Chapter 3: Literature Overview

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter primary objective is to focus on data transmission techniques that are common in practice. The topics and areas of relevance are highlighted in the form of a literature review. The material that is used for this chapter is predominantly derived from [4], [5] and [6]. Analog and digital formats are used as a means to transfer information across any medium. The physical layer is primarily responsible for a raw bit stream to be transferred from one node to another. Actual data transmission is more diverse as it may operate through various physical media these may be (magnetic media, baseband, twisted pair, coaxial cable, broadband coaxial cable, powerline, fiber optic, wireless, satellite, microwave etc.). However, the primary focus of this section is data transmission techniques that correlate with the powerline environment.

3.2 Baseband Digital Signals

A waveform has a special magnitude that is nonzero for frequencies, f in the vicinity of the origin (i.e. f = 0) and neglible elsewhere[7].

3.2.1 Line Coding

Line coding is method to increase the reliability of regeneration. There are various serial-bit signalling formats in which binary 0s and 1s are represented; these serial-bit signalling formats are referred to as line code. There are several line codes, but the two main categories are return-to-zero (RZ) and non-return-to-zero (NRZ). In (RZ) coding the waveform will return to the zero-volt level for a segment (which is in the order of one-half) of the bit interval. The waveform for line code is also classified as a rule of thumb for assigning voltage levels as a representation of binary data. Some of the waveforms follow: Unipolar Signaling: In positive logic unipolar signalling [7], a high level (which is the positive voltage) is representative of a binary 1, whilst zero level represents a binary 0. Unipolar signalling is also referred to as on-off keying. Polar Signaling: Binary 0s and 1s are represented by negative and positive levels of equal magnitude. Bipolar Signaling: Binary 1 is represented positive or negative values (alternating), whilst the zero level represents the binary 0. Manchester Signaling: A positive half-bit period pulse representative of all binary 1, this positive half-bit period is followed a negative half-bit period pulse [7].The same with a binary 0, it is first represented by the negative half-bit period pulse and the positive half-bit pulse follows. The popularity of Manchester signalling is because it is a combination of the clock and message contained in one signal.

Figure 1is a representation serves as a comparison of the digital wave form above.

Fig 1: Comparison of Digital Wave Forms

There are certain advantages and disadvantages associated to each of these line codes. For example, the NRZ (unipolar) line code has the advantage of only using circuits where only one power supply is required for operation. But it has the disadvantage that the required channels are to be dc coupled (i.e. frequency response f=0), this because the signal has a dc value which is non zero. Although the Manchester code is a combination of the data and clock signal, it requires a bandwidth which is twice than that of the bit rate bandwidth.

3.2.2 Multilevel Line Coding

The line codes described previously only make use of two logical levels. If the signal comprises of more than two possible outcomes, then it is said that the signal is said to be a multilevel signal. A method ideal in reducing the signaling bandwidth is converting a binary signal into a multilevel signal. In practice the filtered multilevel signals are often responsible modulating a carrier in order for digital information to be transmitted across a communication channel, thus providing a relatively narrow bandwidth [5].

3.2.3 Network Synchronization

Synchronization between the sender and receiver for any digital network is to be maintained. Synchronization signals are clock type signals present within a receiver for the purposes of data detection from the input signal. Synchronization is essential part of digital transmission systems. For example, if the arrival or transmission is not synchronized (timing is off), then the resulting information shall be distorted. Irrespective of the presence of voice, video, data, or image traffic, the digital stream of 0s and 1s presented are dependent on a set time of arrival of the two ends. The relationship of the frequency and phase of clock-signals is precise in relation to the received input signal, and there is a delay in this relationship when they compared to the transmitter clock signals, which a result of the propagation delay through the channel. Number of ways exists to synchronize a digital network, but it is important that this issue is addressed. For digital communication a minimum of three types of synchronization signals are needed:

The design of systems is such that synchronization is derived directly from the transmitted signal or a separate channel used for the purposes of transmitting the sync information. Systems that have bit synchronizers at which the sync is derived directly from the corrupted signal, requires that there are sufficient 0s and 1s in the data in order for synchronization

to be maintained. The loss of synchronization as a result of strings of all 0s and 1s can be avoided if one of the following alternatives is adopted: Bit interleaving (i.e. scrambling): in this instance the source data inclusive of 0s and 1s are scrambled in order to produce data that has alternating 0s and 1s. Bit stuffing: for a certain number of 0s and 1s (e.g. 5) are transmitted one after the other, the transmitted will automatically insert a bit of opposite value, which is later removed from the data stream by the receiver. Change to an entirely different type of line code, in which alternating data is not required for bit sync. Manchester NRZ is one such line code, but problem is that it requires a bandwidth that is twice than that required for a polar NRZ code.

There may exist timing differences between the transmitter and receiver. Therefore if a receiver expects a bit to be sent, and is not yet sent by the transmitter, a slip occurs. The occurrences of slips are due to number of factors in any network. They may be a result of two clocks with their ends being off or occurrence of problems along the link. These problems that may occur along the link can be combated, with the use of pulse stuffing or any other techniques. Each device within this link has a buffer capability, hence are able to create simple means for maintaining synchronization. To enhance the overall reliability of the network, pulse stuffing is done independently for each multiplexer, but resulting disadvantage is a creation of an overhead at each multiplexer [7].

3.3 Signal Modulation Techniques

Modulation is a technique that enables information to be transferred as changes in an information
carrying signal [7]. Modulation is utilized in both analog and digital information, it is effected state changes. The unit that performs the modulation and resulting demodulation is referred to as modem. For the purposes of analog information transmission, we utilise amplitude and frequency modulation.

3.3.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is regarded as the simplest form of modulation. The amplitude of the carrier wave varies in accord with some characteristic of the modulating signal (it may be analog or digital). The following equation is a representation of an AM signal:

where;

Amplitude modulation is used in the transmission analog voice (300-3,400 Hz) modulated on radio frequencies in the range 450 MHz in mobile radio systems, and to transmit TV images for cable TV networks. The AM signals bandwidth is twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal. This is because the amplitude modulation contains two sidebands; the frequency higher than the carrier frequency is referred to as the upper sideband, whilst the frequency below is the lower sideband. Modulation technique Single Side Band (SSB) is used to suppress one of these two sidebands resulting in a SSB-AM signal which its bandwidth is the same as the modulated signal.

3.3.2 Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM)

Frequency modulation is used for purposes of broadcasting over the FM band, the sound channel corresponding to TV, and some mobile communication systems. The phase and frequency modulation techniques are two special cases of angle-modulation signalling. We represent an angle-modulated signal by:

In the PM case, the phase is directly proportional to the modulating signal:

Where; m(t) = the modulating signal

Dp = phase-sensitivity of the phase modulator

For FM, the phase is directly proportional to the integral of m(t):

Where; Df = frequency deviation constant The reason it is called frequency modulation is due to the fact that instantaneous frequency varies about an assigned carrier frequency (fc) which is directly proportional to the modulating frequency m(t). This instantaneous mentioned is the frequency present for a particular tine instant and should at all be confused with the frequency term found in the spectrum of a FM signal. In other words the spectrum is an indication of the different frequencies present within the entirety of the signal. The figure 2 below is an illustration of the concept of AM and FM.

Fig.2 Amplitude and Frequency Modulation

3.4 Digital transmission of information

Modulation allows the transmission of digital, binary information (0s and 1s) on analog carriers (light waves and radios). Digital transmission is considered as the analog transmission of digitized information. During the modulation process, one or a group of bits are translated into rapid state changes, these changes are the phase or amplitude shift. Bandpass signals that are digitally modulated are generated with the use of AM, FM,PM or QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) signalling. The digital signal m(t) found in digital modulated signals is a digital signal that contains some binary or multilevel line code. These basic modulation methods are: amplitude-shift modulation frequency-shift modulation, and phase-shift modulation

The primary goal of modulation is to squeeze in the maximum amount of bits per hertz.

3.4.1 Shift Modulation

Figure 3 below is a depiction of how digital information is conveyed by amplitude, phase or frequency shift.

Fig. 3 Shift modulation for digitally transmitted information Frequency-shift modulation also referred to as frequency-shift keying (FSK). Where also phase-shift modulation is referred to as phase-shift keying (PSK). For phase-shift modulation, there is a differential phase shift relative to the previous phase (e.g. 90 for 0, and 270 for 1), or for the case where a specific phase is specified for each modulation state (0 for 0, and 180 for 1), where this specific phase is relative to some nominal phase (which is known by both the transmitter and receiver). The differential variant is common as less complicated demodulation equipment may be utilized. A straightforward variant of AM is utilized for the purposes of optical fibre transmission: light on (which is full amplitude) or light off (null amplitude). On-Off keying is a type of AM signal, and is the reason why it is also referred to as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK). The approach is letting the carrier wave represent a binary, and the no carrier be representative of a binary zero. Since OOK is a type of AM signalling, it is required that the bandwidth of an OOK signal be twice the bit rate. That means that the transmission bandwidth (Bt) of the OOK signal may be represented by Bt = 2B, where B is the modulated signals bandwidth. Figure 4 below serves as an explanation of this concept

Fig 4 On/off modulation of light in an optical fibre

3.4.3 Bit rate and modulation rate

There are dissimilarities between the bit rate and modulation rate. Bit rate which is the digital bandwidth, is specified by the units bit/second, which is nothing than saying the number of zeros and ones transferred per second. The modulation rate is specified as the number of possible changes in states per unit of time. The unit baud rate is used rather than the more complicated modulation states per second, is used for modulation rate[5]. If modulation methods comprising of four different states are used, then each of these states can be a representation of two bits, and all combinations are covered; 00, 01, 10, and 11. Figure 5 serves as illustration of this concept.

Fig. 5 A phase-shift-modulated signal with four states Since we represent each state change as two bits, the baud value is said to be half the value of the bit/s; as a result 1 200 baud would equal the bit rate 2 400 bit/s. An example regarding modems for a bit rate of 2 400 bit/s, there are four different phase-shift states in use. The resulting carrier frequency is 1 800 Hz.

3.4.3 Modulation Combinations

There are numerous cases where the combination of the basic methods amplitude-, frequency-, and phase-shift modulation are put to use. The amplitude-shift modulation and phase-shift modulation combination is called quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). The combination QAM allows more bits per hertz to be transmitted in comparison to when the each method is transmitting separately. If the transmitter is a PM transmitter with an M level digital modulation signal, M-ary phase-shift keying (MPSK) is generated at the transmitter output [7]. A plot of these permitted values that form the complex envelope will contain M points, for each M multilevel values there

exists one value, that corresponds to the M phases that the signal is permitted to. For the case where M=4 it is referred to as Quadrature Phase Shift Keyed (QPSK) signalling. QAM signals constellations do not have restrictions to the number signalling points only on a circle, as the MPSK case [7]. We define a general QAM signal as:

Figure 6 below is an illustration of QAM with 16 modulation states which is a combination of eight amplitudes and eight phase-shifts.

Fig. 6 QAM with 16 modulation states

3.5 Spread Spectrum Systems

Spread Spectrum (SS) makes use of wide band, noise like signals (making the detection of signals difficult). SS signals are also quite difficult to demodulate or intercept. Another difficulty is that it is harder to interfere (jam) with SS signals than with narrowband signals. The anti jam (AJ) and low probability of intercept (LPI) features is the reasons why SS techniques have been in use by the military for many years [8]. Spread signals are made intentionally such that they have a much wider band than that of the information they carry; reason as for these signals to be more noise-like. Numerous types of SS systems exist. For a system to qualify as a SS system, the system is to meet two criteria: The transmitted signal s(t) has to have a bandwidth which is much greater than the band width of the message m(t). This wide bandwidth s(t) must be the cause of an independent modulating waveform c(t), which we call the spreading signal; this spreading signal is to be known by the receiver to allow it to detect the message.

The two mainly common types of SS modulation techniques are the direct sequence (DS) and the frequency hopping (FH)

3.5.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)

The theory behind direct sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS) is to spread a signal over a larger band; this is done so by multiplexing the signal with a signature (the code). The system operates across a fixed channel. The manner, at which the signal is spread, is that each bit of packet which is to be transmitted is first pre-modulated via code. At the receiving end the original signal is recovered, by the receiver which receives the entire whole spread channel and to demodulate it by means of the same code. Since only a small portion of the total bandwidth is utilised by the system, any resultant narrowband interferer appears much weaker to that of a direct sequence system. Figure 7 below is a representation of a DS-SS signal.

Fig. 7 A spectrum Analyzer Photo of a Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum Signal The code that is used by the modulator is the same as the code of the transmitter, the reason for this is to match the received signal, resulting in a further decrease in the signal which is not modulated by the code, and this process is referred to as process gain of code.

3.5.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH-SS)

FH-SS makes use of a set of narrow band channels and sequentially walks through them. The process is exactly what the name implies; it hops from frequency to frequency over a wideband. The specific order at which the frequencies are occupied is a resultant function of a code some code sequence, and the rate of hopping from frequency to the next is function of the information rate. This transmitted spectrum of a frequency hopping signal differs quite significantly to that of a direct sequence system [7] The bandwidth of a frequency hopping signal is simply w times the number of frequency slots available; where w is the bandwidth of each hop channel [7]. Figure 8 is an illustration of a FH-SS signal.

Fig. 8 A Spectrum Analyzer Photo of a Frequency Hopping (FH) Spread Spectrum Signal The system is able to avoids interference as it never stays on the same channel; If a channel is so faulty that it cannot be used, it will wait for the next good channel.

3.6 Error Reduction Techniques

The transmission errors that occur in digital communication systems may be reduced by the using two main techniques: Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Forward error Correction (FEC)

In ARQ systems, when a receiver circuit detects an error that exists in a block of data, it requests that this corrupted block of data be transmitted. In FEC systems the data transmitted is encoded in order for the receiver to detect and also correct these errors. These procedures may be classified as channel coding, this because their purpose is to correct errors that occur due to channel noise. FEC techniques are used to correct errors on simplex (one-way) channels where returning an ACK/NAC indicator is not feasible[5]. The choice between utilising ARQ or FEC techniques is dependent on a particular application. ARQ is more often utilised in computer communication system, as it is relatively inexpensive and easily implemented, and is usually inclusive of a full-duplex (two-way) channel in order to allow the receiving end to transmit back an acknowledgement (ACK) for correct received data or to request that data be retransmitted (NAC) in the occurrence of an error within the data. FEC is ideal for systems with large transmission delays, because if we were to use ARQ, the resultant effect would be a small data rate and longer idle periods for the transmitter while it waits for the ACK/NAC indicator.

3.7 Medium Access Methods

Since on a communication network all the devices share a single physical medium, there are techniques that are required for the prevention of transmissions of these various devices to occur at the same time. These techniques are collectively known as medium access methods. Based on [7], the section describes the three medium access methods

Polling Contention Token Passing

3.7.1 Polling
In a polling system, one of the devices operates as the network master and the rest of the devices function as slaves to this master. Each device is queried by the master device to whether or not data is available for transmission. If there is available data to be transmitted, permission is given to the device to transmit data. If, however, there is no data to transmit the master queries or polls the existing slave device.

3.7.2 Contention
The opposite of polling is contention. In a contention system if one of the devices is to transmit, it will do so. The latest technology in contention based medium access methods is referred to as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection or Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CD or CSMA/CA). For conditions of CSMA/CD in the instance where a station wishes to transmit data, the station will first have listen to whether or not there are any transmission present. If the medium is still, it continues with the transmission. If the medium is active, the station will wait for a random period of time before it listens again. There is the possibility that two stations may transmit at the same period (this is the instance where they would at the same time sense the wire, come to the conclusion that the network is inactive, thus begin to transmit simultaneously), and result in a collision. With the use of CSMA/CD the station is able recognize that a collision will occur and hence it is able to take corrective action.

3.7.3 Token Passing

Token passing uses a token (predefined sequence of bits), the purpose of the token is to permit which device is allowed to transmit. A device is only allowed to transmit data over the medium only if it receives the token. Once a station has completed transmitting, it will release the token and the next station that is willing to transmit will acquire the token.

3.8 Conclusions
The chapter presents the basic concepts of a digital communications system within data communication.

3.9 References
[4] Regis J. Bud Bates et al.,"Voice and Data Communications Handbook", ISBN-0-072138188-8, Osborne/McGraw-Hill,2001 [5] Fredrik Roos, Powerline Communication in Train Control Systems, Master Thesis, KTH, Stockholm,2000 [6] Understanding Telecommunications, Ericsson,STF, STudentlitteratur, 2002 http://www.ericsson.com/support/telecom/,

[7] Khurram Hussain Zuberi Master Thesis- Powerline Carrier (PLC) Communication Systems Master of Science in Internetworking,2003 [8] ABCs of Spread Spectrum, http://www.sss-mag.com/ss.html,2003