Sie sind auf Seite 1von 11

Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

Important parasites in poultry production systems


Michael D. Ruff
Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA

Abstract Poultry now accounts for 30% of all meat consumed. Parasites are a problem where ever poultry are raised, whether in large commercial operations or in small back-yard ocks, and economic losses can be signicant. This paper will briey review the major protozoan, helminth, and arthropod species in poultry including pathogenesis. Other topics will include the importance of the interaction of other diseases and parasites, and control of the infection by chemotherapy, management, and immunity. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords: Parasites; Poultry

1. Introduction The demand for poultry meat is increasing throughout the world. Per capita consumption increased from 23 kg in 1975 to 28 kg in 1995 and is projected to reach 31 kg by 2000 and now accounts for 30% of all meat consumed according to the FAO. Increased production will require an additional 100 million tons of feed. The largest producer, the US, has increased its broiler exports 450% since 1990. Parasites are a problem where ever poultry are raised and can have adverse economic effects on production parameters. The method of rearing has a marked effect on the particular problem that is seen. Connement rearing tends to favor those parasites with short life cycles and direct transmission such as Eimeria spp., Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum, and Capillaria spp. The rearing of free-range birds or back yard ocks provides an opportunity for parasites that require an intermediate host. It should be remembered that parasitism in poultry is a ock problem; what happens to an individual bird is of relatively little economic importance. It is not the purpose of this paper to give a check list of poultry parasites or to describe them or their life cycles in detail.

Tel.: +1-301-504-6905; fax: +1-301-504-5060; e-mail: mdr@ars.usda.gov

0304-4017/99/$ see front matter Published by Elsevier Science B.V. PII: S 0 3 0 4 - 4 0 1 7 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 7 6 - X

338

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

Rather it will touch briey on the more economically important ones with comments on control measures and why problems still exist.

2. Protozoa The most important protozoa infecting poultry belong to the phylum Apicomplexa which includes genera the Eimeria, Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus, Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis and Cryptosporidium. Flagellates such as Histomonas, Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Chilomastixand Hexamita, and amoeba of the genera Entamoeba and Endolimax are also found, and a microsporidian, Encephalitozoon cunicule has recently been reported from chickens (Reetz, 1993). 2.1. Coccidiosis Coccidia are without question the most important parasites of poultry, both in terms of distribution, frequency, and economic losses (McDougald and Reid, 1997). Although mortality from coccidiosis is under control by anticoccidial medications, losses from decreased weight gain and feed efciency and the cost of treatment are estimated by Weber (1997) to annually exceed US$ 1.5 billion world wide. To give an idea of how little effect it takes to have an economic impact, an increase in feed efciency of 1/100 of a point (0.01 kg less feed required per kg of gain) would save the US poultry industry over US$ 70 million based on current production numbers (Ruff and Danforth, 1996). Avian coccidia of the genus Eimeria are extremely host specic. For example, chickens, turkeys, pheasants, Japanese quail, and bobwhite quail all have their own species. Differences in species within a host are of academic and physiological interest, but from the standpoint of the poultry producer, any of them can cause a problem if present in large enough numbers. Some species tend to be more pathogenic in terms of the inoculation dose required to produce measurable effects, but all species of avian Eimeria produce weight loss, increased feed conversion ratios, loss of skin pigment, and decreased egg production. One reason that all poultry production units, large or small, have coccidia present is the extreme reproductive ability of these intracellular parasites. Each oocyst ingested by the host may give rise to hundreds of thousands infective oocysts in the feces within 712 days. Transmission from one farm to another is facilitated by movement of personnel and equipment, and even new farms will have the parasite present within a few weeks after poultry are introduced (Ruff and Wilkins, 1979, unpublished data; McDougald and Reid, 1997). 2.2. Other protozoa of the digestive tract Of the other protozoa that infect the digestive tract, only Histomonas meleagridis infections sometimes reach a level of major economic importance, primarily in turkeys but occasionally in chickens and game birds. The role of the cecal worm, Heterakis gallinarum, and earthworms in transmission and the necessity for certain bacterial ora to cause pathogenicity are well documented (McDougald, 1997). Mortality, especially in turkeys,

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

339

chukar partridge, and ruffed grouse can be quite high. Cryptosporidium can cause severe problems in some species of poultry (Lindsay et al., 1988; Current, 1997). Infection of turkeys with C. meleagridis can cause diarrhea and mild mortality (Slavin, 1955). Another species, C. baileyi, infects both the digestive tract and respiratory tract of chickens and turkeys (Current et al., 1986; Current et al., 1987). A third, currently unnamed, species can cause up to 100% mortality in bobwhite quail (M. Levy, 1984, personal communication; Hoerr et al., 1986). 2.3. Blood and tissue protozoa Leucocytozoon infects the blood and tissue cells of internal organs. Various dipteran intermediate hosts, such as simuliid ies and culicoid midges, are responsible for the transmission so infections can arise in those areas where they are present. Infection rates in some areas can be as high as 100% (Springer, 1984). The three main species are L. simondi (ducks and geese), L. caulleryi (chickens), and L. smithi (turkeys) although other species are also described (Springer, 1997). The latter species was responsible for the failure of a large commercial turkey production effort in the coastal plains and sandhill areas of South Carolina (Dick, 1978). Over 120 species of Haemoproteus have been reported from birds but they seem to cause few problems. Sarcosporidiosis can be a major problem in waterfowl and many species of birds can be infected with Toxoplasma. Effective medications for these infections are limited or lacking so prevention of infection is the best means of control. Over 65 species of Plasmodium have been described from different birds, but Kemp (1978) considers less than 35 valid. Avian plasmodia develop in mosquitoes of the genera Culex and Aedes, and rarely in Anopheles. Plasmodium gallinaceum, P. juxtanucleare and P. durae are the most pathogenic for domestic fowl and may cause mortality of over 90% (Kemp, 1978).

3. Nematodes Nematodes constitute the most important group of poultry helminths, both in terms of number of species and pathology. For a detailed listing the reader is referred to Ruff and Norton (1997) for poultry and game birds, to Kellog and Calpin (1971) for quail, and McDonald (1969) for waterfowl. Species of the genera Ascaridia, Heterakis, Capillariaand Syngamus (gapeworm) are generally the most common nematodes encountered in commercial poultry operations, sometimes with high prevalence rates. Ascarids can reduce weight gain and feed efciency (Ikeme, 1971a, b), but are not generally a problem in broiler chickens because of the short grow out time. An occasional aesthetic problem with A. galli is the nding of this parasite inside of the hens egg (Reid and McDougald, 1997). Ascaridia, as well as Capillaria spp., can cause production losses in breeders. Capillaria and Syngamus can produce signicant growth depression and mortality in pen raised game birds. Nematodes can be a more serious problem in backyard ocks in developing countries. There other genera such as Dispharynx, Gongylonema, Tetrameres, Subulura and Trichostrongylus are found far more frequently than in connement facilities, especially those species that utilize an intermediate host (Permin et al., 1997).

340

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

4. Cestodes Cestodes (tapeworms) are commonly encountered in poultry from free-range or backyard ocks. Most poultry producers in US will state that cestodes are only an infrequent problem in commercial operations, especially in broilers, yet a recent 1-year study in Arkansas found Raillietina cesticillus in almost 70% of the broiler farms examined (Wilson et al., 1994). Similarly, a study in the arid zone of Nigeria found an infection rate of 56% for cestodes, compared with a 16% infection rate for nematodes (Ahmed and Sinha, 1993). For brief descriptions of individual species, the reader is referred to Reid and McDougald (1997). Most species of cestodes seem to cause little pathology of economic importance, especially with infections of only a few hundred worms. Exceptions are the microscopic tapeworm Davainea proglottina and Raillietina tetragona where decreases in weight gain and egg production have been documented following experimental infections (Levine, 1938; Nadakal and Nair, 1979). 5. Other helminths Acanthocephalans (spiny headed worms) and trematodes (ukes) are infrequently found in poultry. Often the acanthocephalans are larval forms suggesting that the infections are accidental. Pathology is usually mild. Over 500 species of trematodes have been reported from birds, some 20 are considered to be potentially dangerous to poultry (Kingston, 1984). Host specicity is fairly broad for most species so the diagnostition may encounter adults or larval metacercaria in almost any cavity or tissue, especially in poultry from back yard ocks or pet birds. Some species and locations are described by Kingston (1984) and Reid and McDougald (1997). One of the more frequently found is Prostogonimus spp., the oviduct uke. This uke utilizes two intermediate hosts (snail and dragon y). The adult develops in the oviduct and drastically reduces egg production (Reid and McDougald, 1997). 6. Ectoparasites There are several types of arthropods that constitute the major ectoparasites of poultry, primarily lice, bugs, eas, mites and ticks. The degree and type of infestation is markedly inuenced by the production method. In US, modern high-density production units have favored the northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus sylviarum in layer and breeder houses (Arends, 1997), but has lessened the frequency of lice problems (fewer ages of birds on the same farm) and chicken mites (fewer hiding places). Conversely, in countries such as Denmark, these systems have favored infestation with Dermanyssus gallinae. Detection is important and easier for those parasites that live on the bird (lice, northern fowl mites, hard ticks, sticktight eas) than for those that are on the bird only to feed (bedbugs, chicken mites, soft ticks). 6.1. Insects Only chewing lice of the order Mallophaga infect birds. More than 40 species have been reported from domestic birds, and host specicity is relatively low. The economic

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

341

importance of lice infestation is unclear. Some authors (Warren et al., 1948; Stockdale and Raun, 1960), found no effect on laying hens, even when large numbers of lice were present. Conversely, other researchers report a decrease in egg production in the 11% (Edgar and King, 1950) to 15% (Glees and Raun, 1959) range. Regardless, lice may be highly pathogenic in very young birds. The sticktight ea, Echidnophaga gallinacea, is found on a wide variety of birds and mammals. The adults are usually attached to the skin of the head of the host in clusters of up to 100. This ea is unique among poultry eas as the mouthparts are deeply embedded in the skin making the adults sessile. Other adult eas of birds and mammals are intermittent feeders on poultry. The common human bedbug, Cimex lectularius, may also attack poultry, often in large numbers which can have severe effects on production. Several other closely related species are found in the tropics and subtropics. Although many Diptera will feed on poultry (mosquitoes, midges, gnats, stable ies), only a few are generally of importance to parasitologists because they serve as intermediate hosts for other parasites. Black ies, family Simuliidae, are important for the transmission of Leucocytozoon spp. to poultry such as turkeys and ducks. Biting midges, Culicoides spp., serve as intermediate hosts for Haemoproteus nettionis which infects domestic ducks in Canada. Several genera of mosquitoes can transmit avian Plasmodium spp. The pigeon y (hippoboscid y, louse y), Pseudolynchia canariensis, is especially harmful to nestling pigeons and also transmits Haemoproteus columbae which causes a malarial-like disease of pigeons. This y is unusual in that the larvae matures inside the female and pupates immediately upon ejection. 6.2. Arachnids The northern fowl mite is the most ubiquitous and important ectoparasite of poultry (Arends, 1997). In heavy infestations, the feathers may be blackened, particularly around the vent. In warmer regions of the world the tropical fowl mite replaces the norther fowl mite with the same severe pathology. Although the chicken mite (red mite or roost mite), Dermanyssus gallinae, is rare in caged-layer operations in US, but common in breeder farms, it is found in 60% of the layer systems in Denmark. Not only is egg production reduced by mites, but feed costs may increase by 16 cents per dozen eggs laid (Arends et al., 1984). Death can result in young and adult birds. Another problem is that mites often leave the bird when infestations are heavy and attack poultry workers or infest nearby dwellings (Arends, 1997). Other mites are found on or in the quills, and in the respiratory system, air sacs, and subcutaneous tissue. One other species deserves mention because of its economic impact and that is the larval chigger. In turkeys, larvae attach to the skin, often in groups, causing prominent abbesses that result in down grading at processing because the skin lesions must be trimmed (Loomis, 1984). The soft-bodied or fowl ticks of the genus Argas are the most important ticks in poultry although many species of hard ticks will feed intermittently on poultry. Blood loss from the feeding of larvae and nymphs of soft ticks may even cause fatal anemia. In many tropical countries it has prevented the rearing of imported breeds (Reid, 1956). In addition, the fowl tick has been shown to transmit a number of spirochete, piroplasmosis, rickettsial, and bacterial diseases of importance in many parts of the world.

342

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

7. Disease interactions The new, faster growing broiler lines used today seem to be especially susceptible to minor imbalances in their nutritional, physiological and immunological states (Ruff, 1993). Interactions of low levels of parasites, bacteria, viruses, and/or mycotoxins can cause such imbalances (Ruff, 1989). The effects of these interactions can be measurable and economically signicant, even when none of the infections are present at a severe enough level to produce signicant effects by themselves. The interactions are often quite striking as in the increase in leg problems in birds experiencing infection with low levels of E. mitis and a mild reovirus (Ruff and Rosenberger, 1985) or the marked loss in pigment with chickens fed low levels of mycotoxin in the presence of very mild coccidiosis (Ruff and Wyatt, 1978; Huff and Ruff, 1982). Mild coccidiosis has been shown to interact with a variety of other disease agents both in the laboratory and the eld. These include Clostridium, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Mareks disease virus, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus, reovirus, and numerous mycotoxins (reviewed by Ruff, 1989). Effects with cryptosporidia are especially severe when the parasite is associated with other disease organisms such as infectious bronchitis virus and E. coli (Current et al., 1987). Interactions have also been shown with nematodes and other infections, although they are not as dramatic as with the protozoa.

8. Control measures 8.1. Management Since effective medications are not available for many of the parasitic infections in poultry, management practices are about the only means left for control. In general, this takes the form of breaking the life cycle by preventing the bird from coming in contact with the intermediate or transport host, or by reducing contact with the source of contamination, such as feces, by caging. Good sanitation, such as the regular removal of dead birds and restrictions on the movement of equipment and personnel also helps to reduce parasitic infections. Cleaning out contaminated litter, followed by disinfection may have benet when parasite numbers have become excessive. Birds of different ages should not be raised in close proximity as older birds can serve as a reservoir for infection of young birds. This also applies to some parasites that cross species such as turkeys as a reservoir for gapeworm in pheasants, and the reverse for histomoniasis. For many years it was assumed that management practices could do little to reduce coccidiosis because of the ability of the oocysts to survive for long periods and withstand most disinfectants used (Reid, 1956). However, in the past 10 years, marked improvements in ventilation and nipple watering systems have improved litter conditions to where they are no longer favorable to the sporulation and survival of coccidial oocysts. As a result the level of exposure in modern broiler houses has become quite low. For histomoniasis, the best control is by eliminating access of poultry to eggs of the cecal worms and earthworms. Control of earthworms in dirt-oor pens is often effective.

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

343

8.2. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy in the form of anticoccidials, anthelmintics, and insecticides have been the mainstay for the prevention and control of parasitic infections in poultry. When rst introduced, such compounds were highly efcacious and inexpensive, especially in relation to the dramatic results that were obtained. Certainly, the growth of the modern large-scale connement poultry production facilities would not have been possible without the use of medications, especially against coccidiosis. Prophylactic medication with anticoccidial drugs in the feed remains the major way of preventing coccidiosis (McDougald, 1990, 1993; McDougald and Reid, 1997). The biggest problem associated with this control method is the development of resistance by the coccidia to all medications available for use. For example, Ruff (1994a) pointed out that in 1978 all eld isolates tested were sensitive to monensin (Jeffers, 1978) but by 1986 only onethird were sensitive (McDougald et al., 1986). No resistance was seen to halofuginone in 1982 (Mathis and McDougald, 1982), but by 1989 82% of the isolates were resistant (Ruff, 1989, unpublished data). The efcacy of modern anticoccidials is affected by the severity of exposure so some drugs, such as the ionophores, will still work if exposure to coccidia is mild (Ruff and Danforth, 1996). If conditions change so that the exposure level rises, these drugs are often not able to control resistant populations of coccidia. Such populations are generally consistent between farms that make up a broiler complex, but can vary markedly between complexes (Ruff, 1994b). Sensitivity testing at moderate to high exposure levels is the only way to identify the resistance prole of an individual complex (Ruff and Danforth, 1996). Apparent efcacy at low levels of exposure in the eld is not indicative of efcacy should the challenge increase. Judicious selection of an anticoccidial program is essential to slowing the development of resistance (McDougald and Reid, 1997). The use of shuttle programs (different medications within a growout period, i.e., a chemical in the starter feed an ionophore in the grower feed, and no medication in the nisher feed) or rotation between medications at different times of the year (i.e., nicarbazin during the fall and winter and a different medication in the spring and summer) both help to delay, or in some cases even avoid, the appearance of resistance (McDougald, 1990). The tendency of the commercial poultry industry has been to use an effective drug continuously, hoping that resistance will not develop. The better the drug initially, the more likely poultry companies are to use it excessively. The results have often been disastrous, not only to individual production facilities, but to the industry as a whole. Some excellent anticoccidials, such as arprinocid, have been removed from the market when wide spread resistance developed from overuse. Anticoccidials that are, or were, effective against Eimeria species of the chicken and turkey, are often not effective against the species of coccidia found in game birds (Ruff et al., 1990). The nitroimidazoles (dimetridazole, ipronidazole, or ronidazole) are highly effective for control of histomoniasis, but have been taken off the market in US once again creating a potential hazard in isolated ocks. The remaining approved compounds have little efcacy. Few drugs are available for treatment of helminth infections because the size of the market and severity of the problem does not justify the escalating cost of developing and obtaining regulatory approval for a new drug. In US, anthelmintics have been approved for only major nematodes such as the Ascaridia, Heterakis, Capillaria, Syngamus, the latter under a minor use program. Even for these species, new compounds are lacking and none

344

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

are expected in the near future. In US, only Hygromycin B, piperazine, and thiabendazole are approved for use in poultry for control of the above species, and even those have considerable restrictions. Drug resistance has been documented for all of these compounds, but especially piperazine. Several other drugs have been reported to have efcacy in experimental infections against these and less common species of nematodes. These include bambendazole, pyrantel, citarin, mebendazole, fenbendazole, levamisole, tetramisole and disophenol. More detail on use levels and times are given in Ruff and Norton (1997). Few effective drugs have been identied for control of cestodes and trematodes and none are approved for use in poultry in the U.S., although fenbendazole and levamisole are effective (Reid and McDougald, 1997). Control of arthropod infestations is generally accomplished by the application of pesticides by dusting, spraying, or misting. Requirements for each of these methods are described by Arends (1982, 1997). Many different insecticides are available, mainly pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates and synthetic pyrethroids. Users must check with the appropriate organization in their respective country to determine which are approved for use. Residues in eggs, meat, or other edible poultry products are of special concern so care must be used to follow label directions and withdrawal times. Compounds such as DDT, benzene, hexachloride, toxaphene, chlordane, aldrin, endrin or heptachlor, although highly effective, should never be used on or around equipment, poultry houses, feed, or feed ingredients.

8.3. Immunity Vaccination is critical for the control of most bacterial and viral diseases in poultry, but immunity plays almost no role in the control of parasites except for coccidiosis. In the latter disease, interest in immunity for prevention of economic losses is rising as drug resistance increases. The ability of the host to limit the severity of a challenge infection is to a large part dependent on the ability to mount an immune response. This involves a complex interplay of internal factors including the levels and activity of cytokines, hormones, leukocytes, gutassociated lymphoid tissues, macrophages, and antigen presentation. There is increasing evidence that many of the recently developed lines of commercial poultry have been selected for maximum growth and feed efciency at the expense of the ability to develop rapid and consistent immunity (Ruff, 1993). One of the major factors affecting the response of any animal to a vaccine or infection is the complex relationship among the nutritional state, the immune system, and the disease organism (Cook, 1989, 1995). Klassing (1991) has reviewed the competition between the immune and production (growth) systems and the competition for nutrients. Responding to a parasitic infection places added demands on the nutritional state which may be inadequate to generate the desired immune response, especially when the infection is one such as coccidiosis that affects all stages of the nutrient utilization process (Ruff and Allen, 1990). Thus, coccidial infections can have adverse effects on viral or bacterial vaccination programs in poultry. Initial attempts at vaccination to reduce the effects in commercial poultry operations used a live virulent vaccine, Coccivac (American Scientic Laboratories, Millsboro, DE), in breeders. The live oocysts were introduced into the drinking water early in the birds life. Development of immunity depended on the successful cycling of low levels of coccidia in

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

345

the litter to give a gradual, but increasing, exposure. Exposures that were too low or too high resulted in poor immunity or clinical disease with economic losses, respectively. About 10 years ago, improvements in consistency of the initial dose to individual chicks were made by spraying the oocysts to the feed instead of in the water, and later by an eye spray at the hatchery (Danforth, 1997). Use of this method was limited to protection of heavy broilers. Recently, the use of a gel to suspend the oocysts and give a very consistent dose of oocysts by ingestion of the gel has shown promise with the Immucox (Vetech Laboratories, Rockwood, Ont., Canada) live vaccine (Danforth et al., 1997; Danforth, 1998). There has been considerable effort to develop live attenuated vaccines through the used of embryo passage of the coccidia or the selection of strains with an abbreviated life cycle (precocious lines). Currently two live attenuated vaccines, Paracox (Schering-Plough Animal Health, Middlesex, UK) and Livacox (Biopharm, Research Institute of Biopharmacy and Verterinary Drugs, Prague, Czech Republic), are on the market in Europe and South America. Use is primarily in replacement and breeding ocks. Although these vaccines are highly successful in breeders where there is only a mild exposure to coccidia oocysts, the major disadvantage of such vaccines is that medication can not be used simultaneously. Thus, should severe exposure to coccidia occur, the birds are not protected from wild strains while immunity is progressively induced by the developing and cycling parasites. Vaccination with subunit vaccines continues to be a major area of research, but results to date have not yet yielded a commercial product. Immunization trials using antigens derived from recombinant proteins, parasite fraction, or parasite products have demonstrated that partial, but not complete, immunity can be elicited against coccidial challenge (Danforth et al., 1993). Variables that affect results include the line of bird used, type of adjuvant, time of immunization, route and combinations of antigens. Results have been more promising in battery type trials than in oor pen type experiments. Future control of coccidiosis may well involve an integrated program involving management practices, vaccines, and the targeted use of medications. Control of other parasitic diseases will be based on the old method of breaking the life cycle and careful use of the few remaining antiparasitics. References
Ahmed, M.I., Sinha, P.K., 1993. Prevalence of poultry helminthiasis in an arid-zone in Nigeria. Indian Vet. J. 70, 703704. Arends, J.J., 1982. Integrated Pest Management Manual. North Carolina State University Extension Publishing, Raleigh, North Carolina. Arends, J.J., 1997. External parasites and poultry pests. In: Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., McDougald, L.R., Saif, Y.M. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 10th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 785813. Arends, J.J., Robertson, S.H., Payne, C.S., 1984. Impact of northern fowl mite on broiler breeder ocks in North Carolina. Poultry Sci. 63, 14571461. Cook, M.E., 1989. Nutrient modulation of the avian immune system. Proc. Maryland Nut. Conf. pp. 613. Cook, M.E., 1995. Nutritional control of immune-induced depression of food intake and growth. Proc. 30th Nat. Mtg. Poultry Hlth. & Process, pp. 1622. Current, W.L., 1997. Cryptosporidiosis. In: Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., McDougald, L.R., Saif, Y.M. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 10th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 883890. Current, W.L., Upton, S.J., Haynes, T.B., 1986. The life cycle of Cryptosporidium baileyi n. sp. (Apicomplexa, Cryptosporidiidae) infecting chickens. J. Protozool. 33, 289296.

346

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

Current, W.L., Novilla, M.N., Snyder, D.B., 1987. Cryptosporidiosis in poultry: An update (Are Cryptosporidium spp. primary pathogens?). Proc. 22nd Nat. Mtg. Poultry Hlth. Condemn, pp. 1729. Danforth, H.D., 1997. Use of live oocysts-based vaccines in avian coccidial control. In: Shirley, M.W., Tomley, F.M., Freeman, B.M. (Eds.), Control of Coccidiosis into the Next Millennium. 7th Int. Cocci. Conf. Clere Print, Newbury, Berks, UK, pp. 9596. Danforth, H.D., 1998. Use of live oocyst vaccines in the control of avian coccidiosis: experimental studies and eld trials. Int. J. Parasitol. 28, 10991109. Danforth, H.D., Augustine, P.C., Jenkins, M.C., 1993. A review of progress in coccidial vaccine development. In: Barta, J.R., Fernando, M.A. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Cocci. Conf. Miftt Print Craft, Guelph, Ont., Canada, pp. 4960. Danforth, H.D., Lee, E., Martin, A., Dekich, M., 1997. Evaluation of a gel-immunization technique used with two different Immucox vaccine formulations in battery and oor-pen trials with broiler chickens. Parasitol. Res. 83, 445451. Dick, J., 1978. Leucocytozoon smithi: persistence of gametocytes in peripheral turkey blood. Avian Dis. 22, 8285. Edgar, S.A., King, D.F., 1950. Effect of the body louse, Eomenacanthus stramineus, on mature chickens. Poultry Sci. 29, 214219. Raun, E.S., 1959. Effects of chicken body louse infection on egg production. J. Econom. Entomol. 52, 358359. Hoerr, F.J., Current, W.L., Hastings, T.B., 1986. Fatal cryptosporidiosis in quail. Avian Dis. 30, 421425. Huff, W.E., Ruff, M.D., 1982. Eimeria acervulina and Eimeria tenella infections in ochratoxin A-compromised broiler chickens. Poultry Sci. 61, 685692. Ikeme, M.M., 1971a. Observations on the pathogenicity and pathology of Ascaridia galli. Parasitology 63, 169 179. Ikeme, M.M., 1971b. Weight changes in chickens placed on different levels of nutrition and varying degrees of repeated dosage with Ascaridia galli eggs. Parasitology 63, 251260. Jeffers, T.K., 1978. Eimeria tenella: sensitivity of recent eld isolates to monensin. Avian Dis. 22, 157161. Kellog, F.E., Calpin, J.P., 1971. A checklist of parasites and diseases reported from the Bobwhite Quail. Avian Dis. 15, 704715. Kemp, R.L., 1978. Haemoproteus. In: Hofstad, M.S., Barnes, H.J., Calnek, B.W., Helmbodt, C.F., Reid, W.M., Yoder, H.W., Jr. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 7th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 824825. Kingston, N., 1984. Trematodes. In: Hofstad, M.S., Barnes, H.J., Calnek, B.W., Reid, W.M., Yoder, H.W., Jr. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 8th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 668690. Klassing, K.C., 1991. Interaction between nutrition and infectious disease in broiler chickens. Proc. 26th Nat. Mtg. Poultry Hlth. Processing, DPI, Georgetown, DE. pp. 97106. Levine, P.P., 1938. The effect of infection with Davainea proglottina on the weights of growing chickens. J. Parasitol. 24, 550551. Lindsay, D.S., Blagburn, B.L., Sundermann, C.A., Giambrone, J.J., 1988. Effect of broiler chicken age on susceptibility to experimentally induced Cryptosporidium baileyi infection. Am. J. Vet. Res. 49, 14121414. Loomis, E.C., 1984. External parasites. In: Hofstad, M.S., Barnes, H.J., Calnek, B.W., Reid, W.M., Yoder, H.W., Jr. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 8th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 586613. Mathis, G.F., McDougald, L.R., 1982. Drug resistance of eld isolates of chicken coccidia. Poultry Sci. 61, 3845. McDonald, M.E., 1969. Catalogue of helminths of waterfowl (anatidae): Special Sci. Rept. Wildl. (126). Fish Wildl. Serv., 692 pp. McDougald, L.R., 1990. Control of coccidiosis in chickens: chemotherapy. In: Long, P.L. (Ed.), Coccidiosis of Man and Domestic Animals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 307320. McDougald, L.R., 1993. Chemotherapy of coccidiosis. In: Barta, J.R., Fernando, M.A. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Cocci. Conf. Miftt Print Craft, Guelph, Ont., Canada, pp. 4547. McDougald, L.R., 1997. Other protozoan diseases of the intestinal tract. In: Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., McDougald, L.R., Saif, Y.M. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 10th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 890899. McDougald, L.R., Fuller, L., Solis, J., 1986. Drug-sensitivity of 99 isolates of coccidia from broiler farms. Avian Dis. 30, 690694. McDougald, L.R., Reid, W.M., 1997. Coccidiosis. In: Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., McDougald, L.R., Saif, Y.M. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 10th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 865883.

M.D. Ruff / Veterinary Parasitology 84 (1999) 337347

347

Nadakal, A.M., Nair, K.V., 1979. Studies on the metabolic disturbances caused by Raillietina tetragona (Cestoda) infection in domestic fowl. Indian. J. Exp. Biol. 17, 310311. Permin, A., Magwisha, H., Kassuky, A.A., Nansen, P., Bisgaard, M., Frandsen, F., Gibbons, L., 1997. A crosssectional study of helminths in rural scavenging poultry in Tanzania in relation to season and climate. J. Helm. 71, 233240. Reetz, J., 1993. Naturlich Mikrosporidien (Encephalitozoon cuniculi) Infecktionen bei Huhnern. Tierarztlich Praxix. 21, 429435. Reid, W.M., 1956. Incidence and economic importance of poultry parasites under different ecological and geographical situations in Egypt. Poultry Sci. 35, 926933. Reid, W.M., McDougald, L.R., 1997. Cestodes and trematodes. In: Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., McDougald, L.R., Saif, Y.M. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 10th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 850864. Ruff, M.D., 1989. Interactions of avian coccidiosis with other diseases: A review. In: Yvore, P. (Ed.), Coccidia and Intestinal Coccidiomorphs. Proc. 5th Int. Cocci. Conf. INRA Publishers, Paris, pp. 173181. Ruff, M.D., 1993. External and internal factors affecting the severity of avian coccidiosis. In: Barta, J.R., Fernando, M.A. (Eds.), Proc. 6th Int. Cocci. Conf. Miftt Print Craft, Guelph, Ont., Canada, pp. 7379. Ruff, M.D., 1994a. Considerations for the future control of avian coccidiosis. In: Xie, M. (Ed.), Proc. 2nd Asian Conf. Coccidiosis. Guangzhou, China, pp. 724. Ruff, M.D., 1994b. How sensitivity testing as the basis for selection of anticoccidials benets the poultry industry. Proc. Maryland Nutrition Conf. pp. 1221. Ruff, M.D., Allen, P.C., 1990. Pathology of coccidial infections. In: Long, P.L. (Ed.), Coccidiosis of Man and Domestic Animals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 263280. Ruff, M.D., Danforth, H.D., 1996. Resistance of coccidia to medications. In: Proc. XX Worlds Poult. Cong. Worlds Poult. Sci. Assoc., New Delhi, India, pp. 427430. Ruff, M.D., Norton, R.A., 1997. Nematodes and Acanthocephalans. In: Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., McDougald, L.R., Saif, Y.M. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 10th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 815850. Ruff, M.D., Rosenberger, J.K., 1985. Interaction of low-pathogenicity reoviruses and low levels of infection with several coccidial species. Avian Dis. 22, 471480. Ruff, M.D., Wilkins, G.C., Chute, M.B., 1990. Experiences in clearing anticoccidials under the IR-4 program. Proc. 4th IR-4/FDA Workshop Minor Use New Animal Drugs. pp. 199206. Ruff, M.D., Wyatt, R.D., 1978. Inuence of dietary aatoxin on the severity of Eimeria acervulina infection in broiler chickens. Avian Dis. 22, 471480. Slavin, D., 1955. Cryptosporidium meleagridis (sp. nov.). J. Comp. Pathol. 65, 262266. Springer, W.T., 1984. Other blood and tissue protozoa. In: Hofstad, M.S., Barnes, H.J., Calnek, B.W., Reid, W.M., Yoder, H.W., Jr. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 8th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 727740. Springer, W.T., 1997. Other blood and tissue protozoa. In: Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., McDougald, L.R., Saif, Y.M. (Eds.), Diseases of Poultry, 10th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 900911. Stockdale, H.J., Raun, E.S., 1960. Economic importance of the chicken louse. J. Econom. Entomol. 53, 421422. Warren, D.C., Eaton, R., Smith, H., 1948. Inuence of infestations of body lice on egg production in the hen. Poultry Sci. 27, 641642. Weber, G.M., 1997. Optimum use of anticoccidial products for efcacious prevention of poultry coccidiosis, In: Shirley, M.W., Tomley, F.M., Freeman, B.W. (Eds.), Control of Coccidiosis into the Next Millennium. 7th Int. Cocci. Conf. Clere Print, Newbury, Berks, UK, pp. 5152. Wilson, K.I., Yazwinski, T.A., Tucker, C.A., Johnson, Z.B., 1994. A survey into the prevalence of poultry helminths in Northwest Arkansas commercial broiler chickens. Avian Dis. 38, 158160.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen