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Chapter: 2 ANTENNA THEORY

2.1 DEFINITION & HISTORICAL ADVANCEMENT:


An antenna is defined as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves. In other words the antenna is the transitional structure between free space and guiding device shown in below figure. The guiding device or transmission line may take the form of a coaxial line or a hollow
E

Signal Transmission Source Line

Antenna

Free Space Wave

Fig: 2.1 Antenna as a transition device. pipe (waveguide) and it is used to transport electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to the antenna, or from the antenna to the receiver. The history of antenna dates back to James Clerk Maxwell who unified the theories of electricity and magnetism, and represented their relations through a set of equations best known as Maxwells Equations. His work was first published in 1873. In 1986 Professor Heinrich Rudolph Hertz demonstrated the first wireless electromagnetic system. He was able to produce in his laboratory at a wavelength of 4 meters a spark in the gap of a transmitting /2 dipole which was then detected as a spark in the gap of a nearby loop. In 1895, J. C. Bose gave his first public demonstration of electromagnetic waves. And in 1901, Guglielmo Marconi was able to send signals over large distances. He performed in 1901 the first transatlantic transmission from Poldhu in Cornwell, England to St. Johns Newfoundland. His transmitting antenna consisted of 50 vertical wires in the form of a fan connected to ground through a spark transmitter. The wires were supported horizontally by a guyed wire between two 60m wooden poles. The receiving antenna at St.Johns was a 200m wire pulled and supported by a kite. From Marconis inception through the 1940s antenna technology was primarily centered on wire related radiating elements and frequencies up to about UHF. While World War II launched a new era in antennas, advances made in computer architecture and technology during the 1960s through the 1990s have had a major impact on the advance of modern antenna technology, and they are expected to have a greater influence on antenna engineering into the twenty first century. Primarily, the antennas need to have high gain, small physical size, broad bandwidth, versatility, embedded installation, etc. In particular, the bandwidths for
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impedance, radiation patterns and gain are becoming the most important factors that affect the application of antennas in contemporary and future wireless communication systems. The bandwidths vary from 7% to 13% for commercial mobile communication systems, and reach up to 109% for ultra-wideband communications. The antennas used must have the required performance over the relevant operating frequency range. Antennas for fixed applications such as cellular base-stations and wireless access points should have high gain and stable radiation coverage over the operating range. Antennas for portable devices such as hand phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and laptop computers should be embedded, efficient in radiation and omnidirectional in coverage. Most importantly, the antennas should be well impedance-matched over the operating frequency range. Antennas for mobile terminals must be small in physical size so that they can be embedded in devices or conform to device platforms. The antennas of electrically small in size significantly narrows the impedance bandwidth and greatly reduces radiation efficiency or gain. For base-stations, antennas must be compact to reduce installation costs and to harmonize with the environment, but the reduced size generally results in a degraded radiation performance. Moreover, varying installation environments require antennas with a big bandwidth tolerance. Consequently, the bandwidth requirement for small or compact antennas has become a very critical design issue.

2.2

ANTENNA PARAMETERS:
To describe the performance of an antenna, definitions of various parameters are necessary.

2.2.1

BANDWIDTH

The bandwidth of an antenna may be defined in terms of one or more physical parameters. As shown in equation 2.1, the bandwidth may be calculated by using the frequencies fu andfl at the upper and lower edges of the achieved bandwidth:
2( fu  f l ) fu  f v 100%, bandwidth 100% l B.W= fu :1, bandwidth u 100% fl

(2.1)

The bandwidth of an antenna can be defined for impedance, radiation pattern. First, a satisfactory impedance bandwidth is the basic consideration for all antenna design, which allows most of the energy to be transmitted to an antenna from a feed or a transmission system at a transmitter, and from an antenna to its load at a receiver in a wireless communication system. Second, a designated radiation pattern ensures that maximum or minimum energy is radiated in a specific direction.

a) IMPEDANCE BANDWIDTH:
In general, an antenna is a resonant device. Its input impedance varies greatly with frequency even though the inherent impedance of its feed remains unchanged. If the antenna can be well matched to its feed across a certain frequency range, that f requency range is defined as its impedance bandwidth. The impedance bandwidth can be specified in terms of return loss (S parameter: |S11|) or a voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR) over a frequency range. The wellmatched impedance bandwidth must totally cover the required operating frequency range for some specified level, such as VSWR = 2 or 1.5 or a return loss |S11| of less than 10 dB or 15 dB. Furthermore, the impedance bandwidth is inversely proportional to the quality factor (Q) of an antenna is given by VSW -1 (2.2) .W Q VSW

b) PATTERN BANDWIDTH:
There are many parameters to describe the radiation performance of an antenna, including the following: main beam direction side-lobe, back-lobe, grating-lobe levels and directions half-power beamwidth front-to-back ratio directivity gain efficiency effective area, effective height and polarization. These all vary with frequency, and the operating frequency range can be determined by specifying any of these parameters as either a minimum or a maximum according to the system requirements for the antenna. Variations in the parameters result essentially from frequencydependent distributions of the magnitudes and phases of electric and magnetic currents on antenna surfaces. Radiation patterns are important indicators of the operating modes of an antenna.

2.2.2 RADIATION PATTERN


An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as a mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates. In most cases the radiation pattern is determined in the far-field region and is represented as a function of the directional coordinates. The radiation property of most concern is the two or three dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the observers position along a path or surface of constant radius.

There are three common radiation patterns that are used to describe an antennas radiation property: a) Isotropic: A hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in all directions. It is only applicable for an ideal antenna and is often taken as a reference for expressing the directive properties of actual antennas. b) Directional: An antenna having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions than in others. This is usually applicable to an antenna where its maximum directivity is significantly greater than that of a half wave dipole. c) Omni-directional: An antenna having an essentially non directional pattern in a given plane and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane.

Fig: 2.2 Coordinate system for antenna analysis. [3] Fig: 2.3 Omnidirectional pattern with minor lobes.[3]

2.2.3 DIRECTIVITY
It is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4 . If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied. More simply, the directivity of a nonisotropic source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given direction over that of an isotropic source. In mathematical form it can be written as

D!

U 4T U ! UO Prad

(2.3)

If the direction is not specified it implies the direction of maximum radiation intensity (maximum directivity) expressed as
Dmax ! Do ! 4T U max Prad

(2.4)

where, D=directivity (dimensionless) Do=maximum directivity (dimensionless) U=radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle) Umax =maximum radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle) Uo=radiation intensity of isotropic source (W/unit solid angle) Prad =total radiated power (W)

2.2.4 GAIN
Gain is closely related to the directivity. It is a measure that takes into account the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional capabilities. Absolute gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as the ratio of the intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4 . It can be expressed as: radiation intensity total input(accepted) po er

gain 4 T

(2.5)

Gain is related to the directivity by, G (U ,J ) ! V cd D (U ,J ) (2.6)

Where V cd is antenna radiation efficiency.

2.2.5 ANTENNA RADIATION EFFICIENCY


The antenna radiation efficiency takes into account the reflection, conduction and dielectric losses. The conduction and dielectric losses of an antenna are very difficult to compute and in most cases they are measured. They are very difficult to separate and usually lumped together to form the Vcd efficiency or antenna radiation efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the radiation resistance Rr to the power delivered to Rr and RL. The radiation efficiency can be written as,

Rr V cd ! RL  Rr

(dimensionless)

(2.7)

2.2.6 HALF-POWER BEAMWIDTH:


The half-power beamwidth is defined as: In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half the

Fig: 2.4 Radiation pattern and half-power beamwidth. maximum value of the beam. The term beamwidth by itself is usually reversed to describe the 3-dB beamwidth. The beamwidth of the antenna is very important figure-of-merit, and it often used to as a tradeoff between it and the sidelobe level; that is as the beamwidth decreases the sidelobe increases and vice versa.

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