The Hydraulic Gradient

Describes how the friction and other losses effect the Hydraulic Gradient in a pipe subjected to a constant head
Contents 1. Introduction 2. The Significance Of The Hydraulic Gradient 3. The Hydraulic Gradient 4. Worked Examples 5. Page Comments

Introduction
In the pages on the flow of a fluid through pipes, it is seen that there is a loss of head. Whilst some of this is due to the effect of sudden contraction or expansions in the pipe diameter, pipe fittings such as bends and valves and entry and exit losses,a loss of potential head (i.e. The input of the pipe is higher than the outflow) a significant portion is due to the friction in the pipe (The Darcy Equation). However in a pipe of uniform cross section, there will be no loss of velocity head and so the loss of Total Energy will be the result of a loss in Pressure Head. The following diagram shows a uniform pipe and the value of pressure head at three points down its length. The line joining these points is calledThe Hydraulic Gradient

The Significance Of The Hydraulic Gradient

Normally when a pipe is laid, attempts are made to keep the pipe at or below the hydraulic Gradient However in some cases this may not be possible but provided that the pipe does not rise by more than about 26 ft. (8 mtr.) water will still flow. Above this height air comes out of solution and an airlock is formed.

The Hydraulic Gradient

The above diagram is of an extremely simple system. On the next diagram the pipe has both a sudden contraction and an enlargement. The various losses in energy are shown and this is used to construct the Total Energy Line which is shown in red on the diagram.

The velocity head at the salient points in the pipe are also calculated and these are subtracted from the Energy Line to give the Hydraulic Gradient which is shown in blue.

Worked Examples
To see the workings please click on the red buttons.

Example 1:
Two tanks A and B are connected by a pipe 100 ft. long. The first 70 ft. has a diameter of 3 in. and then the pipe is suddenly reduced to 2 in. for the remaining 30 ft. The difference of levels between the tanks is constant at 30 ft. f = 0.005 and the coefficient of contraction at all sudden changes of area is 0.58 Find all the head losses including that at the sharp edged pipe entry at A in terms of the velocity Gradient diagram. To see the workings please click on the red button and hence find the flow in gallons/min. Draw in Hydraulic

From the diagram:(1) Substituting given values

(2)

(3) The loss at the pipe entry A

(4)

(5) The frictional loss along AC (The Darcy equation)

(6) The loss caused by the sudden contraction at C

(7) The frictional loss along CB

(8) The velocity loss at the exit into B =

(9) It can be seen from the diagram that the total head lost is 8 ft. and therefore:-

(10)

(11) The flow through the pipes is the product of the cross sectional area of the pipe and the velocity. i.e.

(12)

(13) Note that 1 of water wqeighs 62.4 lb. and 1 English gallon weighs 10 lbs

The Hydraulic Gradient

(14) The velocity head in AC

(15) The velocity head in CB

(16)

The various head losses have already been written down in terms of It is thus now possible to tabulate actual values and enter them on a diagram of the two reservoirs and the connecting pipes.

The losses are:Entry at A 0.130 ft. Pipe friction 1.395 ft. Loss at C 0.657 ft. Pipe Friction 4.550 ft. Exit loss 1.263 ft. The Hydraulic Gradient is the line shown in Blue

Example 2:
Two tanks, A and B are 100 ft. apart and are connected by two pipes of 2 in. and 4 in. diameter. The height of water in tank A is maintained at 25 ft. above that in tank B. f = 0.008 for both pipes. The coefficient of contraction at pipe entry is 0.585 Calculate the rate of flow in each pipe and draw the Hydraulic Gradient. If the pipes are to be replaced by one larger pipe, calculate the diameter of the pipe required for the total rate of flow from A to B, to remain unchanged. Drawing of twin pipes from notes To see the workings please click on the red button

The head lost at pipe entry.

(17) Applying Bernoulli's and Darcy's equations.

(18) For the 2 in. pipe

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22) For the 4 in. pipe The arithmetic is identical to that shown above except the diameter of the pipe is now

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26) A single pipe

The

total

quantity

of

water

flowing

is

Applying Bernoulli and Darcy to the proposed pipe

(27)

(28)

(29) But the required volume of water delivered is

(30)

(31) Substituting in Equation (29) and solving for D (32) The Hydraulic Gradient for the two pipes is shown in blue Drawing of twin pipes modified.

Example 3:
An 8 in. diameter pipeline which connects two reservoirs whose difference of level is 37 ft., consists of a 1000 ft. length AB and a straight 1500 ft. length Bc having a valve 500 ft. from the lower end C, as shown. The pipes AB and BC have each constant coefficients but BC is slightly rougher than AB. When the flow is 600 gal./min. a gauge at B shows that the pressure head of water is 1.7 ft. and the loss of head across the valve is 15 ft.

Determine the maximum rate of flow if the loss of head across the valve when fully open is 4 ft. Also draw the Hydraulic Gradient for this quantity. Allow for the effects of velocity head in the pipe at exit but neglect the loss of head at pipe entry. Assume that the horizontal projection of BC equals its length. (B.Sc. Part1)

To see the workings please click the red button When the flow is 600 gal./min. let the velocity of flow be coefficients fo AB and BC respectively. Thus. and let and the the pipe friction

(33) Applying Bernoulli and Darcy to AB

(34) (35) Similarly for BC

(36)

(37) When the flow is maximum let the velocity by Then applying the Bernoulli and Darcy equations to the whole pipe system.

(38)

(39)

(40) The Hydraulic Gradient

(41)

(42) (43) As DC is half the length of BD

(44) The Hydraulic gradient is shown in blue on the following diagram. Note that it has not been drawn to scale. The difference between 37 ft. and 36.562 is due to rounding errors.