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Signals: x(t), y(t) = continuous-time (CT) signals x[n], y[n] = discrete-time (DT) signals
DT Convolution:
{x * y}[n ] =
m =
x[ m ] y [ n m ]
N 1 m =0
DT Circular Convolution:
{x y}[n ] =
Recall: We dont want Circular convolution it is what we get if we try to implement Convolution in the frequency domain by multiplying DFTs (but not DTFTs) But we can fix it so that it works. We use proper zero-padding!!!
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Transforms (P-2)
Fourier Transform for CT Signals
X F ( ) = {Fx}( )
x (t )e
jt
dt
n =
x[n]e jn
1 x (t ) = 2
F jt X ( )e d
1 x[ n ] = 2
( )e jn d
Set z = ej
Z Transform for DT Signals
X z ( z ) = {Zx}( z ) =
n =
x[n]z n
N 1 n =0
x[n]e j 2kn / N
N 1 k =0
1 x[ n ] = N
X d [k ]e j 2kn / N
n = 0,1,2,..., N 1
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Special Case: N1 = 0
1 N 2 , if 1 N 2 1 1 n = N , n =0 if = 1 2
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Eulers Formulas
e j + e j cos( ) = 2 e j e j sin( ) = 2j
Im
j sin( )
j sin( )
cos( )
Re
2jsin()
e j
e j
2 cos( )
Re
e j
e j
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h[n] = systems Impulse Response It is response of system to input of [n] Hf() = systems Frequency Response It is DTFT of impulse response Hz(z) = systems Transfer Function It is ZT of impulse response
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Z / Freq Domain
Pole/Zero Diagram Roots
H ( z) =
z
Transfer Function
b0 + b1 z 1 + 1 + a1 z 1 +
+ bq z q + a pz p
ZT DTFT
H f ( ) = H z ( z ) |z = e j
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b0 + b1 z 1 + 1 + a1 z 1 +
+ bq z q + a pz p + bq z q ) + bq ) (z q ) + a p z p )
Im{z}
z p q z q (b0 + b1 z 1 + z p (1 + a1 z 1 + z p + a1 z p 1 + ( z 1 )( z 2 ) z p q (b0 z q + b1 z q 1 + z p q ( z 1 )( z 2 )
Re{z}
+ ap (z p )
Poles must be inside unit circle for stability Poles & zeros must occur in Complex Conjugate pairs to give real-valued TF coefficients 9/30
FIR: Finite Impulse Response h[n] has only finite many nonzero values Filter is FIR: If ai = 0 for i = 1, 2, , p (It is IIR otherwise)
H z ( z ) = b0 + b1 z 1 +
bn , n = 0,1,..., q h[n ] = 0, otherwise
+ bq z q
TF coefficients are the impulse response values!!
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Example System
Time Domain
Difference Equation ZT (Theory) Inspect (Practice)
Z / Freq Domain
Transfer Function
Input-Output Form
Y (z) 1 z = X (z)
1
Y ( z) H ( z) = = 1 X ( z) 1 z
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y(n-1)
y(n)
z-1
Inspect
y (n) = x(n) + y (n 1)
H ( z) = 1 z 1
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z = e j z 1 = e j
On Unit Circle
H ( z) = 1 z 1
z 1 = e j
H ( ) = 1 e j ( , ]
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[1 cos()] + [ sin()]
2
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Z/Freq Domain
Pole/Zero Diagram
Im{z}
z H ( z) = = 1 1 z z
Z / Freq Domain
H ( z) = 1 z 1
Transfer Function ZT Unit Circle
h(n) =
Impulse Response
DTFT
Frequency Response
Inv. DTFT h( n) = d 1 e j
H ( ) = 1 e j ( , ]
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DAC
CT LPF
p x(nT ) ~(t nT )
x[n] = x(nT)
Pulse Gen
~ (t ) = xp
~ (t ) xr
n =
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Sampling Analysis (#1) Goal = Determine Under What Conditions We Have: x Reconstructed CT Signal = Original CT Signal ~(t ) = x (t ) Simplify to Develop Theory: Use ~(t ) = (t ) p Why???? 1. Because delta functions are EASY to analyze!!! 2. Because it leads to the best possible case
~ (t ) xp
x p (t ) =
n =
x(nT ) (t nT )
xp(t) is called the Impulse Sampled signal Note: xp(t) shows up during Reconstruction, not Sampling!!
19/30
Sampling Analysis (#2) Now, the impulse sampled signal xp(t) is filtered to give the reconstructed signal xr(t)
x p (t ) =
n =
x(nT ) (t nT )
n =
x r (t ) = ???
CT LPF
= x (t )
(t nT )
H( f )
Xr ( f ) = H( f )X p( f )
n =
(t nT )
e j 2kt / T
s
periodic use FS
1 X p( f ) = T 1 = T
1 = x (t ) T 1 = T
k = k =
F {x(t )e
j 2kFs t
k =
X ( f kFs )
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k =
x(t )e j 2kF t
CT LPF
x r (t )
Xr( f )
Xr( f ) = X( f ) If Fs 2B
f
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Sampling Analysis (#4) What this says: Samples of a bandlimited signal completely define it as long as they are taken at Fs 2B Impact: To extract the info from a bandlimited signal we only need to operate on its (properly taken) samples Use computer to process signals
x(t)
Hold Sample at t = nT
x[n] = x(nT)
Computer
Extracted Information
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Sampling Analysis (#5) FT of Impulse Sampled Signal gives view of Original FT & FT of Impulse Sampled Signal = DTFT of Samples DTFT gives view of FT of original signal
Lets see this
F {x p (t )} = F x ( nT ) (t nT ) = x ( nT ) F { (t nT )} n = n = e jnT
n =
x ( nT )e jnT =
n =
x[n ]e jn
= T
F X p ( / T ) = X f ( )
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= T
2 = f Fs
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Sample Signal Suitably for Processing Detect Presence of Emitters Signal Estimate Characteristics of Signal Use Estd Chars to Classify Emitter Share Data Between Rxs Cross-Correlate Signals to Locate Tx
Receiver #1 (Rx1)
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Rx1
Antenna
Rx2
Antenna Analog Digital RF Front-End Sampling Sub-System Digital Front-End Estimate Signal Parameters
RF Data Link
Detect Signal
Classify Emitter
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Antenna
RF Front-End
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PSD Model
Px ( ) =
2 b0
+ b1 z 1 + b2 z 2 +
1 + a1 z 1 + a 2 z 2 +
+ bp z p q + a q z j z =e
Use PSD Model parameters {bi} and {ai} to classify signal type Compress/De-Compress Signal (Digital Processing) (see also EE523): Exploit signal structure to allow efficient transfer (DFT-Based Proc./ Filter Banks / Spectral Analysis) Cross-Correlate Signals (Digital Processing): Compute relative delay and Doppler (DFT-Based Proc.& Multi-Rate Proc.)
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