1

Distributed Generation Interconnection Transformer and Grounding Selection

R. F. Arritt, Member, IEEE, and R. C. Dugan, Fellow, IEEE

Fig. 1 Neutral Shift During Single Line to Grounded Fault (SLG) on Phase C (a) Pre-Fault Condition (b) Not Effectively Grounded System (c) Effectively Grounded System

II. DIRECT DG CONNECTION While it is possible to obtain DG rated for the utility medium voltage (MV) distribution system, there can be considerable risks in connecting such equipment directly to utility distribution system. This is particularly risky for installations fed by overhead lines. The insulation level of the machines may not coordinate with the utility system. Interconnecting DG through a transformer can eliminate many of the difficulties that may occur with directly-connected DG installations. Therefore, direct connection is often discouraged.

R. F. Arritt is with EPRI, Knoxville, TN 37932 USA (email: rarritt@epri.com) R. C. Dugan is with EPRI, Knoxville, TN 37932 USA (email: r.dugan@ieee.com

2008 IEEE.

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ntroducing Distributed Generation (DG) into a distribution system designed for radial power flow creates many issues including but not limited to: harmonic concerns, system overvoltages, fault coordination, increased fault currents, insulation coordination, and islanding concerns. The addition of DG may also alter the distribution of fault current affecting the existing overcurrent protection coordination. The added DG may expose the existing utility system to temporary system overvoltages that are damaging to the lineto-neutral-connected electrical equipment. For example, Fig. 1 illustrates typical phase voltages when a single line-toground (SLG) fault is applied at Phase C. Fig. 1(a) illustrates the pre-fault condition, (b) illustrates a system that is not effectively grounded, and (c) illustrates a system that is effectively grounded. As can be seen in Fig. 1 (b), there are excessive voltages on the unfaulted phases that will cause damage to surge arresters and other electrical equipment. This condition may occur when a DG becomes islanded on the faulted section. This issue as well as other conditions yielding overvoltages on the distribution system may be alleviated by choosing an appropriate interconnection transformer that maintains an effectively grounded system at all times. However, this may

I. INTRODUCTION

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Index Termsdistributed generation; grounding; neutral reactor; isolation transformer

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Abstract-- The interconnection of Distributed Generation (DG) into the power distribution system creates many challenges for utilities. Many of these challenges are related to the type of interconnection transformer (or lack thereof) and consequently the grounding used for the DG interconnection. There remains confusion about the various transformer types for DG interfacing. This is a critical point because the selection of the correct interface with the local utility will simplify feasibility studies; therefore, decreasing the overall cost of the DG interconnect investigation to benefit all. This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of different interconnecting transformers. Neutral reactor sizing for grounding transformer connections is discussed.

change the flow of fault current effecting the existing ground fault protection. The selection of DG interconnection transformer will also have an effect on the insulation coordination and the flow of third harmonics.

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III. INTERCONNECTION TRANSFORMER CONFIGURATIONS Several of the concerns with the interconnection of DG can be addressed, or at least minimized, through means of an appropriately-configured interconnection transformer. Three interconnection transformer winding configurations will be discussed here along with their advantages and disadvantages with respect to system protection (overvoltages and fault current), harmonic alteration, and other general system considerations. The transformers are assumed to be sized properly and have an appropriate insulation level for coordination between the utility and load-side equipment. A. Grounded-Wye (Utility) Grounded-Wye (DG) This is a common connection applied in North American distribution systems for three-phase loads. It is applied because of its reduced susceptibility to ferroresonance on cable-fed loads and fewer operating restrictions while being switched for maintenance. It is also generally well-behaved with respect to DG applications; however, a few issues do exist. A summary of advantages and disadvantages are listed below: Advantages: General 1) Less concern for ferroresonance in cable-fed installations; some core designs may be more prone than others if there is sufficient capacitance. 2) More economical than other connections in some applications, particularly at 25 and 35 kV class voltages. 3) More economic fusing than similarly-rated delta connected primary winding. This may also translate to a smaller-sized padmounted transformer. System Protection 4) No phase shift in system voltages (relaying); can detect primary side voltages with low-voltage relays. Disadvantages: General 1) DG sees same imbalance that utility system sees. Harmonics 2) Will directly pass zero-sequence harmonic currents (such as the 3rd harmonic). System Protection 3) DG may feed into any type of fault that is on the utility system. 4) Utility will supply fault current for internal generator ground faults, increasing fault damage. 5) Does not necessarily provide an effectively grounded source when islanded despite the fact that both windings are solidly grounded. Ground reference will be provided by the generator and/or load. Because of the fact that this type of connection allows the DG to feed into all fault types and also does not inhibit the

flow of zero-sequence harmonics, it may be difficult to operate some generators in parallel with the utility system using this transformer connection. Synchronous generators may produce third harmonic voltage distortion, depending on its winding pitch. This connection provides a very low impedance path for the third harmonics when paralleled to the utility system. This decreased impedance path may add or sink neutral harmonic current, damaging the generator or simply adding unwanted harmonic currents to the utility system. A neutral reactor may be added to limit the flow of zero-sequence harmonics and fault currents. Care must be taken when sizing the reactor (see following paragraph). The interconnection diagram shown in Fig. 2 shows a typical grounded-wye/grounded-wye installation. Despite the fact that both windings of the groundedwye/grounded-wye transformer are grounded, this connection may not provide an effectively-grounded source to the utility system when the DG becomes islanded. This is brought about by the fact that some generators are not themselves effectively grounded. For example, the ground fault current from a solidly grounded synchronous generator is typically larger than the three-phase fault current due to the fact that the neutral zerosequence impedance of a synchronous generator is typically smaller than the sub-transient positive-sequence reactance. Therefore, a common approach to limiting the ground fault current is to ground the synchronous generator through an impedance between the neutral point and ground. This added impedance may result in the DG not being effectively grounded while in an islanded condition. Fig. 3 uses the sequence diagram for the SLG fault situation to illustrate the flow of zero-sequence current through an islanded DG with a grounded-wye/grounded-wye transformer and a grounding reactor. Also, inverters used to connect such generation as microturbines and photovoltaics need isolation and will generally not be grounded at all. Likewise, induction generators seldom have a connection to ground. Thus, DG relying on these technologies will not provide an effectivelygrounded source to the utility when interconnected with a grounded-wye/grounded-wye transformer. The characteristics with respect to many power system faults and other disturbance events are similar to the delta/wye connection (discussed below).

Fig. 2. Grounded Wye/Wye Interconnection Transformer

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Cannot provide an effectively grounded system during islanding or open conductor conditions i.e. If islanded on SLG fault, can subject utility arresters to overvoltages. Difficult to detect some utility-side SLG faults from the generator side by voltage relaying alone. The delta winding tends to hold the generator side voltage magnitudes up and in the proper phase relationship. Primary-side relaying is often required to ensure rapid detection. Due to the susceptibility to ferroresonance, instantaneous overvoltage relaying (59I) is often required to ensure prompt detection of this condition.

B. Delta (Utility) Grounded-Wye (DG) Interconnection Transformer This is another common connection for three-phase loads in North America, and the most common connection in European-style systems. It would probably be favored for serving loads in most cases if it were not for the susceptibility of the connection to ferroresonance in the types of cable-fed systems common in North America. A summary of advantages and disadvantages are listed below: Advantages: Harmonics 1) Triplen harmonics from the DG do not reach the utility system. System Protection 2) Provides some isolation from voltage sags due to utility-side single line-ground (SLG) faults, allowing the DG to better ride through voltage sags. 3) Does not feed directly into utility-side SLG faults (it can contribute through other ground sources on the utility system). Disadvantages: General 1) Very prone to ferroresonance in cable-fed installations, especially during open conductor fault conditions. Harmonics 2) Depending on generator neutral grounding, 3rd harmonics in the DG may cause excessive current in the DG-side neutral. System Protection

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This type of connection is not alone in being prone to ferroresonance and subjecting arresters and loads to overvoltages during single-line-to-ground faults. This concern is shared with all transformers that have an ungrounded primary connection. While this type of connection prevents most third harmonic currents that might emanate from the DG from reaching the utility, it does not prevent their flow on the DG side. As discussed in the previous section, a neutral reactor is typically used to limit the third harmonic current flow if the generator is not of 2/3 pitch design which minimizes the 3rd harmonic. While the winding connection can be beneficial to the load in reducing the impact of voltage sags due to SLG faults, it also makes some SLG faults on the utility system more difficult to detect. This increases the likelihood of islanding because it will delay fault detection until the utility breaker operates for many faults. As with all ungrounded primary connections, there is danger in being islanded on a SLG fault with very light load even briefly because this can result in a severe resonant condition. Therefore, it is common to add other relaying functions to aid in the early detection of utility-side faults when this connection is used. A negative sequence relay can make the detection more reliable and will also help detect singlephasing conditions in which a fuse has blown. While the voltage magnitudes seen on the secondary may not change sufficiently, they will become unbalanced, resulting in detectable negative sequence voltages and currents. Care must be taken not to set these relays too sensitive, resulting in nuisance generator tripping. A common approach to more sensitive utility-side fault protection is to add relaying on the primary side of the transformer, such as a ground overvoltage (59N or 59G) relay that can detect the presence of the SLG fault. This is implemented by installing potential transformers (PTs) on the primary system and then placing a voltage relay in the corner of the delta winding on the instrumentation transformer. The interconnection diagram shown in Fig. 4 shows a typical delta/grounded-wye installation.

Fig. 4. Delta/Grounded Wye Interconnection Transformer Connection

C. Grounded-wye (Utility) Delta (DG) Interconnection Transformer This connection is rarely used on utility power distribution systems to serve loads, but is considered by many as the best way to interconnect large three-phase DG. This transformer connection is often referred to as a grounding bank and has a number of special characteristics that must be considered in its application on utility power systems. A summary of advantages and disadvantages are listed below: Advantages: General 1) Protection schemes are well understood by both vendors of larger DG equipment and utility protection engineers. Harmonics 2) Triplen harmonic currents that might be produced by the generator are blocked by the delta winding and cannot flow on the generator side and, therefore, are not passed on to the utility power system. System Protection 3) Utility-side faults are generally more readily detected by the DG system protection because the transformer itself actually participates in all ground faults. This generally allows the DG to disconnect more quickly. (This connection is also known as a grounding transformer or a ground source.) 4) Should the DG become isolated from the utility source (islanded), this connection helps the DG system to present an effectively grounded source to the utility distribution system and avoid the resonance and overvoltage issues of other connections. Disadvantages: Harmonics 1) Triplen harmonic currents already present in the utility system from other sources will tend to flow into transformers with this winding connection, contributing to transformer heating. 2) The flow pattern for triplen harmonic currents on the distribution system is altered, which could be either beneficial or detrimental to telecommunications interference and neutral-to-

ground voltages depending on the path taken by the currents. This is difficult to predict prior to construction and can require mitigation after commissioning should complaints arise from customers. System Protection 3) Contributes strongly to all ground faults, which can increase damage due to high fault currents. 4) The connection contributes to sympathetic tripping of the feeder breaker for faults on other feeders. The transformer supplies current to other feeders connected to the same substation bus. Ground trip pickup levels must be increased to maintain coordination, which results in less sensitive fault protection. 5) Utilities may have to change relaying depending on whether a transformer of this type is connected or disconnected. This requires expensive communications and control equipment that might not be needed for the other connections. 6) The transformer itself is subject to short-circuit failure when the fault occurs. This is particularly true for smaller transformer banks with impedances less than 4-5%. A special transformer must generally be ordered. The fact that this transformer acts as a ground source is undesirable on many distribution systems and few utilities will allow this connection on the distribution system without special study. Implementing this connection often implies changes to the feeder overcurrent protection scheme that are costly either in terms of having to replace equipment or of inconvenience to other customers on the feeder. Fig. 5 shows how the connection contributes to a SLG fault on a 4-wire, multi-grounded neutral distribution system, the most common in the U.S. Fig. 5(a) illustrates a ground fault when the DG transformer is not connected. Fig. 5(b) illustrates a ground fault when the DG transformer is connected. The arrows show the paths of the current from the grounded-wye/delta DG interconnection transformer. The currents flow back through the solidly-grounded substation transformer and contribute additional current to the fault. The amount contributed would depend on the size and impedance of the transformer. Fig. 7 shows the sequence network to illustrate this increased ground fault contribution from this transformer configuration. When this Figure is compared to Fig. 6, it can be seen that the zero-sequence current is divided between the utility and DG connection. This increases the overall ground fault contribution but reduces the ground fault current seen at the substation. Note: The DG contribution in Fig. 5 will be dependent on the capability of the DG to supply fault current. In many ground fault cases, the contribution due to the transformer alone will be larger. The connection of the DG device (delta, grounded-wye, or ungrounded-wye) is irrelevant for faults on the utility side of the interconnection.

Fig. 5. Grounded-wye/delta transformer for DG interconnection can feed ground faults on 4-wire multi-grounded neutral systems, introducing additional fault stresses and interfering with utility-side protective relaying (a) Without Transformer Connection (b) With Transformer Connection

Fig. 6. Sequence Diagram for SLG Fault in system without any Ground Wye/Delta Transformer Connection

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If this connection is to be used on a typical North American distribution system, some of the options for better accommodating it are: 1. Ground the transformer through a neutral reactance of sufficient size to limit the fault current contribution and the amount of unbalanced load current the transformer would have to absorb. (Discussed in next section.) Increase ground trip pickup settings on feeder breakers and line reclosers.

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Since this connection is unusual for distribution systems, but has some clear advantages for interconnecting DG, the remainder of this paper will be devoted to issues related to implementing it with a neutral grounding reactor. IV. GROUNDED-WYE (UTILITY) DELTA (DG) INTERCONNECTION TRANSFORMER WITH A GROUNDING REACTOR As discussed in the previous section, a neutral reactor may be added to this connection to make it more compatible with typical distribution system design by limiting fault currents, unbalance currents, and harmonic currents. If the neutral reactor is sized properly, the grounded-wye/delta transformer connection can provide an effectively grounded DG interface under all circumstances without excessive interference with system operation and other utility customers on the system. The interconnection diagram shown in Fig. 8 shows a typical grounded-wye/delta installation with a neutral impedance. Fig. 9 shows the sequence network for a SLG fault condition to illustrate the effect of the added neutral reactor. When compared to Fig. 7, the added reactor increases the

effective zero-sequence impedance, decreasing the overall ground fault contribution of the transformer. Not only does it reduce the total ground fault current when compared to Fig. 7, but when the zero-sequence current is divided between the utility and the DG connection, more current will flow through the utility connection allowing the ground fault protection to work closer to its original ground fault settings. With the addition of this neutral reactor, a neutral shift is introduced. When sizing the neutral reactor, one design goal is to not expose the distribution system to line-to-ground voltages during a ground fault during an islanding condition that greatly exceed the voltages under the same conditions with the utility source alone. The selection of the grounding reactor size is a trade-off that minimizes the risks associated with harmonics, ground fault currents and overvoltages. However there is one caveat: the addition of future DG with this transformer connection may alter the optimal size of this neutral reactor, complicating reactor sizing. The design must leave a certain amount of margin for future DG addition.

A. Neutral Grounding Reactor Sizing The proper sizing of a neutral grounding reactor on a grounded-wye/delta interconnection transformer is a compromise of three (3) conflicting goals. The impedance must be: 1. High enough to limit the maximum fault current contribution to a value acceptable to utility to which the proposed DG is to be connected, and to prevent failure of the grounding bank itself due to high fault currents flowing repeatedly in its windings. High enough to limit circulating currents sufficiently for continuous operation in unbalanced conditions. Low enough to maintain an effectively grounded system on the utility should the DG become separated from the utility system while the DG is operating.

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In order to be low enough to maintain an effectively grounded system the following criteria must be met [2]:
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Therefore, to keep the system effectively grounded during a possible islanding condition the reactor size needs to be limited to the value calculated below [1]:
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Fig. 9. Grounded-Wye/Delta Transformer Sequence Diagram for SLG Fault with Added Neutral Reactor

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The above calculation only guarantees effective grounding for the interconnection point. For faults at other locations on the feeder the zero- and positive-sequence impedances between the ground fault location and the DG need to be added to XT0 and XT1. The resistance portion has been ignored because of the small resistance values associated on transformers and generators; however, they may need to be included with the addition of feeder [7]. Reference [4] states a typical ohmic value of a neutral reactor to be within 1.0 to 1.5 times the transformer zerosequence reactance. This typical range of values is on a system that limits temporary overvoltages during line-toground faults to 122% and permits only a 5% reduction in feeder ground protection sensitivity from a case with no DG connected [4] . The authors have worked on cases where values between 4 and 5 ohms have been used on 15-kV class distribution systems for 5MW DG interconnects. This gives

the reader some idea of the ranges of values necessary for acceptable operation. As stated previously, the addition of future DG with the same transformer connection on the feeder may require the neutral reactor size be altered in order to meet the above design criteria. The technical solution may be straightforward, but the commercial solution is often contentious. V. CONCLUSIONS Connecting DG with a grounded-wye/delta, or grounding bank, transformer connection has advantages over other common connections used for loads by maintaining an effectively grounded system even when the DG becomes islanded. However, this connection cannot exist on many distribution systems without an appropriately-sized neutral reactor to limit zero-sequence currents. The proper sizing of the neutral grounding reactor is a compromise between conflicting objectives and must be done with careful study. The neutral reactor size may need to change to accommodate future DG on the system in order to maintain the ground-fault contribution and overvoltages to acceptable levels The implementation of this transformer (as with all interface transformers) with the appropriate insulation level will provide proper insulation coordination between utility and load-side equipment. VI. REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] EPRI 1000419, Engineering Guide for Integration of Distributed Generation and Storage into Power Distribution, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA 2002. IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical Utility SystemsPart I: Introduction, IEEE Standard C62.92.1-2000, Sept. 2000. IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical Utility Systems, Part IV Distribution, IEEE Standard C62.92.4-1991, Jul. 1992. Nagpal, Plumptre, Fulton, and Martinich, Dispersed Generation-Utility Perspective, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, May/June 2006, Volume 42 No. 3, Page(s):864 872. R.C. Dugan, On The Necessity Of Three-Phase Feeder Models For Dg Planning Analysis, IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting Conference Proceedings, 2002, Volume 1, Page(s):438 441. R.C. Dugan, M.F. McGranaghan, S. Santoso, H.W. Beaty, Electrical Power Systems Quality 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002, pp. 373-435. T.A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook. New York: CRC Press, 2000, p. 651-748.

VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Robert F. Arritt (M96) is a Power Systems Engineer for EPRI in Knoxville, TN. He holds a BSEE degree from West Virginia Institute of Technology, Montgomery, WV (2000) and an MSEE degree from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, MA (2005). His employment experience included Raytheon in Sudbury, MA where he worked in the Power and Electronic Systems Department. At Raytheon he was awarded the 2006 Raytheon Technical Honors Award for Peer and Leadership Recognition for Outstanding Individual Technical Contribution and also received a 2005 Raytheon Authors Award for work on Phase-Shifted Transformers for Harmonic Reduction. Mr. Arritt has spent most of his career designing and modeling power systems from the electronics level to ac generation. Recently, Mr. Arritt has been actively involved in distributed generation impact studies. Roger C. Dugan (M74SM81F00) is Sr. Technical Executive for EPRI in Knoxville, TN. He holds the BSEE degree from Ohio University, Athens, OH (1972) and the MEEPE degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY (1973). From 1992-2004, he served as Sr. Consultant for Electrotek Concepts, Knoxville, TN. From 1973 1992 he held various positions in the Systems Engineering department of Cooper Power Systems in Canonsburg, PA and Franksville, WI. Roger has worked on many diverse aspects of power engineering over his career because of his interests in applying computer methods to power system simulation. The focus of his career has been on utility distribution systems. He has been particularly active in developing advanced methods for analysis of distribution systems with distributed generation. He was elected an IEEE Fellow in 2000 for his contributions in harmonics and transients analysis. He is coauthor of Electrical Power Systems Quality published by McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition. He is currently Chair of the IEEE PES Power Systems Analysis, Computing, and Economics Committee. He was the 2005 recipient if the IEEE Excellence in Distribution Engineering Award.