Structural Guidelines

Forward
The intention of the EWB-USA Guideline series is to provide the basic elements for making informed decisions when investigating, designing, planning, and construction of sustainable structural systems in developing countries. This is intended to guide students and members of EWB chapters with appropriate questions and procedures of a project outside of the developed world. This document DOES NOT eliminate the necessity for having design reviewed by experienced engineering professionals in the appropriate area. These Structural Guideline were written by Rick Strittmater, P.E.
Table of Contents
Page
Introduction to the Structural Guideline.... 3 Part I - Assessment/Information Gathering Phase Section 1.0 Site Investigation. 3 Section 2.0 Structural Materials.. 6 Section 3.0 Structural Design Criteria.... 42 Part II - Design/Planning Phase Section 4.0 Design Calculations.....44 Section 5.0 Design Drawings, Material Lists, & Specifications.44 Part III - Construction/Implementation Phase Section 9.0 Construction Logistics.....45
2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved
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Introduction to the Structural Guideline

This Guideline is intended to describe the essentials of investigation, design, and construction of the structural elements and systems of permanent buildings, bridges (both pedestrian and vehicular), and earth and water retaining systems. The Guideline is not intended to apply to temporary structures, which generally do not require the same level of investigation, completeness of overall fact-finding and design, and care in construction, as do permanent structures. The Guidelines do not address cultural, social, environmental, or economic appropriateness of structures. As applied to buildings, the Guideline does not address the other systems that may be required to make facility useable such as water supply and treatment, solid and other waste management, electrical power, lighting, heating, ventilation and cooling.
Part I - Assessment/Information Gathering Phase

Section 1.0 - Site Investigation This section addresses the investigation and determination of the project site information including surface, sub-surface, and other natural (and man-made as appropriate) factors that will affect the design and/or configuration of the structural systems. The EWB project team shall investigate the conditions of the project site before beginning the design process. Ideally this would occur on an assessment trip and should be conducted or overseen by individuals with experience in the appropriate areas. 1.1 - Site survey The EWB team shall gather the necessary data to create an accurate site plan, including but not limited to, existing structures, topography, vegetation, features such as roads and rivers. The site plan should be drawn and included in all project reports and plans. The level of sophistication of the site plan should be dependent on its use in the final design. In most cases, prefabricated piece sizes will not depend on the survey as most work will be built in place. For simple areas, such as flat building sites, it may be possible to complete the survey with a tape and level. However for complicated topography that is important (such as a bridge site), surveying equipment should be employed. In addition, abundant photographs (digital if possible) should be taken looking at and away from the site in all directions. It is important for the site plan to be as accurate as possible as much of the cost estimating may depend on this. In addition, there are aspects of the analytical design that may also depend on the features of the specific and general site. For example, wind design pressures are related to a structures exposure. Exposure is often described in terms that relate to the features at the site. The same can be said for determining snow loads on a structure. For example, heavily forested areas may be treated differently than open areas.
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1.2 Soils Evaluation and Investigation The EWB team shall investigate the soil properties of the area that is to be built upon. This is most effectively done by digging test pits and characterizing the soil found. Test pits are generally assumed to be approximately 4-0 deep. In all cases, the digging of test pits should proceed with caution and due regard for safety with respect to the stability of the soil being excavated. The results of this field investigation should be summarized in a geotechnical report. Since this digging will likely be done by shovels, in many cases this is a futile effort as there may be a large strata of a completely different soil 20 below the surface. And the soil cannot be examined as it exists in the ground (in situ) without sophisticated testing. However, test pits allow a quick, general characterization (clay or sand) of the soil near the surface. In addition, if the surface has been modified by the local community or natural processes, such as adding soil to make fertile land, a test pit will most likely penetrate this to the soil below. The test pit will also help characterize the difficulty of digging in the region, and estimate the labor required. In addition, if there are wells nearby that are considerably deeper, the team may choose to investigate the inside walls of the well, taking care not to contaminate water supplies. Questions of locals can also help to understand the stiffness of the soil, such as when digging a well, how deep can you dig without supporting the side walls?. A general guide for the field evaluation of the soil type that is discovered through the digging of test pits is as follows: Material Gravel Sand Means of Field Identification Coarse pieces of rock, which are round or angular. 2.0 mm 60 mm Material is generally not bound together. Sand breaks down completely when dry, the particles 0.06 mm 2.0 mm are visible to the naked eye and gritty to the fingers. Particles are not visible to the naked eye, but slightly gritty to the fingers. Moist lumps can be molded but 0.002 mm 0.06 mm not rolled into threads. Dry lumps are fairly easy to powder. Smooth and greasy to touch. Holds together when dry < 0.002 mm and is sticky when moist. Spongy or stingy appearance. The organic matter is Varies fibrous or rotted. Has an odor of wet decaying wood. Size of Particles
Silt
Clay Organic
Often, the soil is a mixture of perhaps two, three or even four of these specific types of materials, a blended matrix if you will. A simple field test to determine the percentage of materials is called the Sedimentation Test. This test measures the proportions of clay, silt, and fine gravel/sand. For increased accuracy, two tests can be performed. The sedimentation test consists of the following steps:
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Fill a jar up to 1/3 of its volume with dry soil; Add clean water up the second-third of the jars height; Mix the soil and water with a stick; With the lid on, shake the jar vigorously until the soil particles are in suspension; Let the jar sit for one hour; Again, with the lid on, shake the jar vigorously, and allow it to sit for one minute; After one minute, mark the height of the fine gravel and sand layer, which will be the first two materials to readily settle to the bottom of the jar, as T1 in photo below; After 30 minutes, add a second mark to the point where the fine gravel, sand and silt have settled out of the water, as T2; After 24 hours, add a mark at the highest level of the fine gravel, sand, silt, and clay have settled out of the water, just where the water and earthen soil contents have separated visually, as T3; and, Calculate the percentages of the ingredients of the soil by following the equations where T1 = depth of fine gravel & sand, T3-T2 = depth of clay, T2-T1 = depth of silt, and where each depth is divided by T3 and then multiplied by 100 to give a percentage.
T3 T2 T1
Sedimentation Test Jar
1.3 - Climate & Weather Many assumptions must be made in the design. These assumptions rely heavily on the climate of the project site. The EWB team shall gather climate date including, but not limited to, extreme temperatures, wind speeds and frequency, elevation, yearly precipitation amounts, precipitation rates for severe storms, and seismic information. If the project is a bridge, water level and velocity data and river basin area should also be collected. If possible, a topographic map of the drainage basin should be obtained. The results of this investigation shall be shown in a climate report and in the case of bridge projects, a hydraulic report. In some cases, the information will be easy to find, as weather data (rainfall, wind etc) is now kept for any city with an airport. However, in many cases, the same history of 100+ years of records that exists in the US will not be available elsewhere. Thus, it is important to confirm or quantify the fairly recent and possibly somewhat far away data by asking lots of questions of older members of
2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved Page 5
the community. These questions can be comparative in time or space, such as has it become more/less rainy or windy in the last 10 years, Is it colder here than in the Capital? Or the questions should attempt to find a specific point of data that might be remembered, such as In the Hurricane 5 years ago, what was the highest water level in that river/lake?, or have you ever felt an earthquake?. It is important to document as much as possible, even if it seems unimportant at the time. It is difficult to anticipate what questions the hydraulic analysis and surveys will bring up, so talk to as many people as possible and ask as many questions as possible. The critical design questions that will need to be answered from this data include: Freezing/frost depth (for foundation stability) Maximum Wind Velocity/ Direction (generally for building design) Maximum Snow (depth)/Rain load (depth) (generally for building design) Seismic Determination (all types of structures) Stream Velocity and Maximum Stream Height (generally for bridge structures)
Section 2.0 - Structural Materials This section addresses investigation and determination of structural material shapes and properties that may be available for a given project. The materials described may be used as part of the permanent structure and/or as part of the temporary shoring/false work system. Design decisions in a structure are heavily dependent on the materials available locally. The EWB team shall investigate the sizes, availability, quality, and cost of all materials that might be used in construction of the project. This information should be recorded and included in design documents and cost estimates for the project. 2.1 Concrete In construction, concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a cement binder. The most common form of concrete cement binder is Portland cement. After mixing all of the ingredients; the water reacts with the cement in a chemical process known as hydration. This water is absorbed by cement, which hardens, gluing the other components together and eventually creating a stone-like material. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material on the planet. It is used to make building superstructures, foundations, roads, bridges, walls and bases for poles. As of 2005, about six billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, amounting to the equivalent of one cubic meter for every person on Earth. 2.1.1 - Cement Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminum. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay and grinding this product (called clinker), with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum). The resulting powder, when mixed with water, will become a hydrated solid over time.
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More than half of ready-mixed concrete contains fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, metakaolin, or other pozzolanic materials. These materials are collectively referred to as supplementary cementicious materials (SCMs). SCMs are very fine inorganic materials that usually have pozzolanic or latent-hydraulic properties. Fly ash: A by-product of coal-fired plants, it is used to partially replace Portland cement by up to 60% by mass. The properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latenthydraulic properties. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs): A by-product of steel production, it is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It has latenthydraulic properties. Silica fume: A byproduct of the production of silicon. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size in the order of 100 times smaller. Silica fume is used to increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers for workability.
2.1.2 - Aggregates Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct categories; fine aggregates and coarse aggregates. Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch (9.5-mm) sieve. Coarse aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch (4.75 mm), but generally range between 3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5 mm to 37.5 mm) in diameter. Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size gravel. Recycled concrete is a viable source of aggregate. Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions, and economy. Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process. Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the cement content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio. Generally, flat and elongated particles should be avoided. The amount of water in the concrete mixture must be adjusted to include the moisture conditions of the aggregate.
2.1.3 - Water Water suitable for human or animal consumption can be used for the manufacture of concrete. The water to cement (w/c) ratio (mass ratio of water to cement) is the key factor that determines the strength of concrete. It is also a key factor in the viscosity of wet concrete, which directly affects its workability during placement. A lower w/c ratio will yield a concrete which is stronger but all else being equal, more difficult to work with. A higher w/c ratio yields a concrete with a lower strength, but is very easy to work with.
Concrete can be produced in two general ways; ready-mixed and site-mixed. Ready-mixed concrete is produced (batched) at a plant, placed into a delivery truck and sent to the job site for placement. Site-mixed concrete is produced by hand at the job site either through the use of a small mixing device or mixing tub. Site-mixed concrete is proportioned by the crew at the job site.
2.1.4 Ready-mixed Concrete During a site assessment trip, it is very important to investigate the availability of readymixed concrete. Remote locations may not always have such material readily available. It is important to also note that it is necessary to have all ready-mixed concrete out of the delivery truck and in-place no longer than 90 minutes after the mix is batched at the plant. So, delivery routes, distances, temperatures, site access, size of crew, and many other factors can influence the time it takes to get the concrete out of the delivery truck. If ready-mixed concrete is available and deemed suitable for use on the project, there are additional items that should be investigated during a site assessment trip. Generally all ready-mix concrete producers have a variety of mixes that they can provide. The need for a variety of mixes is a result of many factors that include; strength, admixtures, air content, gradation of aggregate and even color. Depending on the nature of the concrete item that is being constructed, the EWB chapter should determine a general range of concrete mix characteristics that would be suitable. The intent of these guidelines is not to provide an exhaustive explanation of all aspects of concrete mix design. In the complex world which includes all structure types, all exposures, all conditions, there are literally thousands of considerations to be made when designing a suitable mix. In general, for EWB projects it would be suitable to work within the following: Strength. Concrete strength is expressed as the compressive strength attained at an age of 28-days. Higher strength concretes are usually more durable and more expensive. The structural engineering design of a concrete element uses the 20-day strength, expressed as fc. Common 28-day strengths range from 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa) to 5,000 psi (34.4 MPa). If the structural engineering design of a concrete element is based upon a concrete strength which is greater than 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa), then the EWB Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) may require the EWB chapter to devise some means of assuring that this strength has been attained. Generally, this may mean that on-site material testing could be required. A guideline for concrete strengths for ready-mixed concrete is as follows: o Walks, Slabs-on-Grade 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa) o Foundations, Footing, Grade Beams 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa) o Water Containment Tanks, Retaining Walls 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa) In the U.S.A., ready-mixed producers keep records of test results for the most common mixes that they provide. Producers can simply be asked to provide some test data for various mixes and a suitable mix is then requested. During a site assessment trip, the EWB chapter might seriously consider whether any local readymixed producers have this type of historical data to substantiate strength, as well as many other parameters about the mix.
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Water:Cement Ratio. The water-cement ratio is a convenient measurement whose value is well correlated with concretes strength and durability. In general, lower water-cement ratios produce stronger, more durable concrete. If natural pozzolans (or other SCMs see above) are used in the mix then the ratio becomes a watercementicious material ratio (cementicious material = Portland cement + pozzolonic material). A guideline for water:cement ratios for ready-mixed concrete is as follows: o o o o 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa) = 0.82 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa) = 0.75 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa) = 0.68 4,000 psi (27.6 MPa) = 0.57
Coarse Aggregate. The maximum coarse aggregate size will affect such parameters as amount of cement paste, workability and strength. In general, the maximum coarse aggregate size should be limited to 1/3 of the depth of any slab or 3/4 of the minimum clear space between reinforcing bars. Coarse aggregate larger than these dimensions may be difficult to consolidate and compact resulting in a honeycombed structure or large air pockets. As stated above, coarse aggregates are generally well graded, meaning they have a variety of sizes. In the U.S.A., there is a guideline for aggregates called ASTM C33. This specification has a number associated with a specific gradation of aggregates. Of course this may not be the case in the third world. But it is most likely that there is a similarity in the way in which the aggregate is specified with respect to size of particles. Since there are a litany of different types of structures, a guideline for two coarse aggregate gradations that would be suitable for the widest variety of structures are in the following table. The upper gradation would be for larger items such as footings, grade beams, retaining walls, tanks etc. and the lower gradation would be for walks, slabs, and the like.
Percent (%) passing by weight 1 inch (37.5 mm) 1 inch (25.0 mm) inch (19.0 mm) inch (12.5 mm) 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) No. 4 (4.75 mm) No. 8 (2.36 mm)
95-100 -
100
35-70 90-100
10-30 25-55
0-5 0-10
0-5
When expressed as a percent (%) passing, by weight, this specification would be applicable in any location since the U.S. and metric equivalent sizes are given. Fine Aggregate: Fine aggregates are generally taken to mean clean, durable sand. In the ready-mixed world, this is generally just a ready, reliable source of silica sand or ground sand.
Thus, guidelines for the four most basic characteristics of a ready-mixed concrete are given above. Ready-mixed concrete producers may inquire or ask you about other characteristics of a proposed mix that they are being asked to provide. If this occurs, the EWB chapter members should be made aware of these characteristics, a very brief discussion of three of these additional characteristics is as follows: Slump. Often a ready-mixed provider will ask. What is the desired slump? This refers to workability can be described as a combination of several different, but related properties such as:
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o o o o
Ease of mixing Ease of placing Ease of compaction / consolidation Ease of finishing
Generally, mixes of the stiffest consistency, that can still be placed adequately, and practically should be used. A guideline of typical slumps is: o Reinforced Foundation Walls and Footings: 1-3 inches (25 75 mm) o Reinforced Beam and Columns: 1-4 inches (25 100 mm) o Slabs: 1-3 inches (25 75 mm) at a quicker pace than other concretes. Air Content. Ready-mixed providers may ask, What is the desired air content? One of the greatest advances in concrete technology was the development of airentrained concrete in the late 1930s. Today, air entrainment is recommended for nearly all concretes, principally to improve resistance to freezing and thawing. However, there are other important benefits of entrained air in both freshly mixed and hardened concrete. Air-entrained concrete is generally produced by introducing air-entraining admixtures into the ready-mixed concrete. The amount of entrained air is usually between 5 percent and 8 percent of the volume of the concrete, but may be varied as required by special conditions. Air content is not mandatory. Airentraining admixtures will have an effect on the cost of the ready-mixed concrete. Air content is generally specified on the basis of 2 variables: the maximum coarse aggregate size and exposure environment. Relative to the two gradations for coarse aggregates shown above, guidelines for air content are as follows:
Nominal Maximum Size of Aggregate in. (mm) 1 in. (37.5 mm) in. (19.0 mm) Air Content, percent (%) Severe Exposure 5.5 6.0 Moderate Exposure 4.5 5.0 Mild Exposure 2.5 3.5
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Type of Cement. Ready-mixed providers may ask, What is the desired type of cement? The description of cement, contained above, generally referred to Portland cement in a generic term. Portland cement actually has different types. For the most part, the EWB chapter really not be concerned all that much with the type of cement. But, in the event that a ready-mixed provider brings this topic to light, the chapter should realize the differences between the three most common types of cement which are explained below. o Type I. This is normal Portland cement and it is for all general uses. It is also the most common cement. o Type II. This type of cement is used for structures which contain water or are in contact with soil which contains moderate amounts of sulfate. o Type III. This cement is used when high strength is desired in a very short time. Keep in mind that you will have to place concrete with Type III cement at a quicker pace than other concretes. o Note that there is a type of cement that is considered to be Type I/II, which is also very common.
Thus, these are three (3) additional characteristics of ready-mixed concrete can be discussed with the ready-mixed provider if need be.
2.1.5 Site-mixed Concrete In the case where the EWB chapter has determined that ready-mixed concrete is not available or suitable, then the only other alternative for concrete is to mix it at the site. The discussions above that were relative to the components of ready-mixed concrete are still applicable and need not be repeated. It should be obvious that the quality control of sitemixed concrete will definitely be less than that which can be attained by the use of readymixed concrete. Also, several characteristics of ready-mixed concrete will not necessarily be available for site-mixed concrete. Taking into consideration that the quality control is diminished, it is suggested that the structural engineering design of concrete items that are site-mixed should be altered. Most important among these is the value used for the 28-day strength of the concrete. If the structural engineering design of a concrete element is based upon a concrete strength which is greater than 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa), then the EWB Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) may require the EWB chapter to devise some means of assuring that this strength has been attained. Note that this is 500 psi (3.4 MPa) less than that which was suggested for readymixed concrete. A guideline for concrete strengths for site-mixed concrete is as follows: Walks, Slabs-on-Grade 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa) Foundations, Footing, Grade Beams 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa) Water Containment Tanks, Retaining Walls 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa)
For site-mixed concrete, it is generally assumed that the ingredients for the concrete will have to be delivered in bulk. During any site assessment trip, the EWB chapter should thoroughly investigate the availability of the separate ingredients, as well as means to deliver and stockpile them at the site. Keep in mind that the ingredients are very sensitive to moisture and will need to be covered and protected.
Bulk Cement. Bulk generally connotes the image of a loose pile of material. Cement is not conducive to this sort of delivery method. In any location where sitemixing of concrete is to be considered, it is likely that the cement is going to be obtained in bag form. The most common bag form is the similar to the product produced by Holcim, http://www.usmix.com/dp_holcim_portland_cement.phtml. This bag is 92.6 lbs. (42 kg) of Type I/II Portland cement. Just a side note in that while cement is a very prevalent product in the U.S.A., so much so that one might be tempted to think it is a ubiquitous, American Product. The truth is that 85 percent of the cement plants operating in the U.S.A. are owned by foreign companies. The top three manufacturers of cement in the world are: o LaFarge (France): http://www.lafarge.com In 42 countries on 4 continents you can buy products from our Cement Division. For locations where cement products can be purchased in any on of these 42 countries, see http://www.lafarge.com/cgibin/lafcom/jsp/directory.do?function=directory&BV_SessionID=@@@@14 83169320.1157917402@@@@&BV_EngineID=ccccaddijmfgfegcfngcfkmd hgfdggg.0 o Holcim (Switzerland): http://www.holcim.com For locations worldwide, see http://www.holcim.com/CORP/EN/id/1610640774/mod/gnm0/page/location_ global.html o Cemex (Mexico): http://www.cemex.com From this website you can find locations in several countries on several continents from which to purchase their products. See the Cemex Worldwide pull down menu on the home page. Cement in this form is very heavy and delivery of the material is something that must be addressed. Typically, one could estimate that you will need approximately 515 550 lbs. (233 249 kg) of cement for 1 cubic yard (0.76 cubic meters) of concrete placed. Make sure and take into account some waste, perhaps 5%. The sacks that contain the cement do offer some protection from humidity and very light, but unsustained rain. The sacks are not very easy to manipulate and transport by hand and breakage is common. Also, if buying the sacks directly, you might want to check first to see if the sacks feel overly hard or lumpy as they may have been exposed to some moisture and the cement within the bag has already hydrated and set up. Hydrated concrete can not simply be re-pulverized and used again. Hydrated concrete is simply wasted.
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Bulk Coarse Aggregate. Bulk coarse aggregate is no different that the coarse aggregate that is used by the ready-mixed concrete producers at a batch plant. The coarse aggregate is simply delivered to the job site and stockpiled. Certainly the aggregate will not deteriorate in the rain but it is important that the aggregate be as clean as practical. If rain produces a flowing mud and the mud is allowed to coat the stockpiled aggregate, this could prove to be problematic when the concrete is sitemixed. Placing the coarse aggregate on a tarp and covering the stockpile is always best. Since it is not always clear what sort of delivery trucks or vehicles (carts, wagons, etc.) are available, it is not easy to plan for how to facilitate delivery of bulk coarse aggregate. For approximate planning purposes, you will generally need between 1,600 1,700 lbs. (726 771 kg) of coarse aggregate for 1 cubic yard (0.76 cubic meters) of concrete placed. Make sure and take into account some waste, perhaps 5%. Bulk Fine Aggregate. Bulk fine aggregate is no different that the fine aggregate that is used by the ready-mixed concrete producers at a batch plant. Rain and moisture, which does not adversely affect coarse aggregate, can have a large effect on fine aggregate. First of all, the fine aggregate can simply wash and/or blow away if not protected. Secondly, if the fine aggregate is allowed to become overly moist or wet, the amount of water that is to be used in the mixing of the concrete can be dramatically altered. For approximate planning purposes, you will generally need between 1,450 1,525 lbs. (658 692 kg) of coarse aggregate for 1 cubic yard (0.76 cubic meters) of concrete placed. Dry sand will generally weigh 100 lbs./cu. ft. (1602 kg./cu. m.). The voids contained in dry sand account for a tremendous amount of volume. Most damp loose sands contain anywhere from 1/2 - 1 gallon (1.9 3.8 l) of water per cu ft of sand. Typically, one might use approximately 30.0 35.0 gallons (113.6 132.5 l) of water for 1 cubic yard (0.76 cubic meters) of concrete placed. Thus, if the sand above were simply damp loose sand instead of dry sand, you might already have anywhere from 7.2 15.2 gallons (27.3 57.5 l) of water simply contained in the voids of the sand. This is significant! This might account for anywhere from 20% to 50% of the water need! Remember, you can always add a little water, but you cant take it out of the mix. Once it is in, it is in, period! And, as with the coarse aggregate, delivery of this material must be addressed. It is moderately heavy. Site-mixed concrete can be prepared with simple hand tools such as: Square nosed shovel, see (http://www.homegardenandpatio.com/cat.cgi?s=2625093&c=garden_tools_shovels) Garden hoe, see (http://www.homegardenandpatio.com/cat.cgi?s=2611648&c=garden_tools_hoes) Mixing Tubs at 2.5 cu. ft. (70.7 l), see (http://www.capcityequipment.com/mbmothers0244.html) or even larger at 8.8 cu. ft. (250 l), see (http://www.plasgad.com/html/super_tub.htm)
Or, the concrete can be prepared with a portable concrete mixer, which can be seen at; (http://www.constructioncomplete.com/ConcreteMasonryEquipment/ConcreteMortarMixers .html). Portable concrete mixers can be powered by hand, electricity or small gas or diesel powered engines. There are literally thousands of types of portable concrete mixers. If this method is to be entertained, the EWB chapter must locate a reliable source for this equipment on a site assessment trip. Use would generally be through rental. Consider the units capacity, proximity to electrical power, security, and quality.
The final topic to be discussed for site-mixed concrete is the mix design, or recipe. In its most simple form, the proportioning method has evolved from the arbitrary volumetric method, (1:2:3 cement:sand:coarse aggregate) to the present-day weight and absolutevolume method. Based upon years of reviewing ready-mixed producers mix designs and thorough investigation with several ready-mixed concrete providers, the following are examples of mixtures for non-air-entrained concrete of medium consistency, 3 4 (75 mm 100 mm) slump. Two different maximum aggregate sizes are provided in order to be consistent with the guidelines for coarse aggregate for ready-mixed concrete expressed above. Guidelines for four (4) different target 28-day strengths are provided below.
Maximum Size of Aggregate in. 1 1 1 1 Water, lb. per cu. yd. of concrete (gallons) 340 (40.8) 300 (36.0) 340 (40.8) 300 (36.0) 340 (40.8) 300 (36.0) 340 (40.8) 300 (36.0) Cement, lb. per cu. yd. of concrete 420 375 485 430 565 500 620 545 Coarse Aggregate, lb. per cu. yd. of concrete 1,740 2,050 1,740 2,050 1,740 2,050 1,740 2,050
Water:Cement Ratio
Target fc, psi 2,000 2,000 2,500 2,500 3,000 3,000 4,000 4,000
Fine Aggregate, lb. per cu. yd. of concrete 1,380 1,270 1,330 1,210 1,260 1,150 1,210 1,120
0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55
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The table above is replicated in metric units below.

Maximum Size of Aggregate mm 19 38 19 38 19 38 19 38 Water, kg. per 3 1.0 m of concrete (liters) 201.7 (201.7) 178.0 (178.0) 201.7 (201.7) 178.0 (178.0) 201.7 (201.7) 178.0 (178.0) 201.7 (201.7) 178.0 (178.0) Cement, kg. per cu m. of concrete 249.2 222.5 287.7 255.1 335.2 296.6 367.8 323.3 Coarse Aggregate, kg. per cu. m. of concrete 1,740 2,050 1,740 2,050 1,740 2,050 1,740 2,050
Water:Cement Ratio
Target fc, MPa 13.8 13.8 17.2 17.2 20.7 20.7 27.6 27.6
Fine Aggregate, kg. per cu. m. of concrete 818.7 753.5 789.1 717.9 747.5 682.3 717.9 664.5
0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55
The two previous tables might be used as a guideline when arranging for ready-mixed concrete to be provided by a supplier. During an assessment trip, the EWB chapter might consider meeting with one, or several ready-mixed suppliers to discuss their standard mixes. A comparison with the tables above can then be made.
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If site-mixed concrete is to be used, then the above tables could certainly be proportioned to fit the volume which might be mixed in either a hand mixing tub or portable powered mixer. It might be useful to determine the mix proportions for a standard, 3.5 ft 3 (100 l = 0.10 m 3) volume of concrete. Hand mixing plastic tubs and portable, powered mixers to fit this volume are quite common. If a different volume is to be used, then again, these quantities can simply be proportioned, or ratiod down.
Maximum Size of Aggregate in. 1 1 1 1 Water, lb. per 3 3.5 ft of concrete (gallons) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) Cement, lb. per 3 3.5 ft of concrete 54.4 48.6 62.9 55.7 73.2 64.8 80.4 70.6 Fine Aggregate, 3 lb. per 3.5 ft of concrete 178.9 164.6 172.4 156.9 163.3 149.1 156.9 145.2 Coarse Aggregate, 3 lb. per 3.5 ft of concrete 225.6 265.7 225.6 265.7 225.6 265.7 225.6 265.7
Water:Cement Ratio
Target fc, psi 2,000 2,000 2,500 2,500 3,000 3,000 4,000 4,000
0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55
The table above is replicated in metric units below.

Maximum Size of Aggregate mm 19 38 19 38 19 38 19 38 Water, kg. per 3 0.10 m of concrete (liters) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (14.9) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (17.6) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (17.6) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (17.6) Cement, kg. per 3 0.10 m of concrete 24.6 22.0 28.5 25.3 33.2 29.4 36.5 32.0 Fine Aggregate, kg. per 0.10 m 3 of concrete 81.1 74.6 78.2 71.1 74.1 67.6 71.1 65.8 Coarse Aggregate, kg. per 0.10 3 m of concrete 102.3 120.5 102.3 120.5 102.3 120.5 102.3 120.5
Water:Cement Ratio
Target fc, MPa
0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55
13.8 13.8 17.2 17.2 20.7 20.7 27.6 27.6
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Since the small, site-mixed recipes are based upon the present-day weight and absolutevolume method, it might be difficult to attain unless one has a scale at the job site to use. Obviously this will most likely not be the case. Since hand tools will generally be the device used to blend and mix the ingredients, it might be useful to provide some guidelines as to how to alter the recipe with other units. Through experimentation, using a typical square-nosed garden shovel (http://www.homegardenandpatio.com/cat.cgi?s=2625093&c=garden_tools_shovels), it was determined that an average scoop of the three basic ingredients (fine aggregate sand, coarse aggregate, and cement) weigh approximately: Fine Aggregate Sand: Coarse Aggregate: Cement: 6.6 7.0 lbs (2.99 3.17 kg) 8.5 8.9 lbs (3.86 4.04 kg) 8.4 8.8 lbs. (3.81 3.99 kg)
Unit Weights of these three materials are: Fine Aggregate Sand (dry): 100 lbs. / ft 3 (1,602 kg / m 3 ) Coarse Aggregate (dry): 105 lbs. / ft 3 (1,682 kg / m 3 ) Cement (dry): 94 lbs. / ft 3 (1,506 kg / m 3 ) Using the shovel full weights, the recipe for the above standard, 3.5 ft 3 (100 l = 0.10 m 3) volume of concrete would be:
Water, lb. per 3 3.5 ft of concrete (gallons) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) 44.1 (5.29) 38.9 (4.67) Cement, Approx. No. of Shovels per 3 3.5 ft of concrete 6.3 5.7 7.3 6.5 8.5 7.5 9.3 8.2 Fine Aggregate, Approx. No. of Shovels per 3 3.5 ft of concrete 26.3 24.2 25.3 23.1 24.0 22.0 23.1 21.4 Coarse Aggregate, Approx. No. of Shovels 3 per 3.5 ft of concrete 25.9 30.5 25.9 30.5 26.0 30.5 25.9 30.5
Water:Cement Ratio
Target fc, psi
Maximum Size of Aggregate in.
0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55
2,000 2,000 2,500 2,500 3,000 3,000 4,000 4,000
1 1 1 1
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The table above is replicated in metric units below. But, since the volume of concrete mixed is the nearly the same, i.e. 3.5 ft 3 equals 0.10 m 3, it would stand to reason that the number of shovels would be the same for each case, US or SI.
Water, kg. per 3 0.10 m of concrete (liters) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (14.9) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (17.6) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (17.6) 20.0 (20.0) 17.6 (17.6) Cement, Approx. No. of Shovels 3 per 0.10 m of concrete 6.3 5.7 7.3 6.5 8.5 7.5 9.3 8.2 Fine Aggregate, Approx. No. of Shovels 3 per 0.10 m of concrete 26.3 24.2 25.3 23.1 24.0 22.0 23.1 21.4 Coarse Aggregate, Approx. No. of Shovels 3 per 0.10 m of concrete 25.9 30.5 25.9 30.5 26.0 30.5 25.9 30.5
Water:Cement Ratio
Target fc, MPa
Maximum Size of Aggregate mm 19 38 19 38 19 38 19 38
0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55
13.8 13.8 17.2 17.2 20.7 20.7 27.6 27.6
Concrete is always, in some way, formed, meaning that the wet plastic concrete is placed in a way that retains a specific shape until the concrete hardens. The forms for the concrete must not interact in a manner that will injure or greatly degrade or lessen the quality of the concrete. Guidelines about different kinds of concrete formwork are addressed as follows:
2.1.6 Earth-formed Concrete It is very common to use the earth to form such items as footings, pole bases, equipment pad foundations and the like. If the earth can be cut or shaped with relatively stable sides, then by all means, it is allowed to use the earth as a form. If the earth is used as a form, it is suggested that the overall dimensions of the concrete element be increased slightly to account for the irregularities that will be inherent with earth forming. For example, if a footing size of 9 thick x 16 wide is found to be necessary by calculation, it would be suggested to earth form a footing that is 10 thick x 17 wide. The added bulk will also allow for some degradation of the outside surface without lessening the needed section for engineering purposes. The earth should be relatively stable and able to withstand the placement (shoveling) of the concrete without sluffing off into the placed concrete. It is suggested that the earth be moist, but not overly wet so as to cause it to be muddy in any way. The earth should most definitely not be frozen.
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2.1.7 Wood-formed Concrete The most common approach to forming of concrete is to use wooden forms. This is true for nearly all types of concrete structures. When wood forms are used, it must be recognized that the forming will add a significant amount to the cost of the concrete. In the third world, cut dimension lumber boards or panelized lumber are considered expensive. The chapter should make every effort to be able to re-use forms multiple times and if at all possible, find a final use for the lumber as opposed to simply discarding it as construction trash. All wooden formwork should be coated in some fashion prior to placement of the concrete. The concrete will tend to stick to the formwork and make removal difficult. If the forms are too difficult to remove, one may injure the green un-cured concrete by the removal operation. This should be avoided. The coating is often referred to as form release agent, but may also be referred to as a separator, parting agent, or parting compound. This agent is a special chemical in the U.S.A. but in the third world this might be many things which could include; a thin layer of clay, a smearing of soft liquid soap, petroleum jelly, a thin oil, kerosene or diesel fuel. For the obvious reasons, the flammable materials should be avoided. If there is a large amount of forming to be accomplished, you will find that a lot of time and effort will be saved by using a specified form release agent or compound. A company that is generally located throughout the world is Grace Construction Products. A country guide which lists distributors in several countries can be found at their web site http://www.na.graceconstruction.com/sitemap.cfm. When concrete is placed in formwork, the forms must be able to adequately and safely retain and/or support the placed concrete. When a concrete stem wall or elevated wall is placed, the retained concrete will tend to want to splay out or force the formwork apart through hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is not to be overlooked and can be quite strong. Do not attempt to form walls without some means of holding the formwork together in a manner that is safe, stable and secure. In general, the only way in which the forms for vertical walllike or stem wall-like elements can be restrained is by external bracing (kickers, whalers, etc.) or internal form-ties. Both of these bracing methods require extensive planning and materials in order to accomplish. It can not be stressed enough that proper construction practices and attention to formwork must be addressed. Forms that blow out on the job site are costly, nearly impossible to repair, detrimental to schedule and could easily cause injury or death in the worst case. Internal form ties are generally a metal device or series of heavy gage wires which tie the two opposing forms together. The form tie resists the outward pressure via tension. After the forms are stripped off of the concrete, the protruding portions of the form ties are snipped off. Leaving them exposed can cause injury. If the concrete item is a wall of a liquid-retaining tank, it should be pointed out that the metal form ties may, over time, corrode and contaminate the retained liquid or allow the retained liquid to leak. Special attention must be given to these types of structures. Often in the developing world, special form ties with cone nut ends are used which allow a sealant concrete to be placed over the snapped off end of the form tie. The special concrete seals the form tie from attack. For an example, see http://www.tpub.com/content/engineering/14069/css/14069_262.htm. If elevated, overhead concrete elements are to be formed, then there is a high likelihood that the formed element will require some sort of temporary shoring or vertical support. Do not wait until you are forming an overhead element to discover this. Material for shoring might be significant and should be planned for.
2.1.8 Metal-formed Concrete The only instance where metal-formed concrete might be considered is for an elevated slab for a floor or a roof. Often a slab could be formed in place with wooden forms that will simply be shored and then removed. The cost of the shoring and time to erect it and take it down might be offset by the use of metal forming. This type of forming is called retainedin-place metal form deck. This decking is corrugated and can come in a variety of depths and thicknesses. Depth is referred to as the total depth of the panel and thickness is referred to as the gage thickness of the sheeting that was used to make the corrugated panel. Typically it is best to use metal form deck that is galvanized so that the deck has a long life. In general, the metal deck is only counted on for its strength to support the wet weight of the concrete plus a small added load for the construction workers. Once the concrete hardens, it is assumed that the concrete slab will support any additional superimposed loads. Of course there are a litany of different span conditions, metal deck types, thicknesses, grades of steel, etc. All instances can not be addressed in these guidelines. If an EWB Chapter wishes to use a retained-in-place metal form deck, they should investigate the types of deck available during an assessment trip. Other information that should be attained, if at all possible, includes: Steel type, allowable stresses, thickness, cost, coating (galvanized), standard lengths of sheets, standard widths of sheets, details for lapping sheets at sides and any load tables that might be offered by the manufacturer. A manufacturer of such decking in the U.S.A. is called Vulcraft. Their Steel Roof and Floor Deck manual provides a lot of useful information for this type of decking which they refer to as Non-Composite Floor Deck Type (Type C) Conform. See pages 20-39 of their manual. http://www.vulcraft.com/downlds/catalogs/deckcat.pdf#search=%22Vulcraft%20Metal%20 Deck%22. Follow all of the manufacturers instructions for using this type of decking.
At the same time the forms are being erected, it may be necessary to place the reinforcing. The following are general topics to be used as guidance with the placement of reinforcing.
2.1.9 Placing Concrete Reinforcing Placing of the reinforcing carries a litany of specifications for typical U.S. type construction. It is generally understood that a thorough presentation of these specifications will be of little help in the developing world. Suffice to say that getting the rebars in the right place and keeping them there during concrete placement is critical to the structure's performance. The following bullet points are some of the most important items to consider when placing reinforcing. Placing reinforcement atop a layer of fresh concrete and then pouring more on top is not an acceptable method for positioning. You must use reinforcing bar supports. Generally these consist of specialized devices which are made of steel wire, precast concrete, or plastic which act as chairs to support the rebars in a specific positions. These devices are most common in footings. These devices may not be readily available. It is most common to see the rebars sitting atop hard concrete rocks that provide the approximate specified concrete cover. Do not use overly large rocks, or rounded rocks which will cause the bars to slip off.
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In general, simply placing the bars on supports is not enough. Reinforcing steel should be secured to prevent displacement during construction activities and concrete placement. This is usually accomplished with tie wire. When tying bars, there is no need to tie every intersection--every fourth or fifth is normally sufficient. Rebars in walls can easily become displaced during concrete placement. Because the wall has forms, one may never see that the bars are dislodged. Care is required. Welded wire mesh slab-on-grade reinforcing is usually laid directly on the ground and as the concrete placing operations proceed, the mesh is simply raised with hooks to generally be at the middle of the slab. Welded wire mesh reinforcing which is allowed to lie on, and remain on the ground is useless. If you dont attempt to move it to the middle of the slab, you may as well just leave it out and save the time and money associated with buying it and placing it. All reinforcing should be free of dirt, mud or other laitenance that would reduce the bond between the reinforcing and the concrete. If possible, stress to the rebar supplier that delivery of rusted reinforcing bars is unacceptable. If the rebars are delivered in a clean condition, every attempt should be made to keep the bars from rusting. It bears pointing out that if a rebars is cut or bent by the manufacturer or provider, this area will be the first part of the bar that will experience rust. Earlier in these guidelines, there was an operation that was referred to as applying form release agent. Under no circumstances should you spray form release agent on the formwork after the reinforcing bars are in place. This coating will reduce the bond between the rebar and the concrete. Splicing of reinforcing is a very critical issue that should be given proper attention in the design and construction of concrete structures. Simply lapping the rebars willynilly all over the place for different lengths is un-acceptable and should be avoided. Splicing, in the context of these guidelines, means contact lap splices. These are rebars that actually contact each other. There are a litany of factors that affect the length of lap for reinforcing bars; so many in fact that it is felt that this is beyond the scope of these guidelines. With due respect to the general types of reinforced structures that are common for EWB Chapters (tanks, walls, foundations, etc.) the following rebar lap splices could be used:
Reinforcing Bar Size Imperial (Metric) #3 (10) #4 (12) #5 (16) #6 (19) #7 (22) #8 (25) Contact Lap Splice Length in. (mm) 12 in (305 mm) 15 in (381 mm) 18 in (457 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 37 in (940 mm) 48 in (1,220 mm)
The length of contact lap splices can add significantly to a projects overall tonnage of reinforcing. Please be cognizant of this. All contact lap splices should be tied in place. In general, the splicing of welded wire fabric reinforcing is done by overlapping 1 full mesh square, with wire tying.
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2.1.10 Concrete Cover over Reinforcing The reinforcing bars are supposed to be embedded in the concrete with sufficient concrete cover so as to protect the bar from intrusion of debilitating elements such as water, sulfates, etc. The required, or recommended thickness of concrete cover should be as follows: Minimum Concrete Cover Inches (mm) Concrete cast against and permanently exposed To the earth (i.e. footings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 in. (75 mm) Concrete exposed to earth or weather, #6 through #18 bars (19 57 metric) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 in. (50 mm) Concrete exposed to earth or weather, #5 bar, and smaller (16 and smaller metric) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 in. (38 mm) For cast-in-place concrete slabs-on-grade, it is suggested that the welded wire mesh be placed at the mid-depth of the slab. It is recommended that a minimum slab thickness, for slabs that are not subjected to heavy loads (rolling or otherwise) is 4 in. (100 mm).
2.2.11 Placing Concrete Placing of the actual concrete is also an act that is heavily and finely detailed in much of the world for routine projects. A detailed dissertation on placing of concrete is beyond the scope of these guidelines. There is a litany of factors that can have a direct affect on the quality of the concrete in a structure. With due respect to the general types of reinforced structures that are common for EWB Chapters (tanks, walls, foundations, etc.) the following bullet points should be used as guidance with regard to placing the concrete. Placing concrete is generally facilitated by using the chute on the ready-mixed truck or by transporting the concrete via buggys and wheel barrows from the truck to the formwork if the truck can not be positioned near to the formwork. If the truck can be positioned to avoid buggys and wheel barrows, make sure that the truck does not hit the formwork. If the concrete is site-mixed, then it is fairly obvious that the transportation will be done with buggys and wheel barrows. Do not place more concrete in a buggy or wheel barrow than can be easily handled by a single person. When transporting and depositing concrete into the forms, avoid excessive bouncing or jostling of the concrete as it can lead to segregation of the aggregates. When depositing concrete into the forms, avoid dropping the concrete from a position higher than 4-0 (1.22 m) as it can lead to segregation of the aggregates. If a project has a noticeable downhill or down slope or lower portions, place this concrete first.
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In the U.S.A., after the concrete is placed in forms (walls, footings, stem walls) it is then consolidated. Consolidation compacts fresh concrete to mold it within the forms and around reinforcement and to eliminate stone pockets, honeycomb, and entrapped air. Vibration, either internal or external, is the most widely used method for consolidating concrete. When concrete is vibrated, the internal friction between the aggregate particles is temporarily destroyed and the concrete behaves like a liquid; it settles in the forms under the action of gravity and the large entrapped air voids rise more easily to the surface. Internal friction is reestablished as soon as vibration stops. It is most likely not practical to have an internal concrete vibrator on the job site in the developing third world on account of the fact that these devices usually require electrical power or diesel powered motors. For an example, see http://www.toolfetch.com/Category/Concrete_Compaction/Vibrators/23582.htm. An alternative to internal vibration is external vibration. A suitable method is simply to tap (or slightly higher force) the forms on both sides with a hammer or stick in a fashion that vibrates the formwork and retained concrete. Handling of concrete should be carefully coordinated with placing and finishing operations. Concrete should not be deposited more rapidly than it can be spread, struck off, consolidated, and bull floated. Concrete should be deposited continuously as near as possible to its final position. In slab construction, placing should be started along the perimeter at one end of the work with each batch placed against previously dispatched concrete. Concrete should not be dumped in separate piles and then leveled and worked together; nor should the concrete be deposited in large piles and moved horizontally into final position. The addition of water to the mixed concrete at the site is strictly forbidden. Concrete shall not be placed on frozen ground, nor shall concrete be placed in unfavorable conditions which may be detrimental to the quality and finish of the concrete in the structure unless adequate precautions have been taken. Unfavorable conditions shall be deemed to include low temperatures (below 41o F {5o C} with temperatures descending, or below 36o F {2o C} with temperatures ascending). Hot weather conditions above approximately 77 F (25 C) can adversely impact the quality of concrete. In general if the temperature at the time of concrete placement will exceed 77 F (25 C), a plan should be developed to negate the effects of high temperatures. The precautions may include some or all of the following: o Moisten subgrade, steel reinforcement, and form work prior to concrete placement. o Erect temporary wind breaks to limit wind velocities and sunshades to reduce concrete surface temperatures. o Cool aggregates and mixing water (site-mixed concrete) added to the concrete mixture to reduce its initial temperature. o Provide sufficient labor to minimize the time required to place and finish the concrete, as hot weather conditions substantially shorten the times to initial and final set.
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2.2.12 Construction Joints When a concrete item can not be placed in a continuous operation, there will be a need to put construction joints in the item being constructed. Construction joints are where the construction stops at one point and then will start again. It is beyond the scope of these guidelines to provide a detailed presentation of the intricate details of construction joints. The EWB chapter must give proper attention to this concern and a professional structural engineer or suitable faculty advisor or suitable mentor should provide a proposed detail should it become necessary to install a construction joint in any concrete item, including slabs-on-grade. Some guidance about construction joints can be seen at; http://www.cement.ca/cement.nsf/0/F84E52F8C61D94F4852568AA006D5ED8?OpenDocu ment.
2.2.13 Finishing Concrete There is usually no need to pay attention to finishing concrete that is totally formed. The only surface that is exposed is the top surface and special attention need not be placed on this surface. A simple striking off of the concrete at the top of the form is all that is needed. For slabs-on-grade, it is a completely different story. As you place the concrete in the forms, use a rake and 2x4s to smooth out the concrete, so it is flush with the top of the forms. This is called screeding the concrete. Once the concrete is screeded off, either in total or a section, you must work the top of the concrete with a wood float (http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/concrete_tools/hand_floats.htm) or a magnesium float trowel (http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/concrete_tools/trowels.htm). You swirl these tools on the partially stiff concrete. This motion drives the coarse aggregates down into the slab and brings the fine sand and cement component to the top. Ideally, you would like to have the stones about 1/4 inch (6 mm) below the finished surface. This act is called toweling the concrete. You should avoid overworking the top surface of the concrete as this can lead to segregation of the fine aggregate and the cement. This will leave only cement at the top surface of the slab and upon completion (days later) you will most likely notice that this top layer (referred to as wedding cake icing) is coming off and delaminating. This is because the cement is all by itself and has no fines or coarse aggregate to bind into a matrix. There is little you can do about this if it occurs. If the concrete surface is to be exposed to walking and if it is desired to have a non-slip type finish, you can use a stiff bristle push broom to create a nice, finished texture. Simply pull the broom lightly across the smooth concrete to get the desired look. This type of non-slip finish should always be applied to exterior walks. The striations should be perpendicular to the direction of the foot traffic. Concrete slabs shrink notoriously as they cure and harden. They shrink 1/16th inch (1.6 mm) for every 10 linear feet (3.04 linear meters) each way. You must create control joints at even intervals so that you do not get random cracks across the new sidewalk. These cracks will always occur, there is very little that you can do to avoid them. The reasons are many; such as; friction between the underlying soil and the slab is different at the bottom
than at the top, evaporation which is generally more off of the top of the slab, un-even drying. Control-joints are generally saw cut into slabs-on-grade in the improved world. This is usually done within 18 hours of the slab being finished. In the developing third world, it is highly doubtful that a slab saw cutting device is available. In lieu of sawn joints, hand tooled in joints can be worked into the nearly set concrete. The tool for gouging these control joints into the slab is called a groover (http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/concrete_tools/groovers.htm). For a slab-on-grade that is 4 thick, the sawn joint or grooved joint should generally be 1/8 in wide x in deep (3.2 mm x 19 mm). The mesh reinforcing is not required to be interrupted at these control joint lines. When the concrete slab-on-grade cracks, and it will, it will simply crack in the control joint, hence the name control. This joint is a weakened plane through the concrete and more times than not, the concrete will find it and crack there. The wood float, trowel and groover tools should be readily available or could be easily transported to the job site from the U.S.A. The layout of the control joint lines requires some thought. In general, you would wish to have all slabs saw cut or grooved into square shapes that are generally no more than 15 ft. (4.6 m) on center each way. The square shape is the best because it shrinks the same in each direction. Square shapes are not always possible. Rectangular shapes are acceptable but it is preferred to have the ratio of the long side to the short side not be any greater than 2:1 with the long dimension no longer than 24 ft. (7.3 m). If it is deemed necessary to seal the control joint, after the concrete has cracked, it is suggested that the joints be filled with a polyurethane joint sealant. This is not necessary, but only suggested if the floor finish over the top of the slab is sensitive to moisture that may wick up and migrate through the crack due to capillary action. An example can be seen at; http://www.sealantsandcoatings.com/frameset.cfm?sheetLink=http%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Ec hemrex%2Ecom%2Fdocuments%2Fnp1%5Ftdg%2EPDF&compID=90&CSICode=102&pr odID=611&pageID=other&clickType=datasheet. This wicking and moisture migration can also be controlled by using a polyethylene sheet below the slab-on-grade as it is cast. However, one must recognize that if a polyethylene sheet is used below the slab, the water in the concrete mix only has 1 avenue to escape the concrete. All of the water must go upward. This lag between having the top dry first and then have lower level water migrate through the upper zones of a slab can cause a lot of distortion (curling) in the slab. If a polyethylene sheet is used, an example can be seen at; http://www.acehardware.com/product/index.jsp?productId=1308347&cp=1254881.1306647 &parentPage=family&searchId=1306647. It is suggested to use a clear sheet to reduce solar gain which could cause problems with the freshly placed concrete.
2.2.14 Curing Concrete After concrete is placed, a satisfactory moisture content and temperature (between 50F and 75F, 10C and 24C) must be maintained. This process is called curing. Adequate curing is vital to quality concrete. Curing has a strong influence on the properties of hardened concrete such as durability, strength, and water tightness. Exposed slab surfaces are especially sensitive to curing.
Curing the concrete aids the chemical reaction called hydration. Most freshly mixed concrete contains considerably more water than is required for complete hydration of the cement; however, any appreciable loss of water by evaporation or leaking will delay or prevent hydration. If temperatures are favorable, hydration is relatively rapid and occurs in the first day after concrete is placed. Retaining water during this period is important. Good curing means evaporation should be prevented or reduced. In general, formed surfaces such as walls, stem wall, footings (not earth-formed) and the like can be cured by simply leaving the forms in place for a moderate amount of time. The most important curing time period is in the first day or two after forming. If the design of the wall element requires a high strength such as 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa) or higher, then the EWB TAC may wish to have the EWB Chapter pay particular attention to forming. For items which are utilitarian in nature and do not require high strength, then it might be suitable to simply leave the forms in place for 24-36 hours maximum. In no case should the forms be removed sooner than 12-16 hours after casting. Unformed surfaces, such as slabs, are cured in a much different manner. Items such as these have a tremendous amount of surface area that will allow a tremendous amount of evaporation of mix water. If curing of the slab is not given proper attention, then the slab will be subjected to a litany of debilitating effects. The most popular and least expensive method of curing a slab is to spray membrane-forming curing compounds on the surface and edges of freshly finished concrete. This method doesn't prevent moisture from leaving the slab, but it does retard moisture loss. A membrane-forming curing compound is a specialized item and may not always be available. This compound is also manufactured by Grace Construction Products. A country guide which lists distributors in several countries can be found at their web site http://www.na.graceconstruction.com/sitemap.cfm. This product locks in the water that was used to mix the concrete. The concrete uses this water to complete the chemical reaction that continues for many months. This hydration reaction is what allows the concrete to reach its final design strength. In general, simple floor slabs and the like are not critical and key concrete elements and they are usually utilitarian in nature. This is not to say that proper attention should not be given to curing. But, it is to say that the curing process not be held to a very rigid and controlled standard. On the other hand, slabs that form the bottom of a water-retaining tank structure are very critical. Improper curing could lead to cracking which is very detrimental to such a structure. For critical elements such as tank bases/slabs, the goal is to maintain 80% relative humidity in the concrete for a minimum 7-day period after placement. Other curing methods include wrapping a slab (including the edges) with polyethylene film, ponding it with water, placing dirt or sand on the slab and keeping it moist, and using wet coverings like burlap and burlappolyethylene sheeting. Any of these methods, if entertained, should be evaluated during a site assessment trip. Material availability, cost and waste should be evaluated.
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2.2.15 Concrete Safety Anyone handling concrete should understand and practice a number of basic safety tips concerning protection, prevention, and common sense precautions. Precautions not limited to the following tips concerning protecting your head, back, skin, and eyes, should be considered. Wear a hard hat for head protection! Be careful how you move heavy materials. Working with the normal materials that are required to make and pour concrete, such as Portland cement, aggregate, sand, and water can be very strenuous to the average person's back. Take care to lift properly keeping your back straight and your legs bent to avoid serious back strain. Carry materials, if you have to, keeping them waist high and centered between your legs to lessen the chance for injury. Ask a co-worker for help if you need to lift heavy materials. Push the concrete to its final position with a shovel, rake or similar tool. Do not lift the concrete mix. Protect your self from skin irritation and chemical burns when working with fresh concrete. Severe burns can result with on-going contact between fresh concrete and skin surfaces, eyes, and clothing. Don't handle wet cement directly since it is basic so it will be injurious to your skin. Don't handle dry Portland cement without protection since it will draw moisture from your skin. Wear protective clothing, such as waterproof gloves, long-sleeved shirts, and long pants to keep the concrete from making contact with your skin. Wear rubber boots if you must stand in the fresh concrete while it is being placed, screeded, or floated to prevent concrete from flowing into them and making contact with your lower legs, ankles and feet. Wear proper eye protection when working with cement or concrete. Splattering concrete and blowing dust can easily enter your eyes during a concrete placement. Wear safety glasses with side shields, depending on the conditions at your project.
2.2.16 Wrap-up on Concrete There is a wide variety of information on the internet for concrete, mixes, placement, reinforcing, joints, etc. One of the best guides available can be seen at; http://www.concrete.net.au/pdf/concretebasics.pdf#search=%22concrete%20construction%2 0joints%22
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2.2 Reinforcing Nearly all concrete is reinforced. Concrete is extremely strong in compression and very weak in tension. The reinforcing in concrete is intended to provide the tension strength in concrete bending elements. In concrete compression elements, the reinforcing does add some strength as well. Reinforcing generally means steel wire mesh or steel bars referred to as rebars. In the structural engineering design of reinforced concrete elements, the rebars are a critical part of the design. One of the most important items that an EWB assessment team needs to determine is the type of reinforcing steel that is readily available for the project. In the U.S.A., and quite possibly throughout the world, there is a type of reinforcing bar that we refer to as ASTM A615, Grade 60. This type of rebar has a yield strength of 60,000 psi (413.7 MPa). However, it is not uncommon to also find a lower grade steel that is referred to in the U.S.A. as ASTM A615, Grade 40. This type of rebar has a yield strength of 40,000 psi (275.8 MPa). In the U.S.A., this lower grade steel was normally only used for very small diameter rebars, 3/8 (#3). In the developing world, there is no telling what sort of reinforcing is readily available. If an implementation design has assumed a high strength reinforcing (60,000 psi or 413.7 MPa), there is a high likelihood that the EWB TAC will require the EWB Chapter to obtain evidence that this steel has been provided and installed. In cast-in-place concrete slabs-on-grade, it is common to use a wire mesh instead of reinforcing bars. Generally in the design of concrete slabs that are not subjected to heavy wheeled or point loads, the mesh reinforcing is simply installed as a means to resist the stresses in the slab due to plastic shrinkage and temperature. In the U.S.A., this welded wire steel mesh is generally a lattice of smooth steel wires that are spaced at either 4 or 6 on center. The gage (diameter) of the wires can vary from very small to quite large. For the most part, the EWB projects that utilize a cast-inplace concrete slab-on-grade will be adequately reinforced by the minimal size wire mesh. In general, these meshes come in either rolls or sheets. Rolls are more common. It is not imperative, but if it is possible at all, the EWB Chapter should try to obtain any specifications for the mesh that they are to use. For pure comparison, in the U.S.A., common mesh reinforcing that is suitable for cast-in-place concrete slabs-on-grade is referred to as 6x6-W1.4xW1.4 welded wire fabric. A guide for converting from U.S. nomenclature to metric for welded wire fabric can be examined at http://www.wirereinforcementinstitute.org/HTDocs/PDFs/TF%20206-R-03.pdf#search=%226x6W1.4xW1.4%22. With regard to concrete reinforcing, there are certain criteria that should be made known and followed. It is not the intent of these guidelines to provide an exhaustive presentation on each of these criteria. A discussion of the main criteria follows: 2.2.1 Metric Sizes for Reinforcing Nearly every country on earth, except the U.S.A. specifies their reinforcing bars in metric sizes. The bar sizes are very similar to those used in the U.S.A. In the structural engineering of concrete elements, it is suggested that the metric bars sizes be used in the calculations because they represent what is actually going to be placed. Again, for higher strength rebars, substantiate the material strength. There are many on-line guides to show the side by side comparison between normal U.S. size rebars (sometimes referred to as imperial) and generally available metric size rebars. One example is provided by the Georgia Department of Transportation. This comparison chart can be seen at the following: http://www.dot.state.ga.us/preconstruction/bridgedesign/brinfo/rbarmet.shtml.
2.2.2 Reinforcing Safety Anyone working around or with concrete reinforcing should be aware of the hazards and safety precautions related to this operation. For example, working more than 6 feet above any adjacent working surface, placing and securing reinforcing steel in walls, piers, columns, etc., should be done while use a safety belt, full body harness or other equivalent form of fall arrest or restraint protection. Do not work above vertically protruding rebar unless it has been protected to eliminate the hazard of impalement. The top of the rebar should be covered with a rebar cap, wood board or similar device. See http://www.versarebarcap.com. Reinforcing bars and welded wire mesh reinforcing are nearly always rusty. As such, there is a high likelihood of being scratched by these items. This can lead to tetanus. All EWB Chapter members must consider this risk and protect themselves. See http://www.cdc.gov/nip/vaccine/tetanus/default.htm.
2.3 Masonry Masonry construction is one of mans oldest construction methods. Most early applications used natural stone assembled in a dry stack process. Later a cement, sand and water mixture (mortar) was introduced to create a bond between units. The desire for uniformity in size and shape, and the availability of clay led to the development of brick. Brick was first fabricated from mud and baked in the sun. It is now made from clay and fired in hightemperature kilns. More recently, concrete masonry units (CMU) made from cement, sand, small gravel, water and a series of admixtures have been developed to provide a larger, less expensive building block. Each of these and many other types of masonry are prevalent throughout the world. The EWB team should make every effort to investigate and determine the type of masonry that is common to the community. Pay particular attention to the notion that a particular trade or skill should still exist in a community and to not just be led to believe that if one sees a particular type of masonry that the present villagers are capable of construction with that type of material. Investigate thoroughly. For the purposes of these guidelines, masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar. The common materials of masonry construction are bricks and concrete blocks. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern the units are laid in can strongly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. Advantages. The use of materials such as brick and concrete block can increase the thermal mass of a building, giving increased comfort in the heat of summer and the cold of winter and can be ideal for passive solar applications. Brick typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure with reduced life-cycle costs, although sealing appropriately will reduce potential spalling due to frost damage. Concrete block of the non-decorative variety is generally painted or stuccoed if exposed. Concrete block should be waterproofed it if is for a below grade application. Masonry needs no formwork. Disadvantages. Extreme weather may cause degradation of the surface due to frost damage. This type of damage is common with certain types of brick, though relatively rare with concrete block. If non-concrete (clay-based) brick is to be used, care should be taken to
select bricks suitable for the climate in question. Masonry must be built upon a firm foundation (usually reinforced concrete) to avoid potential settling and cracking. If expansive soils (such as adobe clay) are present, this foundation may need to be quite elaborate and the services of a qualified structural engineer may be required. The high weight increases structural requirements, especially in earthquake prone areas. Structural limitations. Masonry boasts an impressive compressive strength (vertical loads) but is much lower in tensile strength (twisting or stretching) unless it is reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls can be strengthened by thickening the wall, or by building masonry "piers" (vertical columns or ribs) at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcement also can be introduced vertically and/or horizontally to greatly increase tensile strength. For the most part, many of the EWB Chapter projects that use cast-in-place concrete should be examined for suitability and an alternate method, masonry, should be considered.
2.3.1 - Concrete Masonry Units CMU is used extensively in many developing countries, which means that labor skilled in placing the block should be easily found. The major question is whether it will meet structural requirements. If the CMU is likely to be a material used in the project, the team should attempt to make a visit to a local block factory. Document the standard sizes that are available. Investigate how much cement is used in each unit or batch and the kind of aggregate that is used. Discuss with the owner the possibility of increasing the amount of cement for an added cost. The basic components of CMU blocks are cement, water, sand and gravel. CMU blocks may be steam-cured for 1-2 days, which gives it a relatively low embodied energy. CMU blocks, like brick, have beneficial qualities such as durability, compressive strength, acoustical performance, low R-value, chemical make-up and fire resistance. In general, CMU blocks often cost less than brick. However, CMU blocks are not as water resistant as fired brick. CMU blocks can be sprayed with a water repellent coating or it is sometimes manufactured with an admixture which gives it water repellence. The spray-applied coating might last about 10 years, while the admixture lasts for the lifetime of the block. The admixture is generally more expensive but quickly gains advantage over the sprays as the building ages. Generally CMU structures are reinforced with reinforcing bars that can be in either the vertical (more common) or horizontal (less common) directions. The general guidelines for placing the reinforcing steel are very similar to those that are described above in the Concrete section. There is an additional reinforcing item that is common to CMU construction and this is called joint reinforcing. Since the joints of CMU are generally only 3/8 (9 mm) wide, it is difficult to place deformed reinforcing bars in the joints unless they are very small. In many countries, there exists a specialized joint reinforcing which consists of longitudinal steel wires and varying types of steel cross wires. It is common to utilize this type of reinforcing at every other horizontal course in CMU construction. There are special corner pieces to assure continuity. There are different widths to fit into different thicknesses of CMU. There are different sizes where some units offer more area of steel. One of the most common manufacturers of this type of joint reinforcing is Dur-O-Wall located at http://www.dur-o-wal.com. For specific examples of a common variety of joint reinforcing, see http://www.dur-o-wal.com/prod/singlewythe.html.
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2.3.2 Mortar in Concrete Masonry Units Individual CMU units are bound together with mortar. Mortar is a material used in masonry to fill the gaps between blocks in construction and bind the blocks together. Mortar is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water. Mortar is applied as a paste which then sets and hardens. There are generally three (3) families of mortars which are as follows: Portland Cement Mortar. This is created by mixing Portland cement with sand and water. It was invented in the mid nineteenth century, as part of scientific efforts to develop stronger mortars than existed at the time. It was popularized during the nineteenth century and it had superseded lime mortar by the 1930s. The main reason for this was that it sets hard and quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction. Lime mortar is created by mixing sand, slaked lime and water. The earliest known use of lime mortar dates to about 4000 BC in Ancient Egypt. Lime mortars have been used throughout the world, notably in Roman Empire buildings throughout Europe and Africa. The vast majority of pre-1900 masonry buildings in Europe and Asia are built from lime mortar. The process of making lime mortar is simple. Limestone is burnt in a kiln to form quicklime. The quicklime is then slaked (mixed with water) to form slaked lime, either in the form of lime putty or of hydrated lime powder. This is then mixed with sand and water to form mortar. This kind of lime mortar, known as non-hydraulic, sets very slowly through reaction with the carbon dioxide in the air. A very thick wall made of lime mortar may take centuries to completely set and harden. This is normal and not problematic. The speed of set can be increased by using impure limestones in the kiln, to form a hydraulic lime that will set on contact with water. Such a lime must be stored as a dry powder. Alternatively a pozzolanic material such as calcined clay or brick dust may be added to the mortar mix. This will have a similar effect of making the mortar set reasonably quickly by reaction with the water in the mortar. Pozzolanic mortar a is a fine, sandy volcanic ash, originally discovered and dug in Italy at Pozzuoli in the region around Vesuvius. Finely ground and mixed with lime it acts like Portland cement and makes a strong mortar that will also set under water. It transformed the possibilities for making concrete structures, although it took the Romans some time to discover its full potential. Typically it was mixed two-to-one with lime just prior to mixing with water. Pozzolanic mortar is a siliceous and aluminous material which reacts with calcium hydroxide in the presence of water to form compounds possessing cementicious properties at room temperature. Modern pozzolanic mortars are a mix of pozzolans and Portland cement. In addition to underwater use, the pozzolanic mortar's high acidity makes it especially resistant to common forms of corrosion from sulphates. Once fully hardened, the Portland cement-Pozzolanic blend may be stronger than Portland cement due to its lower porosity, which also makes it more resistant to water absorption and spalling.
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In general, the most common form of mortar is the Portland Cement Mortar. In the U.S.A., this type of mortar is sub-divided into four (4) general types as follows: Mortar Formulas. Formulas allow for variations of proportions within the types of mortar. The volume of sand should never exceed three times the combined volume of cement and lime. If you use too much sand, the mortar will be weaker and less workable. The four (4) different types of mortar that are used in the U.S.A. are as follows: o Type M. Type M mortar is composed of 1 part Portland cement, part lime, and 3 parts sand. This mortar has a high cement-to-lime proportion that makes for a very strong mortar. This type of mortar is suitable for general use. It is recommended specifically for structures that are below grade and in contact with the earth, such as foundation, retaining walls, and walkways. o Type N. Type N mortar is composed of 1 part cement, 1 parts lime, and 6 parts sand. Type N has excellent workability because of its high lime content. It does not have the strength of Type M or Type S mortar. Type N may be used in bearing walls that are above grade if stress is not too great. Type N is widely used in non-bearing brick veneers and in partitions and some exterior walls where climatic conditions are negligible. o Type O. Type O mortar is composed of 1 part cement, 2 parts lime, and 9 parts sand. It is extremely plastic and workable (notice the lime content) but has relatively low strength. Type O should not be used if it will be subjected to freezing and thawing in the presence of excessive moisture. Many building codes do not allow Type O mortar for construction. However, some local building codes allow Type O to be used for load-bearing walls of solid blocks (no cells) when the compressive stresses do not exceed 100 pounds per square inch (0.70 MPa). o Type S. Type S mortar is composed of 1 part cement, part lime, and 4 parts sand. It is a very good general-purpose mortar used in above-grade exteriors that are exposed to severe weathering. Type S is also used in interiors and all load-bearing structures unless only Type M is specified. Type M and S are usually interchangeable. It is understood that it is probably unreasonable for mortars to be referred to as shown above in the developing world. This is not a problem. The different formulas are probably very similar to those that are common locally. The EWB Chapter should make a concerted effort to determine what types of mortars are readily available and common to the construction trade in the area of the project. Information from them can be attained and the proportions can be examined and compared to those above.
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2.3.3 Grouting of Concrete Masonry Units As the coursed of CMU are laid up, there will come a time when the grout must be added to specified cells. The grout space (cells) must be clean so that all spaces to be filled with grout do not contain mortar projections greater than inch (12 mm), mortar droppings or other foreign materials such as pop cans and the like. When the cells are inspected to assure that they conform, the wall is considered to be in conformance with Special Inspection. If debris or mortar projections are found to not comply, then cleanouts must be provided where necessary to clean and clear the spaces prior to grouting. When cleanouts are needed, they must be sealed (covered with a form board) before grouting. Grout must be placed so that all spaces designated to be grouted must be filled with grout and the grout must be confined to those specific spaces. Grouts are generally referred to as being mixed with fine or coarse aggregate. As the name insinuates, fine aggregate is made with sand. Coarse aggregate is generally made with sand and pea gravel in which 100% of the material is less than 3/8 (9 mm) in diameter. In both cases, the aggregate should be clean and durable. When placing grout in CMU that has a very narrow space, i.e. 4 (100 mm) wide units, it is suggested to use grout made only with fine aggregate. The on-site mixing time for grout should not exceed ten minutes. Place grout within 1-1/2 hours after mixing. Place grout in lifts not exceeding 5 feet (1.5 m) high. If there is a significant delay, stop grout a minimum of 1 inches (38 mm) below the top of the masonry in order to form a shear key with the next lift. Consolidate grout at time of placement by puddling with a rebar in the grouted cell. Generally, most grouts should be capable of attaining a compressive strength of 2,000 psi (13.7 MPa) at 28 days. The two grouts can be proportioned, by volume, as follows: Fine Grout: Portland cement or blended hydraulic cement: 1 part. Hydrated lime: 1/10 part. Fine aggregate: 2 1/4 to 3 times the sum of volumes of cement and lime used. Coarse Grout: Portland cement or blended hydraulic cement: 1 part. Hydrated lime: 1/10 part. Fine aggregate: 2 1/4 to 3 times the sum of volumes of cement and lime used. Coarse aggregate: 1 to 2 times sum of volumes of cement and lime used.
2.3.4 Sealing of Concrete Masonry Units Protective treatments applied to the exposed surface of masonry are designed to provide a first line of defense against moisture intrusion. With the exception of single wythe masonry, sealing and coating treatments should not be expected to provide the sole line of protection but should be part of a redundant system incorporating drainage provisions as well as water resistant backups. Protective treatments may take the form of clear water repellents or paints and high build coatings (such as elastomerics) for concrete masonry units.
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2.3.5 Structural Considerations for Concrete Masonry Units In the structural engineering design of concrete masonry units, there are several considerations that need to be addressed. The basics of these structural considerations are as follows: The allowable stress for the completed CMU element is expressed as fm and is similar to the coefficient of fc for concrete design. For any CMU element, a suitable and prudent value of fm should be made. As is the case for reinforced concrete design, if the EWB Chapter assumes a very high value for fm, then the EWB TAC may require some evidence of how this higher strength was actually attained. This may be through testing or providing specifications from the CMU manufacturer as well as the proposed mortar and grout designs. In the codes that are applicable to in the U.S.A., the full value of fm may be used if the masonry construction is subjected to oversight with field special inspection. In general, special structural CMU inspection consists of an individual that will; verify the location(s) of CMU elements; verify size of the actual units; verify the size, grade, laps, clearances and positioning of the reinforcing steel, verify that the mortar mixing is in conformance with the specifications; verify that the grout is mixed and placed in conformance with the specifications; and perform a visual examination of the cells which are to receive reinforcing and grout to assure that they are clean and unobstructed. If special inspection is not provided, then the structural engineering design should reduce fm by 50%. In general, all CMU should be laid up with running bond and not with stacked bond. For an example, see http://www.cmhpf.org/kids/Guideboox/brick.html.
2.3.6 Wrap-up on Concrete Masonry Units There is a wide variety of information on the internet for concrete masonry units. One of the most comprehensive on-line guides available can be seen at the following; http://www.epcserver.com/Structural/analysis/masonry/info_masonry13.asp.
2.3.7 - Clay units (brick) Brick is primarily composed of clay that gains its strength through firing in ovens. Clay is an abundant resource and the production process is relatively free of harmful by-products. In many countries, bricks are made from clay in simple hand molds. The firing process gives brick a relatively high-embodied energy. Although brick has a relatively low R-value, its mass can provide thermal storage to temper a living space and store solar gains. The durability, compressive strength, acoustical performance, chemical makeup and fire resistance of brick make it a very sustainable choice. Brick can also be reused. Fired brick is very resistant to damage from wind and water. Brick can carry heavy loads. Bricks raw materials are chemically inert; consequently, they will not contribute to indoor air pollution. If brick is likely to be a material used in the project, the EWB team should attempt to make a visit to a local brick factory. Document the standard sizes that are available.
2.3.8 - Adobe
Adobe is an ancient form of masonry. The word adobe is the Spanish word for plaster that is actually derived from the Arabic word for sun-dried bricks. Adobe is one of the oldest building materials in use. Adobe is used by approximately one-fifth of the worlds population to build structures. Adobe is basically just dirt that has been moistened with water, sometimes mixed with chopped straw or other fibers for added strength, and then allowed to dry in the desired shape. Traditionally the proportion of adobe are; clay (2540%), with the remainder being sand, water, and cut straw. The sand is used as a filler material while the clay, water and straw serve as binder materials. The best adobe soil will have between 15% and 30% clay to serve as a good binder for the matrix of materials (sand and straw). Soil with too much clay will tend to cause shrinkage and cracking; too little clay will allow fragmentation. Adobe typically requires no mechanical energy to produce, is non-polluting, and uses locally available materials. The process is somewhat labor intensive, yet forgiving in that mistakes can easily be repaired. It is a massive material that is effective at storing heat and tempering living spaces. Asphaltic materials are sometimes added to make it more durable in transportation and less permeable to water intrusion. Portland cement can be added to increase its structural capabilities. Adobe can be poured into forms to make bricks or puddled to create monolithic walls as the Native Americans of the Southwest United States did. Adobe bricks tend to be heavy and do not transport very well. Adobe brick walls are often plastered with mud to protect them from weathering. Outside of desert climates adobe must be protected from moisture, especially at the top and bottom. Adobe construction tends to be a craft or trade that might exist in a specific area and will generally not be a material that is readily pre-manufactured at a plant or factory. If adobe is likely to be a material used in the project, the EWB team should attempt to gain as much insight into the local manufacturing methods as possible. Quality control will generally not be a high priority in remote areas. Empirical means and methods may have to suffice. To that end, documentation of pre-existing examples, structures, methods, norms, etc. may have to suffice as the basis for any structural design using adobe.
2.3.9 - Mud/straw units The ideal building material would be 'borrowed' from the environment and replaced after use. There would be little or no processing of the raw material and all the energy inputs would be directly, or indirectly, from the sun. This ideal material would also be cheap. Mud bricks come close to this ideal. Basic mud bricks are made by mixing earth with water, placing the mixture into moulds and drying the bricks in the open air. Straw or other fibers that are strong in tension are often added to the bricks to help reduce cracking. Mud bricks are joined with a mud mortar and can be used to build walls, vaults and domes. At its simplest, mud brick making involves placing mud in moulds which, after initial drying, are removed to allow the bricks to dry slowly (not in direct sun). Moulds can be made from timber or metal anything that can be shaped to provide the desired size for the bricks. Virtually all the energy input for mud brick construction is human labor (indirectly, fueled by the sun) and after a lifetime of use, the bricks break back down into the earth they came from. The most effective use of mud bricks in building healthy, environmentally responsible housing, comes from understanding their merits and accepting their limitations. Mud brick
construction is often referred to as 'adobe' which is an Arabic and Berber word brought by Spaniards to the Americas, where it was adopted into English. The use of earth construction is well-established in energy efficient housing. There are many aspects to earth construction and despite the fact that most of the worlds buildings are made of earth and it is one of the oldest known building materials, there is much about its properties and potential that remains undeveloped and poorly researched.
2.4 - Metals Structural steel shapes should be measured to insure their correct dimensions as the sizes may be in English or metric units and may have been modified. Structural steel shapes are fastened by either bolting or welding. The fastening and connection means must be thoroughly understood if structural steel shapes are entertained. Bolts and fasteners fall into the category of metals. Structural steel shapes will most likely be fastened together with field bolting. One consistent type of bolt should be used throughout a particular project to assure that there is uniformity with the design and standardization with regard to installation means and methods. All bolts and fasteners should be inspected for corrosion and cleanliness. Deformed reinforcing bars should be investigated to find out what lengths are commonly provided. Unlike the US, a cost per pound is not usually useful as larger diameter bars are often more expensive. In addition, very large bars may not be available at all. All steel should be inspected for corrosion and cleanliness. Reinforcing bars especially should not be coated with oil, form release agent, or any other bond lessening materials such as lubricants. Other metals should be investigated for availability and quality. Tin and aluminum sheets are sometimes available and more economical for formwork than plywood or sawn lumber. 2.4.1 - Steel & Iron Structural steel standard (pre-fabricated) shapes. Generally structural steel shapes are assumed to be hot-rolled elements that are referred to as angles, channels, wide flanged shapes or I beams. In general, plates are also hot-rolled. If you are proposing to use hot-rolled structural steel shapes, obtained in a foreign market, you should measure any and all shapes in order to be able to determine the members structural properties for design purposes. Furthermore, the material properties of the structural steel itself will need to be known. The most critical property is yield stress. For example, a common grade of structural steel in the United States for hotrolled elements is ASTM A 36, which has minimum yield strength of 36,000 psi (248.2 MPa). It is probably difficult to assume that a building material store in a foreign market will know the yield strength of the structural steel shapes that they are selling. Certainly the material supplier and/or fabricator will know this value. It is generally assumed that selection of shapes will be very limited. For this reason, it is highly suggested that a visit to a local building material outlet be made to determine availability before proceeding with the design of the structure. Because it is steel, these elements can rust. Often steel manufacturers and fabricators will apply a shop primer coat of rust inhibitive paint at the shop. Corrosion of the structural steel is a
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major concern for safety and longevity. If members are rusted and corroded, they must first be cleaned and a field applied coat of rust inhibitive primer should be applied. To add further longevity, it may be necessary to initially field apply protective paints and coatings over the primer. Re-application of these protective coatings may be required during the lifetime of the structure. This is especially true for bridges. In addition to hot-rolled elements, round and square tubes are also common structural steel shapes. These shapes are generally used for columns. These shapes are not hot-rolled. Instead, flat steel strips are passed through rollers, which gradually form the cold steel into a tubular square and round shapes. The butted edges of these steel tubes are then welded along the entire tube length by a highlyrefined welding process. This welding procedure is critically controlled to assure consistent, uniform quality and ultimate weld integrity. As is the case with hotrolled elements, the material properties of the tubes will need to be known. The most critical property is yield stress. Bolting and fastening of structural steel shapes is a complex endeavor. There are two principal types of fasteners used in fabricated steel structures bolts and welds. Both are widely used, and sometimes both fastening types are used in the same connection. For many connections, it is common to use welds in the shop portion of the fabrication process and to use bolts in the field. Welding requires a significant amount of equipment, uses skilled operators, and its inspection is a relatively sophisticated procedure. On the other hand, bolts are a manufactured item, they are installed using simple equipment, and installation and inspection can be done by persons with only a relatively small amount of training. The focus of these structural guidelines is not to provide a text book to understand the intricate nature of connections. All structural steel design, including the design of the connections, must be performed by a qualified engineer. Engineers who have the responsibility for structural design must be conversant with the behavior of both bolts and welds and must know how to design connections using these fastening elements. The loads, which are supported by the structural steel shapes, must have continuous load paths. Connections are a critical part of the load path. The style of the bolts themselves can be varied. The availability and commonality of bolts must be investigated. In order to assure ease of construction and quality, it is best to settle on the use of one type and one size of bolt for an entire project. It is preferred to have a consistent manufacturer as well. This will allow for easy field observation of the bolting operation. Generally, bolts of a specific type (grade) will have markings that designate it as such. Seeing the same marking throughout a project assures conformity. One of the most crucial acts of the EWB Chapter, during a site assessment visit would be to locate a steel manufacturer, use shapes that are readily available, attain the material specifications for those items, attain standard lengths that are available, and confirm delivery.
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Structural steel bars & plates For the most part, structural steel bars and plates are fabricated by the hot-rolled process and can generally be assumed to be of the same type of steel as rolled shapes.
2.5 Wood Wood falls into two categories, natural and processed. If natural wood, trees and sticks, are to be used for long term or temporary support, the EWB team shall investigate the kinds available (species) and determine the long term environmental and economic effects of cutting significant quantities of a specific type of wood. If lumber is to be used, which is common for concrete formwork, its quality should be examined. Sometimes, sawn lumber is shipped from other countries and meets US standards, but it is very expensive. Wood is unquestionably one of the most extensively used building materials. The average western style home contains about 13,000 board feet of framing lumber. In ideal circumstances wood is a renewable resource. However, present harvesting practices combined with growing demand has made wood a diminishing resource. 2.5.1 Natural Bamboo. Bamboo has been documented with over 1,500 different uses. In the area of building, uses include; fences, gates, trellises, and every part of a structure. Bamboo tools, utensils, and buildings are an important part of life for half the world's population. In temperate climates around the world, bamboo supply can be maintained indefinitely while maintaining erosion control, watershed integrity and soil health. Examples of integrated agro forestry systems using bamboo include: erosion control, stream and pond bank stabilization, hedges, screens and windbreaks, wastewater treatment, livestock fodder systems, and wildlife habitat. There are two main categories of bamboo: clumping (sympodal) and running or open (monpodal). The clumping type of bamboos spreads slowly at a rate of 0.5-1 m/year, and is easy to control. The running types can spread up to 30 m in a single year, and readily spread into areas where they are unwanted. For most agricultural uses, especially in tropical systems, clumping types of bamboo are recommended and rarely, if ever, should spreading types be planted because of severe rampancy problems and extreme difficulty of removal. Although the status of bamboo has been elevated to a luxury building and ornamental material in many countries (such as the United States and Australia), bamboo has received an undeservedly negative reputation as "the poor man's wood" in so-called developing countries. As the many superior properties of bamboo are rediscovered and agro forestry systems are developed, there is no doubt of bamboo's potential value to people and healthy ecosystems.
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2.5.2 Processed Processed wood, which is cut and shaped into boards and the like, makes up the largest percentage of wood used around the globe. These members are commonly referred to by such names as boards, timbers, posts, beams, etc. Processed wood is also meant to include Engineered Wood Products such as I shaped joists and panel systems such as oriented strand board (OSB) and plywood. The use of wood as a building member involves a wide variety of parameters. These parameters include, but are not limited to: Species of wood Grade of wood (as sub descriptor after species) Nominal sizes Load duration (i.e. dead load, snow load, wind load, etc.) Use factors (i.e. repetitive member, wet condition, shape (flat, round), etc.)
To truly engineer a project from processed wood, each of these parameters must be understood. These guidelines can not be used to thoroughly digest all of the important subissues with each parameter listed above. Generalities about each topic, as they apply to structural design are as follows: Species of Wood.
Structural properties of wood structural elements are dependent upon the species of wood from which the members were cut. Research into the structural properties for different species is conducted by several agencies. Most notably in the United States, there are: o American Institute of Timber Construction (http://www.aitc-glulam.org) o APA The Engineered Wood Association (APA) (http://www.apawood.org) o American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA) (American Wood Council) (http://www.awc.org/index.html) These entities assign various structural engineering properties to the different species of woods. These properties are eventually used in the engineering design of wood elements. Of course these entities have focused on main North American species. Grade of Wood.
Each species of wood is further dissected with respect to the lumbers grade. Presently, the entity that is generally responsible for gradation regulations, rules and processes is called the American Softwood Lumber Standard. The document which outlines the actual processes, rules, procedures for lumber gradation is called the Voluntary Product Standard (http://www.alsc.org/greenbook%20collection/ps20.pdf).
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Grades can be quite detailed and run the gambit from very high quality to low quality. Certainly one can understand that a firm grasp of the lumbers grade is important in any engineering endeavor using these products. Nominal Sizes of Wood.
Generally processed wood is sawn from the bulk trees in certain sizes. Certainly everyone has heard the term 2 by 4 meaning a nominal size of 2 x 4. However, 2x4s have an actual dimension of 1 to 1 5/8 by 3 5/8. Thus, there is a difference between the nominal size and the actual size. The point to be made is that any design should be made using the actual properties of the wood member, not the nominal sizes. The structural properties are based on actual sizes. Load Duration.
In the design of wood elements, under current practice in the U.S.A., the allowable stresses that a wood member can sustain are allowed to be modified based upon the duration of the load. For example, a wood member that is loaded with a load that would last 10 years, such as live load, is not allowed to have its allowable load modified. Thus, this type of loading is the baseline. If this same wood element was subjected to a very short lived load, such as wind load, then the allowable stress would be able to be increased by 60% because of the transient and short duration of the loading. Wind is considered to be 10 minutes or less. The point to be made here is that any design in wood should be cognizant of the load duration concept. Typical load duration factors are as follows: Permanent (dead load only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 Ten years (occupancy live load). . . . . . . . . . 1.0 Two months (snow load) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15 Seven days (construction load) . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25 Ten minutes (wind/earthquake load) . . . . . . 1.60 Very short lived such as Impact . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 Use Factors
The load duration factor, referenced above, is just one of a litany of factors or adjustments that are to be applied to a particular woods allowable loads. Some of the adjustments which are common are as follows: Wet Service Factor (is the member used in a wet environment?) Temperature Factor (is the member used in an inordinately hot environment?) Size Factor (rectangular members, 2x10, different that square members, 4x4) Form Factor (round?) Flat Use Factor (is the member used in a flat orientation?) The point to be made is that the designer should be cognizant of these items. These items do not have a large bearing on the structural engineering design of wood members, but, it is important to understand their purpose and use.
2.5.3 Structural Considerations for Wood

Given the complexities of the structural engineering design processes that are necessary when using processed wood members, it is highly suggested that any EWB chapter involve an experienced structural engineering design professional for these endeavors. Recognizing that many of the EWB engineering efforts that involve wood are not of a huge nature (i.e. multi-story or tens of thousands of square feet), it would be prudent to remain conservative with respect to all aspects of wood engineering. For example: If a specific species and/or wood grade is not known, then a very conservative value should be assumed. If a common nominal size can not be readily ascertained in a certain locale, then it should be noted on the documents that a minimum size is necessary and the onus should be placed on the builders to obtain such a size. If the nature of the load duration is not clearly understood, then it is suggested that a simple and conservative load duration factor of 1.0 be applied to all load combinations. Do not avail yourself of the benefit of load duration factors for short lived load conditions. If the nature of the use factors is not clearly understood, then it is suggested that these parameters be ignored where they would result in factors that would tend to increase the allowable stresses. Keep in mind that some use factors could lessen the allowable stresses.
Processed wood elements also include the use of trusses. Often in the U.S.A., we are accustomed to pre-engineered, wooden, metal-plated trusses. These are very common. There are hundreds, if not thousands of manufacturers who produce trusses such as these. The truss manufacturer is the entity that is responsible for the structural engineering design of the truss. Generally the truss manufacturer applies loads (dead, live, wind, etc.) that are given to them by the engineering design professional. The resulting truss design produces the size and configuration of the struts and members. For example, the top chord may be a 2x4 member of a certain species and grade and the bottom chord may be a 2x6 member of a certain species and grade. All of these members are put together by the manufacturer and pressed together with metal connection plates. The metal plates are also designed by the manufacturer. Often EWB projects will utilize a truss that mimics those that we have become accustomed to in the U.S.A. for a project. If this is the case, the EWB chapter should attempt to obtain a truss design run from a local truss manufacturer for the project. If the trusses are a simple configuration with simple spans of say 35-0 or less, many truss manufacturers will make a simple run which will produce a diagram of how to construct the truss. The diagram will give the member (struts) sizes and necessary species. Before the truss is run, the EWB chapter could stress to the truss manufacturer that the species and grade of wood to use in the design be limited to a very conservative type of wood with lower allowable stresses. Additionally, many truss manufacturers can also run the truss design with wooden (plywood) gusset plates as opposed to pressed metal side plates. This is common for instances where a truss will become damaged in shipment and the pressed plates are pried off, bent, twisted, cut, etc. In these instances, repairs are needed and the simplest repair is a pair of pressed wooden plates over the damaged metal plates. Given that these pressed metal plates might be difficult to obtain in a foreign county, it would be preferred to conduct the design with wooden gusset plates and nails. A preliminary design of this sort is easily produced by a truss manufacturer and can serve as the basis for the trusses which may have to be hand crafted in a foreign country.
Processed wood elements also include panelized systems. Panelized systems are meant to be oriented strand boards (OSB) or plywood. Generally these items come in manageable sheets that are 4-0 x 8-0 in the U.S.A. These panelized elements are generally used for roof sheathing, floor sheathing and wall sheathing. Generally, these elements will serve as both a vertical load carrying system (spanning between trusses) and a lateral load carrying system (acting as a diaphragm). Typically, these panelized systems are very efficient in carrying load and distributing lateral loads from seismic and/or wind. In the U.S.A., these panelized systems are very common. However, these systems are not as prominent or cost effective in other countries. One may not find they have ready access to panelized systems.
Section 3.0 - Structural Design Criteria This section addresses the investigation and determination of loads, allowable materials stresses, and allowable deflections in the structural elements to be used in the design of the structural system; this section will be used in conjunction with materials information from Section 2.0. 3.1 - Design loads All design loads shall be shown or made clear to the EWB TAC prior to implementation. To the greatest extent possible, these loads should be investigated by the EWB Chapter during the site assessment trip. Environmental loads such as wind, rain, seismic and the like are usually specific to a particular area and while in that area, they should be evaluated. If no local information can be attained, then a prudent assumption should be made from the codes applicable to a similar project built in the U.S.A. In general, the design loads should follow those that can be found in the International Building Code, 2003 edition. Design loads shall include, but not be limited to the following: Dead/Material Loads Live Loads Lateral Loads (wind or seismic) Special Loadings such as cranes, hoists, rain ponding, equipment, etc.
3.2 - Determination of allowable/acceptable material stresses The structural engineering design of all structures and elements of structures shall be in accordance with acceptable criteria that is available in the industry in the United States or locally. Structures and elements of structures may be designed using the allowable stress (working stress)(service load) approach or an ultimate strength method. The process should be made clear to the EWB TAC in order to be able to follow along with the calculations.
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3.3 - Determination of allowable/acceptable foundation stresses Any structure that rests on the earth must have a suitable foundation. In all instances, the EWB Chapter must make it clear to the EWB TAC just what assumptions they have made with regard to a suitable alternative for a foundation. Foundation types can include: spread footings, straight-shaft drilled piers (caissons), driven piling (steel or wood or concrete), post-tensioned slabs, and raft/mat type foundations which are similar to spread footings. Each of these foundation alternatives have their place and it is usually contingent upon the type of soil that exists at the site. For example, highly expansive clays would generally preclude the use of spread footings because the expansive nature of the clay will simply push the footings up out of the ground. In this instance, heavily loaded straight-shaft drilled piers (caissons) might be the preferred solution. It is understood that the EWB Chapter will most likely not have the privilege of conducting a thorough soils investigation in order to have a better basis on which to propose a foundation alternative. However, to the greatest extent possible, the EWB Chapter should make every effort to do some field investigations in order to get an understanding into the type of material that is present. Also, local geotechnical or geological experts can be approached and asked to comment on the types of materials that are found at the proposed construction site. As is the case with the assumed allowable stresses for concrete and concrete masonry units, if the EWB Chapter makes a very high estimate of the allowable bearing pressure for a spread footing foundation (greater than 2,500 lbs. / sq. ft. {12,200 kg / sq. m.}), then the EWB TAC may ask that this value be substantiated by testing or some other means.
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Part II Design Phase

Section 4.0 - Design Calculations This section addresses the preparation of a basis for completing the design calculations. Prior to implementation and no later than during the implementation presentation to the EWB TAC, the EWB Chapter must provide a structural basis of design and subsequent calculations that address the following: Vertical and lateral loads to be used for structural design of all elements. Assumed foundation type. General description giving the proposed foundation type and the reasoning behind selection of this particular type of foundation. Assumed vertical (gravity) load carrying system for the proposed structure. General description of the types of elements that will be used to support vertical (gravity) loads. For example, a wooden roof with planks that are supported by pre-engineered wooden, metalplated trusses which reside on concrete masonry bearing walls. This description should make it clear to any reviewer what the major vertical (gravity) load carrying elements are, which will create a load path that must be consistent in its organization and detail. Assumed lateral load carrying system for the proposed structure. General description of the types of elements that will be used to resist the lateral loads imposed by wind or seismic or other (earth) lateral loads. For example, a flexible horizontal diaphragm at the roof level that distributes loads to a series of concrete masonry unit shear walls. Once again, this description should make it clear to any reviewer what the major lateral load carrying elements are, which will create a load path that must be consistent in its organization and detail. All structural calculations with a modicum of wording that makes it clear to any reviewer just what element is being designed. An Excel spread sheet with just numbers placed in cells may be of use to the designer, but without documentation, it is worthless to any reviewer. Calculations which are not clear and understandable will most certainly delay approval of a project as it heads to the implementation phase.
Section 5.0 - Design Drawings, Material Lists, & Specifications This section addresses the preparation and execution of design documents which will serve as the guide for the construction of the structural element(s). Prior to implementation and no later than during the implementation presentation to the EWB TAC, the EWB Chapter must provide a suitable design documents or sketches that depict the details of the three main structural systems which are; a vertical (gravity) load carrying system, a lateral load carrying system and a foundation system. The drawings and/or sketches should depict the following: Foundation, Floor, and Roof Plans indicating structural materials, systems, and dimensions. A minimum of one (1) building section showing the entire structure cut in section. Assembly details describing the main and secondary system and components, including connections, for each of the three main structural systems.
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Part III - Construction/Implementation Phase

Section 6.0 - Construction Logistics This section addresses the construction logistics, which in other terms is taken to mean how the construction will proceed from start to finish. All during the design phase of a project, the EWB Chapter must make serious evaluations as to how the construction is going to be facilitated. This broad topic can be sub-divided into several divisions, but the most notable are: Material procurement. Scheduling. Lay down area for the delivery and storage of materials. Construction crews to be used, both skilled and unskilled. Equipment that is needed to complete the work. Debris or discarding of excess construction materials. Material testing (may or may not be needed) Construction safety. Cost.
Prior to implementation and no later than during the implementation presentation to the EWB TAC, the EWB Chapter must provide a brief outline that demonstrates that the construction logistics that are mentioned above have been examined. The EWB TAC may wish to examine any one of these issues should the need arise.
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Structural Guidelines

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Forward

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Introduction to the Structural Guideline

Part I - Assessment/Information Gathering Phase

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Sedimentation Test Jar

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Ease of mixing Ease of placing Ease of compaction / consolidation Ease of finishing

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0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55

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The table above is replicated in metric units below.

0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55

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0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55

The table above is replicated in metric units below.

Target fc, MPa

0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55

13.8 13.8 17.2 17.2 20.7 20.7 27.6 27.6

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Target fc, psi

Maximum Size of Aggregate in.

0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55

2,000 2,000 2,500 2,500 3,000 3,000 4,000 4,000

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Target fc, MPa

Maximum Size of Aggregate mm 19 38 19 38 19 38 19 38

0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.55

13.8 13.8 17.2 17.2 20.7 20.7 27.6 27.6

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2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

2006 Engineers Without Borders USA. All Rights Reserved

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2.5.3 Structural Considerations for Wood

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Part II Design Phase

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Part III - Construction/Implementation Phase

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