Lecture+3 Material+Properties

RESEARCH CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED MICROSYSTEMS - UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR
06-88-552 ADVANCED TOPICS IN MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS (MEMS) WINTER, 2011

Research Centre for Integrated Microsystems
University of Windsor
Material Properties
Sazzadur Chowdhury, Ph.D.
Lecture 3
RESEARCH CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED MICROSYSTEMS - UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR RESEARCH CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED MICROSYSTEMS - UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR
Types of Solids
Material classification according to atomic arrangements
Various Stages of Solidification of a
Crystalline Material
Courtesy: Callister, Jr.
Monocrystal Polycrystal
Undoped Polysilicon
The physical properties of undoped polysilicon depends on:
Type of deposition method, like LPCVD, PECVD, etc.
Nucleation
Growth of silicon grains
T
Dep
<600 Amorphous
T
dep
>600 Crystalline
Undoped polysilicon
Individual crystals
that have nucleated
with a random
orientation are
called grains
Unit Cells
In a crystalline material, the atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic
three dimensional array over large atomic distances
Lattice means a three dimensional array of points coinciding with atom
positions
The basic atomic pattern that repeats itself in a crystalline material is called
a unit cell
Properties of the crystalline solid depend on the crystalline structure of the
material
Crystal Planes
A set of three integers (h, k, l) are used to represent the orientation of
an atomic plane in a cubic unit cell
These are called Miller indices, (100), (010), (001)
Equivalent plane: {100}
Crystal Directions
A direction in a lattice is expressed as a set of three integers with the
same relationship as the components of a vector in that direction
and expressed as [100].
Equivalent directions are grouped and expressed as <100>
directions.
In a cubic lattice, a direction [hkl] is perpendicular to a plane (hkl)
Miller Indices Determination
1. Determine the intercepts (or projection) of the plane along each of the
three crystallographic directions
2. Take the reciprocals of the intercepts
3. If fractions result, multiply each by the denominator of the smallest
fraction
4. If a plane doesnt have an intercept with an axis or parallel to a plane
passing through the axis the intercept is taken as infinity.
5. If an intercept is on the negative branch of an axis, a minus sign is
placed above the Miller index for that axis
alattice constant
Miller Indices Determination: (100) Plane
Unit cell side length=a
0 0 1 Cleared
fraction
1/ 1/ 1/1 Take reciprocal
1 Intercept
length
l k h
Miller Indice: (100)
0 1 1 Cleared
fraction
1/ 1/1 1/1 Take reciprocal
1 1 Intercept
length
l k h
Miller Indices: (110)
1 1 1 Cleared
fraction
1/1 1/1 1/1 Take reciprocal
1 1 1 Intercept
length
l k h
Miller Indices Determination:
More Examples
Why Silicon
Silicon is abundant, inexpensive, and can now be produced and
processed controllably to unparalleled standards of purity and
perfection
Excellent mechanical characteristics
Definition and reproduction of the device shapes are performed using
photolithography process, a technology that has been matured over
the years
Batch fabrication capability
Intrinsic mechanical stability and feasibility of integrating electronics on
silicon makes it an excellent choice for a substrate for mechanical
sensors and actuators
Silicon Crystal Structure: Diamond Lattice
The Si crystal structure is known as diamond lattice
The diamond lattice consists of two interpenetrating fcc lattices,
one displaced 1/4 of a lattice constant in each direction from the
other
Each site is tetrahedrally coordinated with four other sites in the
other sublattice
Silicon unit cell has a side length, a of 5.4309
Si Unit Cell
http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/
Tetrahedral
bond
Production of Polycrystalline Silicon
Most common method of producing
polycrystalline silicon is by the reduction of
trichlorosilane using hydrogen and then
thermal decomposition of silane
Chemically pure SiHCl
3
mixed with H
2
are
introduced into the large quartz glass bell jar
in which silicon seed filaments are
electrically heated to about 1200C. The
silicon compounds grow on the surface of
silicon filaments.
SiHCl
3
+ H
2
-> Si + 3HCl
The rods grow radially over periods ranging
from 10 to 30 days.
Single Crystal Silicon: Czochralski Method
High purity polycrystalline silicon is
melted down in a crucible using a
graphite heating system.
A small piece of solid silicon (the
seed) is placed on the molten liquid in
an inert argon gas atmosphere.
As the seed is slowly rotated and
pulled from the melt, the liquid cools.
The surface tension between the
seed and the molten silicon causes a
small amount of the liquid to rise with
the seed and cool into a single
crystalline ingot with a specified
diameter.
Courtesy: MEMC
Single Crystal Silicon Ingot
Courtesy: M. Madou
Single Crystal Silicon: Float Zone Method
The FZ method for producing single
crystal Si takes place in an inert
gaseous atmosphere, keeping a
polycrystalline rod and a seed crystal
vertically face to face.
Both are partially melted by high
frequency inductive heating at the
(molten zone) liquid phase.
At the next step, this molten zone is
gradually moved upwards rotating
with the seed crystal until the entire
polycrystalline rod has been
converted to single crystal.
Advantage there is no physical
contact with a crucible
Courtesy: M. Madou
Wafer Preparation from Ingot
1. Grounding
2. Lapping
3. Etching
4. Edge beveling
5. Polishing
6. Cleaning
Steps:
Czochralski Method
Mechanical Properties of Single Crystal Silicon
Specific strength (s
y
/r) better than most common engineering
materials
Knoop hardness
Silicon 850 kg/mm
2
steel 820 kg/mm
2
Quartz 800 kg/mm
2
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Si 2.5 10
-6
/(C)
-1
Pyrex 3.3 10
-6
/(C)
-1
Thermal conductivity
Si 141 W/m-K
Al 222 W/m-K
Epoxy 0.19 W/m-K
Thin Film vs. Bulk Solid
The properties of a material are determined by the
cooperative effect of a huge number of similar
particles (atoms, lattice, etc.) in a 3D arrangement.
Many physical properties of materials require a
larger ensemble of atoms for a meaningful
definition, independent of the amount of material,
for example, density, the thermal expansion
coefficient, hardness, color, electrical and thermal
conductivity.
With solid materials, the properties of surfaces may
differ from the bulk conditions.
In the classical case, the number of surface atoms
and molecules is small compared with the number
of bulk particles.
This ratio is inverted in the case thin flims with
dimensions in the range of a few microns or
nanometers.
The thin film layer
may be a few
atoms or a few
lattice constant
thick
Bulk
Thin film or
surface layer
Density Fluctuation in crystalline Thin Films
Density is orientation dependent
In addition, the bond strength between the atoms is
localized and is determined from its orientation.
A classification of isotropic is justified as long as the
individual crystals are much smaller than the
smallest dimension of a technical structure created
by the material.
If the dimensions of the deposited thin films are of
comparable scale with the crystal lattice dimensions,
they possess a high anisotropy even for a material
with macroscopic isotropy.
The length, strength and direction of the bonds as
well as the number of bonds per atom in a material
therefore determine the integral properties of the
material and the spatial dependence of these
properties.
Etch Rate at Different Planes
In {100} and {110} planes, two bonds are directed back into crystal
while two bonds dangle.
In {111} planes, three bonds directed to the crystal and one dangle.
As a results, the {111} plane needs more chemical energy to be etched
compared to {100} or {110} plane.
However, not adequate explanations are available so far
Plane Intersections
tan(o)=L/a=1/2
o=arctan (1/2)=35.26
Complementary angle=54.74
{111} planes and {110} planes can intersect each other at 35.26,
90, and 144.74.
{100} and {110} planes can intersect each other are at 45 or 90
(100} and {111} planes can intersect each other at 54.73
Plane Intersections
Every {111} plane intersects a (100) surface along one of the <110> directions
Anisotropic Silicon Etch: (100) Plane
Proper alignment leads to {111} sidewalls, and (100) bottom surfaces
Anisotropic Silicon Etch : Vertical Sidewall
There are {100} planes perpendicular to the wafer surface (at an angle
of 45 with the wafer flat i.e. the {110} direction
Stress
Stress is the force per unit area that is acting on a surface of a
differential volume element of a solid.
It is assumed that the differential volume is in static equilibrium, i.e.
there are no significant forces or torques created by gravity,
electric fields, magnetic fields, or inertial forces.
Stresses on a Differential Volume
Each surface has two types of forces, normal (o
x
, o
y
, o
z
) and shear (t
xy
, t
yz
,
t
zx
).
The convention is that the shear force is given a subscript in which the first
element refer to the surface, and the second refer to the direction.
Two-dimensional
View of the Differential Volume
Stresses on opposite
surfaces are equal in
magnitude and acting in
opposite direction when
the differential volume is
in static equilibrium.
The condition of zero net
torque requires the
following relationship
between the shear
forces:
yz zy
zx xz
yx xy
t t
t t
t t
=
=
=
Stress in Different Coordinate Systems
In a coordinate system that is rotated through an angle , the
uniaxial normal stress is transformed into a combination of normal
and shear stresses.
u
u
sin F F
cos F F
V
N
=
=
u o
2
cos
A
F
=
u u t sin cos
A
F
=
Normal force:
Shear force:
Normal stress:
Shear stress:
Pure Shear Stress
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 -
o

0 0 0
0 0
0 0
Principal coordinate
system
(Only normal stress)
45 degrees rotation
of the coordinate
system
(Only shear stress)
All stress states can be
represented in terms of
tensile forces (which may
be negative, i.e.
compressive) only,
provided that the
coordinate system is
correctly chosen.
This transformation can
be verified by applying
the laws of rotation of a
second-rank tensor
Tensors
A tensor expresses the relation between material response or force
with respect to the axes of its underlying symmetry to the axes of
response or force in a laboratory frame.
A first rank tensor is a spatial vector: its three components refer to the
axes of some reference frame.
A second rank tensor has 9 components, like a matrix. Each
component is associated with two axes: one from the set of the
reference frame axes and one from the material frame axes.
A third rank tensor is a relationship between a first rank tensor and a
second rank tensor, and so on.
An N-rank tensor will have 3
N
components, but there may be
symmetry relations that reduce the number of independent
components considerably.
3-D Stress Tensor
The six elements of stress can be represented as a second rank tensor
The stress tensor is symmetric so it is uniquely identified by six
numbers. Of these six, only three are linearly independent.
This follows from the fact that symmetric, second-rank tensors have
only non-zero elements along its diagonal when the coordinate
system is chosen to coincide with the principal axes of the stress
tensor (rotation eliminates shear).
= =
z yz xz
yz y xy
xz xy x
z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x

T
3
Different Axial Stress States
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
2
1
o
ave
ave
ave
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
o
Uniaxial stress:
Biaxial stress:
Hydrostatic stress:
Strain
A solid body under mechanical stress will deform.
The deformation can be quantified in terms of the displacement
vector, u(x).
The strain tensor is defined in terms of the partial derivatives of
the displacement.
Strain is a dimensionless variable.
Axial Strain & Shear Strain
y
u
y
y
c
c
= c
z
u
z
z
c
c
= c
y
u
z
u
z
y
yz
c
c
+
c
c
=
x
u
z
u
z x
zx
c
c
+
c
c
=
Axial
strain
Shear
strain
Displacement U is a vector function of original position x
x
u
x
) x ( u ) x x ( u
lim
x x x
x
x
c
c
=
A
A +
=
A 0
c
x
u
y
u
x
u
y
u
y
x
y
x
y x
xy
c
c
+
c
c
=
A
A
+
A
A
=
A A 0 ,
lim
Poisson Ratio
The Poisson ratio is dimensionless, and has a value between 0.2 and
0.3 for most materials.
Under uniaxial stress, the volume element expands in the direction of
the stress and contracts in the directions orthogonal to the stress.
The contraction is proportional to the elongation, and the
proportionality constant is the Poisson ratio v.
x y
vc c =
Elasticity Curve
In MEMS we want to operate in the linear region of the stress vs.
strain characteristics.
This ensures that no work is done on the compliant structure, which
then can undergo large numbers of deformations without changing its
performance.
Brittle materials (silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride) are therefore
often preferable to ductile and viscoelastic materials (metals, plastics)
Mechanical Properties of Single Crystal Silicon
Single crystal silicon is very brittle. It will yield
and fracture when stress is beyond the
proportional limit (yield point)
Silicon does not exhibit plastic deformation or
creep below 800 C
With 10
8
cyclic load Silicon does not fail
Youngs modulus E (111) of silicon is 190 GPa,
comparing to 206-235 for stainless steel
Yield strength of Aluminum is 35 MPa, 1400
MPa for some steels and 2800-6800 MPA for
silicon
Silicon has a lower density (2.32 g/cm
3
) than
Aluminum (2.71 g/cm
3
) but surpasses the yield
strength of steel
Above 800C silicon shows considerable
plasticity
Volume Change Under Stress
The volume expansion is proportional to (1-2v ), which means that
materials with =0.5 does not change their volume under uniaxial
stress.
Materials with Poissons ratios close to 0.5 are called incompressible.
Most materials have Poissons ratios less than 0.5, and experience
some volume increase under uniaxial stress.
The volume of an element changes as a consequence of the strain.
The volume change is:
) v ( z y x V
) v ( z y x ) v ( z y x z y x V
z y x ) v ( z ) v ( y ) ( x V
x
x x x
x x x
2 1
1 1 1
A A A ~ A
A A A A A A A A A ~ A
A A A A A + A = A
c
c c c
c c c
Shear and Bulk modulus of Elasticity
Shear modulus G expresses the ratio of shear stress and shear strain
xy xy
G t =
Shear modulus is related to the Youngs modulus and the Poisson
ratio by:
) v (
E
G
+
=
1 2
Bulk modulus, K is related to the Youngs modulus and the Poisson
ratio by:
) v (
E
K
2 1 3
=
Bulk modulus is analogous of Youngs modulus for an object subject to
hydrostatic pressure (identical normal stress in all directions).
Isotropic Elasticity in Three Dimensions
)] ( v [
E
z y x x
o o o c + =
1
)] ( v [
E
x z y y
o o o c + =
1
)] ( v [
E
y x z z
o o o c + =
1
xy xy
G
t
1
=
yz yz
G
t
1
=
zx zx
G
t
1
=
The complete stress-strain relations for an isotropic elastic solid can be
derived by combining the results for normal and shear stresses in three
dimensions
Isotropic, Orthotropic, and Cubic Materials
The stress-strain models presented so far apply only to homogeneous
and isotropic materials.
Homogeneous refers to the fact that the elastic properties do not
change from point to point in the body.
Isotropic means that the properties do not vary with respect to
directions.
Many engineering materials are not isotropic. Their elastic properties
vary depending on directions. They may also be inhomogeneous.
For inhomogeneous materials, in general, each strain is dependent on
each stress and can be expressed as a linear function of each stress
an orthotropic material has at least 2 orthogonal planes of symmetry,
where material properties are independent of direction within each
plane. (e.g. Rochelle salt and fiber-reinforced composites.)
If the properties of an orthotropic material are identical in all three
directions, the material is said to have a cubic structure.
In a polycrystalline material, the individual grains may be anisotropic,
but if the material as a whole is comprised of many randomly oriented
grains, then its measured mechanical properties will be an average of
the properties over all possible orientations of the individual grains.
Plane Stress
Plane stress is a special case that occurs very frequently in thin film
materials used in MEMS devices.
A thin film deposited on a thick substrate develop some stress due to
deposition condition or method applied or due to the different
coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
All of the stresses, except the edge regions lie in the plane since the
top surface is stress free.
There is no in-plane shear stress.
] v [
E
y x x
o o c =
1
] v [
E
x y y
o o c =
1
Biaxial plane stress occurs when the two in-plane stress components
are equal.
c c c o o o = = = =
y x y x
c o
|
.
|
\
|
=
v
E
1
|
.
|
\
|
v
E
1
Biaxial modulus
Elastic Constants for Anisotropic Materials
A generalized expression of elastic constants relating stress ands
strain for isotropic, orthotropic, or anisotropic materials can be
developed.
Since both stress and strain are second rank tensors, the most general
relationship between stress and strain is a fourth rank tensor, with 3
4
or
81 components.
Due to symmetry, in every real material there is a maximum of 21
parameters to contend with, and these 21 components can be written
as the elements of a square 6 x6 symmetric matrix.
The six independent components of stress and strain (having axes
along the symmetry axes of the material) are organized into a column-
vector array and the elastic constants are written in a symmetric
matrix.
Generalized Hookes Law
Stress and strain both have at most six components (only three of
them are independent)
It is therefore convenient to write them as vectors with six elements.
The generalized Hookes law:
This matrix is called the stiffness matrix that relates stress to strain at a
point in a material (isotropic or orthotropic).
zx
yz
xy
z
y
x
zx
yz
xy
z
y
x
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C
6
5
4
3
2
1
66 65 64 63 62 61
56 55 54 53 52 51
46 45 44 43 42 41
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
6
5
4
3
2
1
Compliance Matrix
The inverse of the stiffness matrix is the compliance matrix, which relates
strain to stress. These two are expressed in terms of Youngs modulus E,
Poisson ratio ( ), and the shear modulus (G). It can be shown that in
isotropic materials, these three constants are related as
zx
yz
xy
z
y
x
zx
yz
xy
z
y
x
S S S S S S
S S S S S S
S S S S S S
S S S S S S
S S S S S S
S S S S S S
S

6
5
4
3
2
1
66 65 64 63 62 61
56 55 54 53 52 51
46 45 44 43 42 41
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
6
5
4
3
2
1
) 1 ( 2 v
E
G
+
=
Stress in Thin Films
In general the thin-film and substrate have different linear thermal
expansion coefficients.
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion of a material is defined
as:
The strain caused by thermal expansion is then simply:
dT
d
x
T
c
o =
T T T T T T
T x T x x
A + = + = o c o c c ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0 0 0
Thin Film on Thick (Rigid) Substrate
When a thin film is deposited on a thick substrate at elevated
temperatures, and subsequently cooled and operated at much lower
temperatures the difference between the thermal expansion
coefficients of the film and the substrate creates stress and strain.
The strain of the substrate in one direction along the plane of its
surface can be expressed as:
Where T
d
is the deposition temperature and T
r
is the operating
temperature (which is often room temperature). The film then gets this
same strain in the plane due to the fact that it is attached to the
substrate:
T T T
TS r d TS S
A = = o o c ) (
T
TS S attached f
A = = o c c
,
Thermal Strain Mismatch
If the film were unattached, however, its strain would be
The difference between the strains the film has with and without
attachment to the substrate is called the thermal mismatch strain
The thermal mismatch leads to stress in the film. The stress is
complicated in the edge regions.
In the center of the film, far away from the edges, the film is strained
symmetrically in the plane, and there is nothing to support stress in
the direction perpendicular to the film.
T T T
Tf r d Tf free f
A = = o o c ) (
,
T
T
TS Tf mismatch f
TS Tf free f S free f attached f mismatch f
A =
A = = =
) (
)) ( (
,
, , , ,
o o c
o o c c c c c
Thin Film In-Plane Stress and Strain
In the center, the strain can be relate to the stress in the principal
coordinate system in the following way:
In homogeneous films on cubic or isotropic substrates the two in-
plane stresses are equal:
The ratio, E/(1-v ) is called the biaxial modulus. The in-plane plane
thermal-mismatch stress is:
| | | | | |
x y z x y y y x x
v v
E
v
E
v
E
o o c o o c o o c = = =
1
;
1
;
1
| |
plane in plane in
plane in plane in plane in y x
v
E
v
E

=
= = =
c o
o o c c c
1
1
T
v
E
v
E
TS Tf mismatch f mismatch f
A
= ) (
1 1
, ,
o o c o
Determination of Stress in Thin films
It is not possible to measure the thin film stress experimentally
when a film is being deposited.
One of the most definitive means to measure the stress in a thin
film is by the use of the M-test method developed in the MIT.
In the M-Test method, the pull-in voltage is determined using
empirical methods.
Since the pull-in voltage is a direct consequence of the thin film
stress, using the expressions outlined in
P. M. Osterberg and S. D. Senturia, M-TEST: A Test Chip for
MEMS Material Property Measurement Using Electrostatically
Actuated Test Structures, Journal of Microelectromechanical
Systems, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 107-118, Jun. 1997, the stress can be
determined.
Other Sources of Thin Film Stress
Intrinsic stress
Chemical reactions
Doping (by diffusion or ion implantation)
Lattice mismatch
Rapid deposition ( evaporation or sputtering)
Residual stress :
Thermal mismatch
Intrinsic stress
Stress gradient
Intrinsic stress can sometimes be annealed out almost, completely,
where some amount of thermal mismatch stress is unavoidable
when working with materials with different coefficient of thermal
expansion
Thin Film Stress Gradients
The stress gradients are often as important as average stress in thin
films.
Stress gradients are caused by variations of film composition caused by
all the different effects that can cause intrinsic stress.
Annealing is very effective in removing a variety of gradients in thin films.
If stress gradients are not removed, they can lead to curvature of
freestanding thin films.
A freestanding film with a stress gradient will curve towards the side that
is in tensile stress.
Perpendicular Strain
In the case of thermally induced stress and strain in thin films, the
perpendicular strain has two components:
Strain caused by thermal expansion/contraction
Strain caused by in-plane stress
The part caused by the in-plane stress is:
The total perpendicular strain is then:
T ) (
v
v
mismatch , f
v
E
E
v
E
v
E
v
TS Tf
mismatch , f plane in z
A
=

=
= =

o o
c
o o c
1
2
1
2

2 2
T
v
v
TS Tf TS z
A
+ = ) (
1
2
o o o c
Stress in Thin Films Edge Regions
In the edge regions, the stress cannot be constant, because at the end
of the film there is nothing to support the in-plane stress.
Instead we get a transition region or edge region in which the in-plane
stress is transformed into shear stress that is terminated at the
substrate.
The termination of the stresses at the film/substrate interface leads to
a peeling force that can detach the film from the substrate if the film is
in tensile stress. Compressive stress doe not lead to this type of
detachment failure.
Reading Assignments
Chapter 8 Senturia
Chapter 5 Richard Budynas, Advanced Strength and
Stress Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1997

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RESEARCH CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED MICROSYSTEMS - UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR

06-88-552 ADVANCED TOPICS IN MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS (MEMS) WINTER, 2011

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