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Cornerstones of Economy: y
Decision Making o Helps decision makers sort out financial, geographical, and logistical factors
Cost Reduction o Helps hold down costs of labor, energy and paperwork
o o o y
Computer System Components y Hardware o y Software o Instructions that tell the hardware what to do Equipment associated with the system
People o Computer programmer: writes software User: purchases and uses software Often called end-user
Interaction o
Becoming aware of the importance, versatility, and pervasiveness of computers in our society
Hardware: The Basic Components of a Computer y What is a Computer? Four primary components: o o Input devices Processor Output devices Storage
Knowledge y y y Interaction o y Knowing how to use computers for some simple applications o Learning what computers are and how they work Learning some technical jargon
What Is a Computer? y A machine that can be programmed to accept data, process it into useful information, and store it away o Data: raw facts representing people and events o Information: data that is organized, meaningful, and useful
Benefits of Computers y Productivity o Workers use computers to do their jobs faster and better
Input: What Goes In y Input: the data put into the computer for processing y Common input devices: Keyboard Mouse
Scanner
Keyboard y Most common input device o Generates electrical signals which are translated into characters Mouse Moves over a flat surface Movement of mouse ball causes corresponding movement of pointer on screen Scanner Reads special letters, numbers, and symbols Wand reader, bar code reader often used in stores Flatbed and sheet-fed scanners scan pictures or printed documents The Processor and Memory: Data Manipulation Processor Also called central processing unit (CPU) Memory (primary storage) Closely related to, but distinct from processor Provides temporary storage Primary Storage Used to temporarily hold data o After it is retrieved from input device and before it is processed o After it is processed and before it is released to output device Temporary (volatile) storage o Data in memory lost if power is lost or program closed
Screen (monitor): can display text, numbers, photographs, even video, in full color Printer: produces printed reports as instructed by a program
Common media o o o Magnetic Disks The most common storage media o Diskette: 3.5 flexible diskette in plastic case o Hard Disk: more storage capacity and faster access than diskette Optical Disks Use a laser beam to read large volumes of data inexpensively Magnetic Tape CD-ROMs DVD-ROMs Magnetic disks Optical disks Magnetic tape
The Processor Center of activity in the computer o Consists of electronic circuits Interprets and executes program instructions Communicates with input, output, and storage devices
Stores large amounts of data inexpensively Often used for system backup Peripheral Devices All hardware devices attached to the computer o Includes all input, output, and storage devices Networking Network: a system that uses communications equipment to connect computers and their resources Common network tools: o Local Area Network (LAN) o Modem o Electronic mail Local Area Network Personal computers in an office are connected so users can communicate o Users can operate computers independently o Can share resources and exchange data
Actually transforms data into information Output: What Comes Out Output: the result produced by the CPU Common forms of output: text, numbers, graphics, and sounds Common output devices:
Modem A device that allows users to communicate with other computers over telephone lines Required when you dont have a digital connection such as DSL or a cable modem Electronic Mail (e-mail) Send and receive messages electronically Can send text, pictures, links to Web sites Can attach files for collaboration Messages stored in computer mailbox The Internet The largest and most far-flung network Connects users worldwide Not actually a network, but a collection of thousands of networks Getting Connected To access the Internet, connect to a server computer Server receives, processes, and transmits information Computers use a standard to communicate Need an Internet Service Provider (ISP) Internet Service Providers The owner of a server computer Charges a fee for access to the Internet Fee can provide unlimited access or be based on usage Provides the user a means to connect to the server Once connected, you can connect to the Internet and all other server computers
Browser Software that allows you to use a mouse to explore the Internet Click on screen text and/or graphics to move to different locations Most commonly used to explore the World Wide Web
The World Wide Web A subset of the Internet Actually, a standard for displaying and transmitting information
Web site: a location on the Web Home page: the main page of a Web site
Classification of Computers Personal Computers Notebook Computers Handheld Computers Midrange Computers Mainframes Supercomputers Personal Computers Desktop computers o Also known as PCs, microcomputers, or home computers Broken down into three categories: o Low-end computers o Fully-powered personal computers o Workstations Network computer o Central processing unit and minimal memory o Designed to be used on a network Sometimes called thin client PC Categories Low-end computers o Fine for home users, word processing, simple games, Internet access Fully powered computers o Good for heavy use of graphics, programming, or action-oriented games Workstations o Very high-end computers used by engineers, financial traders, and graphic designers
Computer Protocols Provides a standard way to communicate with other computers Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) used on the Internet Allows different types of computers to share data
Getting Around the Internet Began as a means for Department of Defense and its research institutions to share information Information was text-only Commands to navigate were obscure
Now, much more visually based Use browser to explore the Internet World Wide Web
Notebook Computers Small, lightweight computers Capabilities approach that of desktop computers o Similar processing and memory o Most have hard disk, and diskette or CD-ROM drive Typically more expensive than comparable desktop computers Handheld Computers Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) o Keeps track of appointments, contacts, etc. o Accepts input with hand-held stylus Pocket PC Offers capabilities of PDAs, plus the ability to run stripped-down versions of software such as word processing and spreadsheets
Applications Software: Getting the Work Done Applications Software Software used to solve a particular problem or perform a particular task Acquiring Software: Traditional Ways Custom software Written by programmers hired by organization
Midrange Computers Multi-user computers designed to serve the needs of medium-sized organizations Hundreds or thousands of users connected Used for inventory, order-entry, and other company-wide applications
Custom Software Specifically tailored to an organizations needs Organization hires computer programmers to design, write, test, and implement software
Mainframes Very large and powerful computers Capable of processing billions of instructions per second Capable of handling billions of characters of data
Can be extremely complex and take years to write Packaged Software Sold in stores, catalogs, or Web sites Sometimes downloaded from the Internet
Often used for applications with many users Supercomputers Reservations systems Large mail-order houses
Package contains one or more CDs or DVDs holding the software Typically contains software documentation
The fastest and most powerful computers Capable of processing trillions of instructions per second Used for very sophisticated applications requiring mammoth data manipulation: Should be intuitive for even a beginning user Can be used with minimum of training and documentation
Acquiring Software: New Ways Freeware Public Domain Open-Source software Shareware
Electronic software distribution Application Service Provider Site License Software installed on some or all computers, depending on license terms Customer keeps track of how many users Number of users cannot exceed number of licenses Customer copies and distributes software and manuals to users
Freeware Author provides it free for all to use Author retains copyright May place restrictions on its use May not be altered or redistributed without permission
Some organizations use network licenses Software installed on server License fee based on number of concurrent users
Public Domain Software that is not copyrighted May be used and even altered without permission
Typically developed by universities and/or research institutions using government grants Open-Source Software A variation of freeware Source code made available Source code: readable by humans
Typical scenario: Download software for trial period Software disables itself after trial period unless you register (pay)
Other programmers can modify and redistribute the programs freely Helps identify bugs and create improvements more easily
Application Service Provider Delivers applications to businesses via the Internet ASP maintains software and data on its systems Customers access applications as needed over the Internet Alternative to creating and maintaining custom software or purchasing packaged software Rent software, paying based on usage Task-Oriented Software Often called productivity software
Shareware Copyrighted software, freely distributed for a trial period If you like it, register it for a fee Most authors add free documentation, enhancements, support, and updates to encourage people to register
Buying Commercial Software Individual copies for each computer Site license
Graphics software creates graphs and charts from numeric data Spot trends and compare data more easily Visual evidence more compelling Included in spreadsheet programs Presentation graphics creates slide show presentations Combine high-quality graphics, audio, and video
Working with Words Word Processing Most widely used personal computer software Create memos, reports, papers Incorporate graphics into documents Communications The ability to hook the computer up to phone line or cable and communicate with another computer Typically connected over the Internet Needs a browser to access other locations on the Internet
Other Task Software Newsletters Personal Information Managers Brochures, promotional materials Electronic Spreadsheets Made up of rows and columns of numbers Office Suite Perform what if analysis Change a cell and have spreadsheet recalculate A group of basic applications that work together Easy to share data among applications Similar look and feel among applications Integrated application A stripped down version of the office suite Business Software Vertical Market software Software for Workgroups Small Business software Vertical Market Software Keep track of activities Typically include appointment calendar, address book, and task manager
Database Management Handles the management of a collection of interrelated facts Software can store, retrieve, update, and manipulate data Can report data in many ways and print
Written for a particular type of business Written by companies who have a thorough knowledge of that industry Allows business to easily maintain information on the business, customers, vendors Encompasses all of the businesss activities
Copying software from a lab or from a friend Buying 2 or 3 copies of software and distributing it to dozens or hundreds of employees Buying 1 copy of software and installing it on several computers at home
Computers and People Most organizations have some sort of information technology department Made up of people who are responsible for the organizations computer resources Maintain data and provide services to end users
Groupware Lets a group of people share or track information together Also called collaborative software Often combines electronic mail, networking, scheduling, and database technology Data stored in one central location
Computer People Data entry operators prepare data for processing Often used by organizations with remote employees Software for a Small Business Librarians catalog processed disks and tapes Small Office/Home Office (SOHO) Moderately priced software to perform functions aimed at small business Examples: Accounting software Writing and advertising Customer service Keeping contacts Making sales pitches Ethics and Application Software Chapter 4 Piracy: the acquisition and use of illegal copies of software Counterfeiting: copying large numbers of CDROMs or DVD-ROMs and packaging them to look like the real thing Unauthorized copying of software is stealing Executes stored program instructions Software Piracy Two parts Examples of piracy Control unit The Central Processing Unit: What Goes On Inside the Computer Central Processing Unit Complex set of electronic circuitry Chief Information Officer (CIO) makes key technology decisions A key member of the organizations strategic decision-making team Must have knowledge in programming, as well as knowledge of the business Programmers design, write, test, implement, and maintain computer programs Systems analysts plan and design entire systems Computer operators monitor systems, keep peripherals running, and make backups
Control Unit
Items sent to ALU for processing Control unit sends items to ALU, then sends back to memory after processing
Directs the computer system to execute stored program instructions Must communicate with memory and ALU Sends data and instructions from secondary storage to memory as needed Arithmetic Logic Unit
Data and instructions held in memory until sent to an output or storage device or program is shut down Temporary Storage Areas Registers Memory
Executes all arithmetic and logical operations Registers Arithmetic operations High-speed temporary storage areas Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division Storage locations located within the CPU
Logical operations Work under direction of control unit Compare numbers, letters, or special characters Tests for one of three conditions Equal-to condition Less-than condition Greater-than condition Data Storage and the CPU Two types of storage: Primary storage (memory) Holds data and instructions for processing Stores data temporarily CPU refers to it for both program instructions and data Secondary storage Four steps performed for each instruction Long-term storage Stored on external medium, such as a disk The CPU and Memory CPU cannot process data from disk or input device It must first reside in memory Control unit retrieves data from disk and moves it into memory Machine cycle: the amount of time needed to execute an instruction Personal computers execute in less than one millionth of a second Supercomputers execute in less than one trillionth of a second Stores information only as long as the program is in operation How the CPU Executes Instructions Not part of the CPU Memory Also known as primary storage and main memory Often expressed as random-access memory (RAM) Keep track of where the next instruction to be executed or needed data is stored Accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data
Each CPU has its own instruction set those instructions that CPU can understand and execute
The Machine Cycle The time required to retrieve, execute, and store an operation Components Instruction time Execution time Bit Short for binary digit
Corresponds to two states, on and off Representing Data Bit Byte Word
System clock synchronizes operations Instruction Time Also called I-time Control unit gets instruction from memory and puts it into a register Control unit decodes instruction and determines the memory location of needed data Execution Time Control unit moves data from memory to registers in ALU ALU executes instruction on the data
Basic unit for storing data Byte A group of 8 bits Each byte has 256 (2 ) possible values
8
For text, stores one character Control unit stores result of operation in memory or in a register Memory Addresses Each memory location has an address Word A unique number, much like a mailbox The number of bits the CPU processes as a unit May contain only one instruction or piece of data When data is written back to memory, previous contents of that address are destroyed Typically a whole number of bytes The larger the word, the more powerful the computer Personal computers typically 32 or 64 bits in length Can be letter, digit, or special character
Referred to by number Programming languages use a symbolic (named) address, such as Hours or Salary
Data Representation Computers understand two things: on and off Data represented in binary form Binary (base 2) number system Contains only two digits, 0 and 1 Memory capacity of older personal computers
20
Megabyte: roughly one million (2 ) bytes Personal computer memory Portable storage devices (diskette, CDROM)
Gigabyte: roughly one billion (2 ) bytes Storage devices (hard drives) Mainframe and network server memory
40
30
Motherboard Flat circuit board that holds the computer circuitry Central processing unit (microprocessor) is most important component
Terabyte: roughly one trillion (2 ) bytes Coding Schemes Provide a common way of representing a character of data Needed so computers can exchange data Storage devices on very large systems Storage Devices
Long-term storage of memory Data not lost when computer shut down
Examples include hard drive, diskette, DVD-ROM Microprocessor Central processing unit etched on silicon chip Contain tens of millions of tiny transistors Key components: Stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange Transistors Most widely used standard Used on virtually all personal computers EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code Used primarily on IBM and IBMcompatible mainframes Electronic switches that may or may not allow electric current to pass through If current passes through, switch is on, representing a 1 bit Otherwise, switch is off, representing a 0 bit Central processing unit Registers System clock
Unicode Designed to accommodate alphabets of more than 256 characters Uses 16 bits to represent one character 65,536 possible values
Pentium III and Pentium4 processors in most PCs Celeron processor sold for low-cost PCs Xeon and Itanium for high-end workstations and network servers
Requires twice as much space to store data Other processors The System Unit Houses the electronic components of the computer system Motherboard Storage devices Cyrix and AMD make Intel-compatible microprocessors PowerPC chips used primarily in Macintosh computers
Faster and more expensive than DRAM Typically used for Level 2 cache
Memory Components Dynamic RAM Semiconductor Memory RAM and ROM Flash Memory Semiconductor Memory Used by most modern computers Reliable, inexpensive, and compact Volatile: requires continuous electric current If the current is interrupted, data is lost Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Retains information when power is shut down Used to store information needed when the computer boots RAM and ROM Random Access Memory (RAM) Read-Only Memory (ROM) Random Access Memory Data can be accessed randomly Memory address 10 can be accessed as quickly as memory address 10,000,000 Types: Static RAM (SRAM) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Bus width Packaged on circuit boards Static RAM Retains its contents with intervention from CPU Single in-line memory modules (SIMMS) Dual in-line memory modules (DIMMS) The number of electrical paths to carry data Measured in bits Flash memory chips resemble credit cards Smaller than disk drive and require less power Flash Memory Nonvolatile RAM Used in cellular phones, digital cameras, and some handheld computers Rambus DRAM (RDRAM): faster than SDRAM, will become more commonly used as price declines Must be continuously refreshed by CPU or it loses its contents Used for personal computer memory Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): faster type of DRAM used today
Read-Only Memory Contains programs and data permanently recorded into memory at the factory Cannot be changed by user Not volatile: contents do not disappear when power is lost
The System Bus Parallel electrical paths that transport data between the CPU and memory
Bus Width Typically the same as CPUs word size With a larger bus size, CPU can:
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus Used for slow devices such as the mouse and modem
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PSI) bus Transfer more data at a time Makes computer faster Reference larger memory address numbers Allows for more memory Universal Serial Bus (USB) port Support a greater number and variety of instructions Bus Speed IEEE 1394 bus The faster the bus speed, the faster data travels through the system Personal computers have bus speeds of 400 or 533 MHz Expansion Buses Add peripheral devices to system Computer Processing Speeds Expansion board Port Common expansion buses Expansion Boards Connect to expansion slots on motherboard Ports External connectors to plug in peripherals such as printers Two types of ports Serial: transmit data one bit at a time Used for slow devices such as the mouse and keyboard Parallel: transmit groups of bits together side-by-side Used for faster devices such as printers and scanners Common Expansion Buses and Ports Picosecond: one trillionth of a second Used to connect peripheral devices Instruction speeds measured in fractions of seconds Millisecond: one thousandth of a second Microsecond: one millionth of a second Nanosecond: one billionth of a second Modern computers have reached this speed A high-speed bus normally used to connect video equipment Allows you to convert many devices in a series into the USB port Used for faster devices such as hard disks
Microprocessor Speeds Measure of system clock speed How many electronic pulses the clock produces per second Usually expressed in gigahertz (GHz) Billions of machine cycles per second Some old PCs measured in megahertz (MHz) Comparison of clock speed only meaningful between identical microprocessors
Other Performance Measures Millions of Instructions per Second (MIPS) High-speed personal computers can perform over 500 MIPS Typically a more accurate measure of performance than clock speed
Fewer instructions increases speed Drawback: complex operations have to be broken down into a series of smaller instructions
Traditional processors use Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) Parallel Processing and Pipelining
Megaflop: one million floating-point operations Pipelining Measures ability of computer to perform complex mathematical operations A variation of traditional serial processing
Cache Parallel Processing A temporary storage area Speeds up data transfer within computer Pipelining Memory cache Processor cache Memory Cache A small block of high-speed memory Stores most frequently and most recently used data and instructions Feeds a new instruction into CPU at each step of the machine cycle Instruction 2 fetched when instruction 1 is being decoded, rather than waiting until cycle is complete Using multiple processors at once
Microprocessor looks for what it needs in cache first Transferred from cache much faster than from memory If not in cache, control unit retrieves from memory The more cache hits the faster the system performance Processor Cache Internal (Level 1) cache built into microprocessor Fastest access, but highest cost
Each part sent to separate processor Each processor has its own memory Control processor assembles results
Some computers using parallel processing operate in terms of teraflops: trillions of floatingpoint instructions per second Chapter 5 Input and Output: The User Connection How Users See Input and Output Users submit data (input) to the computer to get processed information (output) Output can be instant reaction to input Also can be separated by time, distance, or both
External (Level 2) cache on separate chip Incorporated into processor on some current microprocessors
RISC Technology Instant Reaction Reduced Instruction Set Computing Items scanned at supermarket Uses a small subset of instructions Produce item name and price at counter
Pointing Devices Sales rep enters an order on a pad Used to position a pointer on the screen Characters displayed as typed text and stored in pad Communicate commands to operating system by clicking a button Common devices Input and Output Separated Data on checks input into bank computer Computer processes entries once a month to prepare statements Mouse The most common pointing device Movement on flat surface causes movement of pointer on screen Others Devices used in laptops Mouse Devices used for games
Factory workers punch a time clock as they go from task to task Produce weekly paychecks and management reports
Water samples collected and input into computer Used to produce reports that show patterns of water quality
Several types Mechanical - small ball on underside rolls as mouse is moved Optical - uses a light beam to monitor mouse movement Cordless - uses either infrared or radio waves, rather than a cord, to connect to computer
Trackball and Joystick Keyboard Trackball Similar to typewriter keyboard May be part of a personal computer May be part of a terminal connected to a computer in another location Joystick Ergonomic keyboards Ergonomic Keyboards Designed to reduce or minimize repetitive strain injury of wrists Short lever with handgrip Distance and speed of movement controls pointers position Pressing trigger causes actions to take place User rolls the ball directly Often built into laptop computers Variation on mechanical mouse
Can be unique to an industry Keys on McDonalds keyboards represent Big Mac or large fries
Optical Recognition Tapping with finger recognized as click Uses a light beam to scan data and convert to electrical signals Common uses Scanners are the most common form Pushing post in any direction moves pointer Other optical recognition methods Common Uses Scanners at supermarkets Document imaging - converts paper documents to electronic versions Touch screen Allow user to touch items on screen Scanners Position of finger on screen determines item to be input into system Used at kiosks in public places such as malls Flatbed scanner Pen-based computing Use pen-like stylus to input data Often used in PDAs or pocket PCs Typically scans one page at a time Can be used to scan large bound documents Can be edited or processed by software Documents stored on disk
Other Pointing Devices Graphics tablet User moves stylus or puck across board Used to create or trace precise drawings
Source Data Automation Handheld scanner Use of special equipment to collect data at the source Primary areas Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) Optical recognition devices Other sources Smallest and least accurate
Optical character recognition (OCR) software required to convert picture into characters Other Optical Recognition Methods Optical Mark Recognition Machine senses marks on piece of paper
MICR
Optical character recognition Uses a machine to read characters made of magnetized particles Banking industry is predominant user Bar Codes Characters preprinted on lower left-hand side of check A series of vertical marks Wand reader reads characters in special typeface
Represents a unique code Universal Product Code (UPC) used as standard in supermarkets
Printers Voice output Music output Microform Computer Screen Technology Screen is part of computers monitor Screen output known as soft copy Intangible and temporary
Other Sources Voice input Digital cameras Video input Voice Input User speaks to computer Speech recognition devices convert spoken words into binary digits
Common forms Cathode ray tube (CRT) Flat-panel screens Smart displays
Most are speaker-dependent System learns users voice CRT Screens Types of systems Display text and graphics Discrete word systems - user must pause between words Continuous word systems - user can speak normally Most are in color Some monochrome monitors are used in applications that have no need for color or graphics
Digital Camera User takes photo that is stored on a chip Photo can be downloaded to computer Use photo-editing software to enhance Store permanently on CDs or DVDs Graphics card converts signals from the control unit into the image the user sees Factors affecting performance Factors Affecting Performance Scan rate The frequency with which the image is refreshed
Photos composed of many pixels of color Photos stored on removable memory card
Resolution (clarity) of screen Video Input Digital video consists of series of still frames Displayed rapidly enough to give illusion of motion Web cam used to transmit video over the Internet Dot pitch Can capture video from analog sources with video capture card Output: Information for the User Computer screens The amount of space between dots The smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the image The more pixels, the higher the resolution Graphics standards exist Measured in pixels (picture elements)
Smart Displays Based on flat-panel technology Each contains its own processor
Graphic Standards Agree on resolutions, colors, other issues related to displaying graphics Printers Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA) is most common standard Provides 800 (horizontal) x 600 (vertical) pixels on the display Other varieties of SVGA exist Support 16 million colors The number of colors that can be displayed depends on amount of video memory Flat-Panel Screens Liquid crystal display (LCD) Originally used for laptops, but making their way to desktop computers Produce information on paper output Printed output known as hard copy Wireless transmitter-receiver allows user to control desktop from anywhere in the house
Two ways of printing Impact Printers Physical contact with paper required to produce image Line printer Prints an entire line of a program at once Typically used with mainframe computers printing lengthy reports Impact printer Nonimpact printer
Very thin (only a few inches) Produce sharper text images than CRTs Easier on eyes than CRTs
Flat-panel technologies LCD Technologies Active-matrix Uses many thin-film transistors (TFT) Produces brighter image and can be viewed from wider angles
Dot-matrix printer Has print head consisting of one or more columns of pins Pins form characters and images as pattern of dots
Nonimpact Printers Passive-matrix Uses fewer transistors Cheaper and uses less power Places an image on a page without physically touching the page Laser printer Uses light beam to help transfer images to paper Produces high-quality output at very fast speeds
Ink-jet printer
Sprays dots of ink from jet nozzles Can print in both black and white and color Requires high-quality paper so ink does not smear
Needs special reader Common uses Libraries store back issues of periodicals Businesses store large volumes of historical records
Voice Output Voice synthesizers convert data to vocalized sounds Two approaches Synthesis by analysis - analyzes actual human voice, records and plays back as needed Synthesis by rule - uses linguistic rules to create artificial speech Less expensive than laser printers Terminals
Combine input and output capabilities Dumb terminal Keyboard for input and monitor for output No processing capability
Used in automated telephone-based customer service applications Useful when an inquiry would be followed by a short reply, such as a balance inquiry
Point-of-sale (POS) terminal Captures retail sales data when transaction takes place
Computer Graphics Music Output Business graphics Multimedia clips, games, videos include sight and sound Speakers placed on side of monitor Powered sub-woofers produce lowfrequency sounds Video graphics Computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) Business Graphics A powerful way to impart information Colorful graphics, maps, and charts help managers compare data, spot trends, and make quicker decisions As underlying data changes, charts and graphs are instantly updated
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) Rules for connecting musical instruments, synthesizers, and computers Allows users to set up home studios that rival capabilities of professional recording studios
Video Graphics Computer Output Microform (COM) A series of video images Output of photographically reduced images on microfilm or microfiche Microfilm - images stored on continuous roll of film Microfiche - images stored in rows and columns on a card Displayed rapidly to give the impression of motion
Used extensively in television Also used in computer and arcade video games Computer-Aided Design/ Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Creates two- and three-dimensional designs Performs engineering tests such as stress tests Serves as bridge between design and manufacturing Ethics and Data Once data is in computer, there are many ways it can be used Ethical issues to ponder Is it ethical to use a computer to alter photographs? Is it ethical to erase e-mail messages that may be of interest to a party in a lawsuit? Is it ethical to use someone elses data for your purposes? Economy
Data in secondary storage is relatively safe Secondary storage is highly reliable More difficult for untrained people to tamper with data stored on disk
Convenience Authorized users can easily and quickly locate data stored on the computer
Several factors create significant savings in storage costs Less expensive to store data on disks than to buy and house filing cabinets Reliable and safe data is less expensive to maintain Greater speed and convenience in filing and retrieving data
Chapter 6 Storage and Multimedia: The Facts and More Secondary Storage Separate from the computer itself Software and data stored on a semipermanent basis Unlike memory, not lost when power is lost
Magnetic Disk Storage Data represented as magnetized spots on surface of spinning disk Spots on disk converted to electrical impulses
Primary types Diskettes Made of flexible Mylar and coated with iron oxide Has protection of rigid plastic jacket 3 diskette holds 1.44 MB of data High-capacity variations Store a roomful of data on disks smaller than the size of a breadbox Diskette contains equivalent of 500 printed pages Optical disk can hold equivalent of 500 books Hard Disks Rigid platter coated with magnetic oxide Reliability Sonys HiFD holds 200 MB Imations SuperDisk available in 120 and 240 MB versions Iomegas Zip drive available in 100, 250, and 750 MB versions Diskettes Hard Disks
Disk drive - a device that allows data to be read from or written to a disk Disk drive for personal computers contained within computer housing Large computer systems may have several external disk drives
Cluster Cylinder Track The circular portion of the disk surface that passes under the read/write head Floppy diskette has 80 tracks on each surface Hard disk may have 1,000 or more tracks on each surface of each platter
Reading/Writing Data Access arm moves read/write head over particular location Read/write head hovers a few millionths of an inch above platter If head touches platter, a head crash occurs and data is destroyed
Data can be destroyed if head touches miniscule foreign matter on surface of disk
Sector Each track is divided into sectors that hold a fixed number of bytes Typically 512 bytes per sector
Disk Packs Each platter has its own access arm with read/write head Most disk packs combine platters, access arms, and read/write head Hard Disks for Personal Computers Sealed modules that mount in a 3 bay Capacity in gigabytes Accessing files much faster than accessing files on diskettes Some contain removable cartridges Cylinder Iomegas Jaz drive is very popular Cluster
Zone recording assigns more sectors to tracks in outer zones than those in inner zones Uses storage space more fully
A fixed number of adjacent sectors that are treated as a unit of storage Typically two to eight sectors, depending on the operating system
Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) A group of disks that work together as one
The track on each surface that is beneath the read/write head at a given position of the read/write heads When file is larger than the capacity of a single track, operating system will store it in tracks within the same cylinder
Raid level 0 spreads data from a single file over several drives Called data striping Increases performance
Disk Access Speed Access time - the time needed to access data on disk
When disk drive reads data from disk, it reads adjacent data and stores it in memory When next read instruction is issued, drive checks first to see if desired data is in disk cache
Once data found, next step is data transfer Seek Time The time it takes the access arm to get into position over a particular track All access arms move as a unit All simultaneously in position over a set of tracks that make up a cylinder
Similar to memory caching discussed in Chapter 4 Optical Disk Storage Provides inexpensive and compact storage with greater capacity Laser scans disk and picks up light reflections from disk surface Categorized by read/write capability Read-only media - user can read from, but not write to disk Write-once, read-many (WORM) - user can write to disk once Magneto-optical - combines magnetic and optical capabilities
Head Switching The activation of a particular read/write head over a particular track All access arms move together, but only one read/write head can operate at any one time
Rotational Delay The time it takes for the desired data on the track to rotate underneath the read/write head On average, half the time for a complete revolution of the disk
Compact Disks CD-ROM - drive can only read data from CDs CD-ROM stores up to 700 MB per disk Primary medium for software distribution
Data Transfer The process of transferring data between its location on the disk track and memory Measures of performance Average access time
CD-R - drive can write to disk once Disk can be read by CD-ROM or CD-R drive
CD-RW - drive can erase and record over data multiple times Some compatibility problems trying to read CD-RW disks on CD-ROM drives
About 10 milliseconds (10 thousands of a second) Can be improved by disk caching Data transfer rate - how fast data can be transferred once it has been found Stated in terms of megabytes per second Disk Caching Disk cache - a special area of memory
Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) Short wavelength laser can read densely packed spots DVD drive can read CD-ROMs Capacity up to 17GB Allows for full-length movies Sound is better than on audio CDs
Several versions of writable and rewritable DVDs exist Multimedia Presents information with text, illustrations, photos, narration, music, animation, and film clips Not practical until the advent of the optical disk
Disks occasionally fail Software installation can cause computer to crash Users make mistakes entering data
Tape is ideal backup medium Requirements Applications Requirements Organizing and Accessing Stored Data CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive Character Sound card or sound chip Field Speakers Record For high-quality sound, get good speakers and powered subwoofer File Database Character A letter, digit, or special character Field Go on virtual tours Study musical scores Study a foreign language Other Prepare taxes with video clips from IRS experts Record Play games A collection of related fields Magnetic Tape Storage Tape similar to tape used in music cassettes Categorized in terms of density Number of bits per inch stored on tape File A collection of related records For university, all the student records compose a file For the university, all of the fields for one student constitute one record For a university, a students first name would be stored in a field A set of related characters Describes one characteristic of a person, place, or thing Can copy entire hard disk to single tape in minutes Backup can be scheduled when you are not going to use the system
Used primarily for backup of data stored on disk systems Backup Systems Imperative to have copies of important data stored away from the computer Database
For university, student file, alumni file, faculty/staff file, courses file, financial file, etc. would make up a database
Applies mathematical formula to key to determine disk address of given record Collision occurs when hashing algorithm produces same disk address for two different keys
Indexed File Organization Must devise a plan for placing data on a storage unit Key factors Whether users must access data directly (immediately) File Organization Three major methods of organizing data files in secondary storage Sequential Direct Indexed How data must be organized on disk Type of processing that will take place Records stored sequentially, but file also contains an index Index stored sequentially, contains record key Data accessed by record key Combines elements of sequential and direct methods
Processing Stored Data Transactions processed to update a master file Transactions - a business event such as a sale Master file - data that is updated when a transaction occurs, such as a sales file or inventory file
Sequential File Organization Records are stored in order according to a key field If a particular record is desired, all prior records must be read first To update a record, a new sequential file must be created, with changed and unchanged records
Two main methods of processing data Batch Processing Transactions collected into groups or batches Batch processed and master file updated when the computer has few users online Batch processing Transaction processing
Tape storage uses sequential organization Direct File Organization Also called random access Go directly to desired record by using a key
Very efficient use of computer resources Master file current only immediately after processing Transaction Processing
Computer does not have to read all prior records Hashing algorithm used to determine address of given key
Processing transactions as they occur Also called real-time processing and online processing Terminals must be connected directly to the computer