Operating Systems-2 Explain how virtual addresses are mapped on to physical addresses. Let's assume that we have 1M of RAM.

RAM is also called physical memory. We can subdivide the RAM into 4K pages. Thus 1M / 4K = 256 pages. Thus, our RAM has 256 physical pages, weach holding 4K. Let's assume we have 10 M of disk. Thus, we have 2560 disk pages. In principle, each program may have up to 4 G of address space. Thus, it can, in principle, access 220 virtual pages. In reality, many of those pages are considered invalid pages. Page Tables How is an address translated from virtual to physical? First, like the cache, we split up a 32 bit virtual address into a virtual page (which is like a tag) and a page offset.

If this looks a lot like a fully-associative cache, but whose offset is much much larger, it's because that's basically what it is. We must convert the virtual page number to a physical page number. In our example, the virtual page consists of 20 bits. A page table is a data structure which consists of 220 page table entries (PTEs). Think of the page table as an array of page table entries, indexed by the virtual page number. The page table's index starts at 0, and ends at 220 - 1.

Here's how it looks: Translation Suppose your program generated the following virtual address F0F0F0F0hex (which is 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 two). First, you would split the address into a virtual page, and a page offset (see below).

Then, you'd see if the virtual page had a corresponding physical page in RAM using the page table. If the valid bit of the PTE is 1, then you'd translate the virtual page to a physical page, and append the page offset. That would give you a physical address in RAM. 2. Discuss the Optimal Page Replacement algorithm. The theoretically optimal page replacement algorithm , or Belady's optimal page replacement policy is an algorithm that works as follows: when a page needs to be swapped in, the operating system swaps out the page whose next use will occur farthest in the future. For example, a page that is not going to be used for the next 6 seconds will be swapped out over a page that is going to

be used within the next 0.4 seconds. This algorithm cannot be implemented in the general purpose operating system because it is impossible to compute reliably how long it will be before a page is going to be used, except when all software that will run on a system is either known beforehand and is amenable to the static analysis of its memory reference patterns, or only a class of applications allowing run-time analysis is allowed. Despite this limitation, algorithms exist] that can offer near-optimal performance the operating system keeps track of all pages referenced by the program, and it uses those data to decide which pages to swap in and out on subsequent runs. This algorithm can offer near-optimal performance, but not on the first run of a program, and only if the program's memory reference pattern is relatively consistent each time it runs. 3. Explain the concept of File. A file system (often also written as filesystem) is a method of storing and organizing computer files and their data. Essentially, it organizes these files into a database for the storage, organization, manipulation, and retrieval by the computer's operating system. ost file systems make use of an underlying data storage device that offers access to an array of fixed-size physical sectors, generally a power of 2 in size (512 bytes or 1, 2, or 4 KiB are most common). The file system is responsible for organizing these sectors into files and directories, and keeping track of which sectors belong to which file and which are not being used. Most file systems address data in fixed-sized units called "clusters" or "blocks" which contain a certain number of disk sectors (usually 1-64). This is the smallest amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a file. However, file systems need not make use of a storage device at all. A file system can be used to organize and represent access to any data, whether it's stored or dynamically generated

4. Explain the execution of RPC. Remote procedure call (RPC) is an Inter-process communication technology that allows a computer program to cause a subroutine or procedure to execute in another address space (commonly on another computer on a shared network) without the programmer explicitly coding the details for this remote interaction. That is, the programmer would write essentially the same code whether the subroutine is local to the executing program, or remote. When the software in question is written using object-oriented principles, RPC may be referred to as remote invocation or remote method invocation. A RPC is initiated by the client sending a request message to a known remote server in order to execute a specified procedure using supplied parameters. A response is returned to the client where the application continues along with its process. There are many variations and subtleties in various implementations, resulting in a variety of different (incompatible) RPC protocols. While the server is processing the call, the client is blocked (it waits until the server has finished processing before resuming execution). An important difference between remote procedure calls and local calls is that remote calls can fail because of unpredictable network problems. Also, callers generally must deal with such failures without knowing whether the remote procedure was actually invoked. Idempotent procedures (those which have no additional effects if called more than once) are easily handled, but enough difficulties remain that code which calls remote procedures is often confined to carefully written lowlevel subsystems. 5. Write a note on computer virus. A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer. The term "virus" is also commonly but erroneously used to refer to other types of malware, including but not limited to adware and spyware programs that do not have the reproductive ability. A true virus can spread from one computer to another (in

some form of executable code) when its host is taken to the target computer; for instance because a user sent it over a network or the Internet, or carried it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, DVD, or USB drive. Viruses can increase their chances of spreading to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is accessed by another computer.

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