatives to realise UPA as an asset within Accras Millennium City Vision. The annual MoFA, Farmer award ceremony already provides a platform which can be further strengthen for civil society engagement through an interactive and educational capacity. The creation of awards such as most innovative FA or FA/Collective with most sustainable and safe practices can be created to promote UPA in Millennium City Award ceremony provides an entry point to establish UPA Millennium City Fair Event in order to publicise and promote UPA benefits to a wider community. Showcase of different informative activities, collaborative events and the selling of food made with UPA vegetables through an innovative and interactive platform for urban & peri-urban farmers. This event will engage members across all age group in a fun, interactive capacity and increase wider understanding of importance of UPA. Use of media and radio broadcasting to publicise the UPA Millennium City Fair Event and MoFA annual farmer award ceremony as an event open to the public, beyond only the farming community.

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7.0
MONITORING & EVALUATING

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7.0 Monitoring & Evaluating

The following section presents indictors for which will be used to measure the progress and performance of the strategies in addition to the actors involved and the timeframe required..

7.1 Land & Planning

Monitoring Strategy Indicators By whom When I a) Establish a single system Incorporation of maps into one TCP officials, which unifies the existing LAP, digital system IWMI LIS & GIS digital systems and Dialogue between the land LC SD overlaps them with: sellers and buyers -Current and potential Agreed documentation of open passive spaces All farmers in the passive open space -Farmers maps of land use FA meetings enumerations within FAs and movements across lands I b) Rethink and refine specific urban planning mechanisms to protect and preserve passive open spaces for UPA Documentation of legal preparation progress TCPs integration of new planning mechanisms into their layout plans on the basis of a solid legal capacity Agreed documentation among farmers on identification of encroachments Documentation of inappropriate land use and breach of passive open space measures Consulting lawyer TCP officials Within 1 year Every 6 months Every 3 months

Every 6 months Every year

I c) Rethink enforcement mechanisms for the protection of passive open spaces from urban developments

Farmers and Sub-Metro departments LC Survey Department, TCP

Every 6 months Every 6 months

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7.2 Value Chain

Monitoring Strategy II a) Upgrading Farmers through the Value Chain Indicators
Regular meetings of enterprises/ associations or cooperative business FAs Farmers Sellers

By whom
Every month

When

II b) Developing functional collaboration among farmers

Repartition of earnings and profits between actors in the Value Chain Farmers profit margins increase Land locked for UPA in development plans Increased product quality Push towards organic foods for niche market

FAs Farmers

Before and after every harvest (5 to 6 months) with a weekly followup Every year

II c) Focusing production on market niches such as in Airport Hills

Private developers FA or cooperative business Farmers Consumers

Within a year

7.3 Collective Action

Monitoring Strategy III a) Reorganise and strengthen the current La FA by building on existing informal networks to better mobilise farmers to make their voices heard Indicators Frequent farmer meetings The election of a new chair Re-voting of treasurer and secretary positions The democratic creation of a shared vision Agreed documents/ minutes of the La Farmers Within 1 month (one meeting to discuss, one to vote new posts) Creation within 1 month, reviewed every By who La Farmers When Weekly

La Farmers

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meeting highlighting the new vision Monthly meetings with the cooperative and farmers in Airport Hills and agreed documents/ minutes of the meeting

La Farmers

6 months After every meeting

La Farmers Every 2 months La Farmers and Airport Hills Cooperative

II b) Partner the La FA with experienced organisations such as PD, GHAFUP and CICOL to mobilise and empower farmers by learning from other members of the urban poor and gaining greater capacity to influence decision making

Regular meetings between La farmers, PD and CICOL An exchange visit occurring between La Farmers, and other actors Official setting up of the La FA savings group, followed by regular meetings to collect savings Register under the GHAFEDUP

La Farmers, PD and CICOL

Every 3 months to start

La Farmers, PD and CICOL La Farmers, PD and CICOL La Farmers and PD

Within 6 months Within 6 months

Within 6 months II c) Open up new routes for negotiation, by collaborating with other FAs across Accra to create a Farmers Federation as an umbrella group to speak out for issues affecting urban farmers and mobilise farmers by tapping into a more aggregated voice Agreed documents/ minutes of the meeting between all actors regarding the establishment of a new Federation Democratic election of chair, secretary, treasurer, communications officer etc List indicating official membership How often the new federation meets New Federation of Farmers New Federation New Federation of Farmers After every meeting

New Federation of Farmers

At first meeting, within 6 months Confirm after every meeting Monthly meetings

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The number of farmers who join the new federation in 1 year/ 2 years/ 3 years How many listeners/ readers they get for their radio/ newspaper campaign The support they get from other civil society groups

of Farmers New Federation of Farmers New Federation of Farmers New Federation of Farmers and civil society groups

Monthly meetings

Monitored annually

In 1 year 1 year assess how much support they have received from other groups

7.4 A Place for UPA in the Millennium City

Strategy Monitoring When Every 2 Months Every 2 Months

Indicators By whom To reframe and redefine Documentation of the frequency of multi- AWGUPA UPA as an integral stakeholder meetings taking place component within the Documentation through minutes of Millennium City vision. stakeholder participation and monitoring of AWGUPA their contribution during meetings The documentation of preparation and communication with individual stakeholder involvement in UPA Millennium City Fair Agreed documentation of presence of UPA in policies and strategic plan initiatives for attaining Millennium City Vision

AWGUPA Annually

AWGUPA

Every 3 months

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7.0 8.0

CONCLUSION CONCLUSION

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8.0 Conclusions 8.1 Conclusions & Lessons Learnt

The situation seen in both La and Accra is representative of many cities worldwide facing rapid urbanisation and high real estate development, shaped by capital accumulation and market forces. This is leading to rapid loss of agricultural land in cities. While many governments globally are starting to recognise the importance of improving food security; they see the solution lying in large-scale, mechanised, chemically and energy-intensive and peripheral agriculture, which is socially and environmentally destructive and comes at the expense of small-scale farmers. Consequently, UPA will invariably be pushed out if it is not recognised for the critical role it can play in a citys development to becoming a productive sustainable city. Through the merged theoretical frameworks of food sovereignty and political ecology, the unequal power relations between actors impacting the right to grow and consume food in the city have been explored. Many farmers and sellers are currently powerless to influence policies and decision-making around UPA.

As such a reframing of UPA in public discourse, as a means to achieving food sovereignty, poverty reduction, livelihood security, resilience and urban sustainability, is necessary. This can be achieved through multi-level strategies, connecting all relevant stakeholders. This report has shown that through strengthening CA within FAs and linking them together under a city-wide Farmers Federation could give them a greater voice in promoting their rights to farm in the city and open a dialogue with institutional stakeholders. Additionally, AWGUPA can play a key role in coordinating stakeholders such as TCP, CICOL, LC and SDI to implement UPA into regional and national agricultural and urban planning development policies. If these and other strategies laid out in this report are implemented and appropriately monitored and evaluated, UPA can regain its rightful place in the city.

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8.2 Further Research

Further research is necessary to fully investigate the valuable impacts of UPA on the social, economic, political and environmental fabric of the city. In the face of climate change and peak oil it is essential to assess the levels of food sovereignty UPA can bring to a city such as Accra. Research also needs to continue to accurately map the current and prospective UPA land throughout Accra. Furthermore, research needs to be undertaken to further explore how UPA can be seen as an attractive and viable feature of cities against the high persuasion of market forces. Additionally, it would be interesting to explore how urban farmers worldwide can work with SDI so that both groups can mutually benefit and work towards their desired goals.

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