Language Acquisition 1

Language Acquisition in children Elbernezer Andrew St. Georges University Psyc307: Developmental Psychology 02/05/2011

Abstract

Language Acquisition 2 Language acquisition like many psychology construct has many different views resulting in many different theory. Despite all these theories, it is safe to say that language acquisition is step in to understanding the development of learning in children and most importantly the development of human being on a whole. This research paper is over view of language; it rules systems (phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics) and the pivotal functions it plays in peoples lives. The paper also examines the theories of languages, how language develops and the factors (Biological, and social) that affect the learning process of language. Introduction During the ancient period, there have been person who where interested in language behaviour of infants, how they are able to acquire language, what kind of language do they speak. It can be dated back as far as the 13th century when the last emperor of the Germany, Fredrick the II wanted to find out what kind of language do children speak. He did so by not allowing the care givers not to communicate orally with the infants if they do he will kill them. However, he was unsuccessful in finding out because they all died. Even in todays society, the idea of how children acquire language has intrigued many psychologists. Some argued that it involve the reinforcement and rewards while others believed that it is their innate ability and now the most recent theory believes that the acquiring language is

Language Acquisition 3 mapped out in the brain. The purpose of this paper is to examine the way in children learn to speak or acquire language.

Body Before one could discuss the issue at hand one, must first define language, list its rule systems and it functions. Firstly, what is language? According to Santrock (2008), language is a form of communicationWhether spoken, written or signed- that is based on a system of symbols.... it consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them (p.190). In essence, language is the main means in people communicate with each other. Language is well put together system that includes five rule systems: Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The first of this rule system is Phonology, which is basically the sound system of language, including the sound that are used and how they may be combined...... it made up of the basic unit of sounds in language that affects meaning, Phoneme (p.191). One example, the sound of the letter P that is found in the words Pot or spot in the English language is a phoneme. The main function of such rule system is that it makes available the fundamental for creating a big and flexible group of words out of two or three dozen phoneme (Santrock, 2008).

Language Acquisition 4 The second rule system is Morphology. Morphology is said to be the components of meaning engaged in the word formation. Like Phonology, it has a basic unit called Morpheme. Morpheme is a word or a part of word that cannot be broken in smaller meaningful parts, for example, the English language words is made up of one or more morphemes. To add,

Morphology describes the way meaningful units that can be combined in words (Santrock, 2008). The third rule system is Syntax, which is the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences; on the other hand, Semantics are the meaning of words and sentences. The fifth and final rule system is Pragmatics. Pragmatics is said to be the appropriate use of language different context. In addition to its definition, it rules can be complex and differ one culture to culture. Finally, there are three fundamental functions of language: the informative function (main function), the expressive function and the directive function. The informative function is basically for the communication of information. This is done through the use of words other communication methods; gestures, facial expression and body language, basically non verbal communication. The expressive function is necessary to indicate opinions or attitudes towards someone or something and it also be used in the creating of feelings in the person who is expressing it. Finally,

Language Acquisition 5 the directive function, which is for the prevention and the causation of explicit behaviours in individuals. Now that one has achieved in the tasks of describing what language is, its rule systems and it main functions, one can know go on to examine how children acquire language. To begin, Language acquisition is defined as the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate.
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To better explain, language

acquisition basically, how we as human being recognize, create words in order for us to communicate and to understand what each other is saying. Over the years there have been perspectives of language. The two main proponents of Verbal Behaviour argued that language, like all animal behaviour, was an operant that was developed in children as a function of external reinforcement and shaping. He further argued that children acquire language through the monitoring and management of reward contingencies. However, Chomsky disagreed with Skinner by arguing that tradition reinforcement learning had little to do with humans acquire language. In Chomskys view language contains a language faculty that included innately specified constraints on the possible forms human language can take. He believed that infants innate knowledge of language was a core tenet, development constituted growth or maturation of language module, and language input triggered( or set the parameters for) a
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition

Language Acquisition 6 particular pattern from among those innately provide. Finally, he purported that the constraints on human language infants includes: specification of a universal grammar and universal phonetics. Like every theory, there is always some other theory that emerged either to go against the theories whilst other may expound on the ideas of the past theories. The new emerging theory of language acquisition suggest that infants absorb themselves into a kind of learning in which language input is mapped in detail in the brain. This idea is describe by the use of six principles. These six principles are: initial perception Parses speech correctly and is universal, but not domain specific or species; development is not based on selection; Infants learning strategies map language input; vocal learning unifies perception and production; Motherese is Instructive; and The critical period for language learning depends experience, not just time. First of these principles is the initial perception Parses speech correctly and is universal, but not domain specific or species. It has been shown by many researches that infants are capable to break down speech correctly at the phonetic level and that their abilities to do so are universal across languages. Point note, such capabilities are not limited only to human being but also to other species as well. It is the claimed that first derived from the idea of categorical perception, which is the ability to discriminate the acoustic events that distinguish phonetic units. Basically, Infants can differentiate
among all the phonetic units used in language whilst adults cannot.

Language Acquisition 7 Many studies were done to provide such evidence especially ones pertaining to categorical perception. One was done to see if adults are capable of doing the same as infants. It found adults are able to distinguish phonetic units that intersected the phonetic boundary between categories but not stimuli that fell within a category. On the other hand, another theory which was done on infants found that infants were able to show the effect for phonetic units for all languages. Basically, Infants can differentiate among all the phonetic units used in language whilst adults cannot. In addition to these experiment theories on categorical perception, Eimas and his colleagues demonstrated in an experiment that infants are especially sensitive to acoustic changes at the phonetic boundaries between categories, which also include languages they never heard before. To add, categorical perception revealed through non speech stimuli that emulated speech features without being notice as a speech in both adults and infants. This shows that domain- general mechanisms were responsible for infants initial partitioning of the phonetic units of language. The second principle has to do with development which is not based on selection. The first model of speech perception that was proposed by Eimas was selective in nature. It was selective because an innate neural specification of all possible phonetic level allowed selection of subset of those units to be triggered by language input. This breeds the idea that linguistic experience created either continuation or loss ( Kuhl, n.d)

Language Acquisition 8 Many developmental studies have supported the selective view of language acquisition. One study that was carried out by Werker and her contemporaries supported that notion. The study showed that 12 month olds infants differentiate between non- phonetic contrasts even though they did so at an earlier age of 6 months. However, there is growing evidence of a theory that is not selective in nature. In order for studies to refute the selectionist approach, they should able to show that infants listening to ambient language are immersed in some other kind of process, process that is not fundamental subtractive in nature. The third principle is basically is the learning strategies map language input. In the past learning theories were used as a device for acquiring language has been refuted by earlier theories based on certain elements it head. For example, Skinner theories on Language failed to show explain that the facts of language development. Nevertheless, things have changed simple because of the findings of the past decades that suggest that infants obtain sophisticated information about its properties jus by allowing them to listen to language. As result of this view, three salient categories have come into view: infants abstract patterns, infants exploit statistical properties of language input and language. With infants abstract patterns, it important to note that the recognition of similarities or patterns in language inputs during language processing. The new theory claimed that infants posses the necessary skills

Language Acquisition 9 to detect speech patterns. Numerous studies have gone that 6 month old babies can perceptually sorting out novel instances into categories. To better illustrate, when children trained to make head turns response when a sound is from category is present and inhibit response when an instance from another vowel category is presented (pg.1) showed how children sort out new illustrations into groups (Kuhl, n.d) In relation to infants detection patterns, they are not restricted to the phonetic level. It is argued that children then to prefer the languages spoken by their mothers than any other language at birth. This they argued is based on the idea that children learn stress and intonation pattern characteristic of language information that is reliably transmitted through bone conduction to the womb (Kuhl, n.d, p. 1). T o add there is growing evidence that infants does not prefer other children female voice to their mother voice at birth which is due part of the mother reading stories during the first 10 months of pregnancy. Research have shown that infants as young as 6 or 9 months tend to make use of prosodic patterns that is common to the stress or emphasis distinctive of words in their native language . For example, American infants tested at 6 months show no listening preference for words with the strong/ weak as opposed to the weak/ strong pattern, but 9 months they exhibit a strong preference for the pattern typical of their native language(Kuhl, n.d, p. 2).

Language Acquisition 10 The second of these categories is infants exploit statistical properties of language Input. It difficult for infants to take out information from an oral speech because there are no pause; however, Infants can detect and exploit
statistical properties of the language they hear to find word candidates before they know the meaning of words. Many studies that were done to test this hypothesis make known an old principle of Gestalt psychology, common fate, which they suggest plays a role in speech perception . It is argued by many researchers that phonemes that are characteristically related and thus share a common fate are perceived as units by infants (Kuhl, n.d). The third and final category is language experience warps perception. It

suggested that the experience of language can result in mapping of the brain which can alter perception. It believed also that this experience of language can create changes in infants listening preferences. This is explaining through is called the perceptual magnet effect. The perceptual magnet effect occurs when token

perceived as exceptionally good representative of a phonetic category are used in speech perception. To illustrate, Many research (brain and behavioural) studies shows that native language phonetic evoke special responses when compared to non prototypes. To add, studies that involved speech learning, demonstrating that infants detect patterns, extract statistical information, and have perceptual systems that can be altered by experience cannot be explained by Skinnerian reinforcement(Kuhl , n.d, pg. 4)

Language Acquisition 11 The fourth of the six proposed principles of the new theory on acquisition is vocal learning unifies perception and production. For this principle it believed that infants learn the perceptual characteristics of their language and they also become natives speakers. Through the vocalization of others and themselves creating sound is necessary for vocal learning. Also, it said that production of speech participates in the normal language progress . During the period when children babble indicate abnormal pattern of development that continues. Another important point note is that emulation creates this premature link between perception and production. To explain, when infants reach year one, their initial utterances mirrors their imitation of ambient language patterns. Research has shown that the basic facility that is needed to mimic sound patterns is in place even earlier. Finally, Early life, perceptual
representation of speech is are held in memory which opposed the first view of before, which was that speech was perceived with reference to production. This is based on the claimed held by proceeding theories of speech perception that speech was perceived with reference to production. The firth of the six principles is that Motherese is instructive. The word Motherese is referred to as the universal speaking style used by caretakers around the world when they address infants (p.4). It was held in the pass that language input was since as a cause for selecting among innately specific options; however, new and up coming data suggest something different that the language that is addressed to children is very important. (Kuhl, n.d)

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To further explain, it believed by many researchers based on research findings that the overstated stress and increased pitch typical of infants- directed speech assists infants in discriminating phonetic units. Also , overstating speech makes it more dsicriminable for infants well as highlighting critical parameters used in the native language. As a result of this infants may be able to find out the dimensions of sound used in the native language. Finally, mothers speaking to their infants tend to make other modification that assist in learning. They would repeat words when it new to infants in a stereotyped way, this emphasizes the items in sentence final position. Such modifications which are made by mothers or caregivers , which they have no idea of what they are doing, is pivotal in aiding infants mapping native- language input. The final principle of the new theory is that the critical period for language learning depends on experience, not just time. In most cases the acquisition of language is seen as a significant period in the development of children, which is affected by factors such as hormones. However studies that were done on speech give a different view on things. It believed by these studies Is that later learning may be controlled by the original that has taken place. To illustrate, if in the beginning of acquiring language causes the creation of mental maps, then it is likely that it will assign neural structure in the some way.

The question that lies in each of our minds is how language develops in children. Before delving into the matter, it is important to note that it does not matter what language they learn, infants follow a similar path in language development (Santrock, 2008). In this path of development there

Language Acquisition 13 are key areas that they go through: babbling and gestures, recognizing language sounds, first words and tow words utterances First of these milestones is babbling and gestures. From the time babies are born they are proactive in making sounds and such behaviours are continuous. The sole purpose for such communications is for to draw attention towards them. During this period the infants goes through a series of sounds and gestures. They include: crying, during birth and it is used to indicate some level of distress; cooling, at beginning of 1 to 2 months babies tend to make gurgling sounds that are made in the back of the throat and it usually done to convey pleasure when interacting with caregivers; babbling, it starts in the middle of the first year and it is consider to be strings of constants- vowel combination. Ba ba ba ba( p.193); and finally, gestures, which basically starts around 8 to 12 months. They do so by showing and pointing. For example, infants may wave bye bye or show and empty bottle to indicate that they are thirsty or they want more water or juice or even milk( Santrock, 2008) Second is the recognizing language sounds. It is indicated that children are able to make okay differentiation of the different sounds long before the can utter words or learn language itself. In a study that was done by Kuhl in 1993, found those 6 months old babies are able to recognize when sounds change most of the time whether or not the syllables are from a different language. It also indicated that these children are capable of perceiving

Language Acquisition 14 changes in sounds of their own language. To add, it is pertinent that infants seek out individual words from non stop stream of sounds that makes up ordinary speech. In order for them do so, it imperative that they find the boundaries between words, which are very difficult for them. This is due to the fact that adults do not pause when they are speaking; however they are able to notice word boundaries by 8months ( Santrock, 2008) Third of the language development milestones is first words. In this developmental highlight, babies are able to indicate their first understanding of
words between 8 and 12 months. For example, dada, water, car, etc. The first

words that uttered by a child are the name of persons who are important to them (dada), names of recognizable animals (dog) vehicles (car), toy (doll) food (juice), etc. To note, children are able to understand approximately 50 words by the time they reach 13 months; however, they are unable to say much of these word and they can only repeat them all by the time they reach 18 months. Finally, infants vocal vocabulary quickly amplifies once first words are spoken and their timing of the vocabulary spurt varies (Santrock, 2008). Finally of these significant milestone is the two- word utterances. By the time infants 18 months or 24 months they are capable of speaking two words. At this time, messages are communicate through two and they rely on attention, gestures, tone and context to do so. To illustrate, a child me use the word see doggie to indicate that there is a dog in the same area in which he or she is in or to indicate that he or she know that it is a dog.

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To the final analysis of the question of how infants acquire knowledge, one must look at the role in which the social and biological aspect plays in the childs development of language. First, the in social interaction influence on a childs language learning behaviour. According Kuhl, (2004) social interaction aids in language learning in complex setting. This suggest based on two studies on speech production and speech perception. These two studies also indicated that the present of a human being interacting with a child has a strong influence on learning. Other studies have shown that language acquisition is rooted in children appreciation of others communicative intentions; they are sensitivity to joint visual attention and their desire to imitate. To add, children who are raised in social isolation experience severe a showed that social feedback modulates the quantity and quality of utterances of infants and Children who are raised in social isolation experience severe and negative impact on language development, the extend that normal language is not needed. To further show social interaction affects language learning; Goldstein et al. showed that social feedback modulates the quantity and quality of utterances of infants, thus social influences in language acquisition can affect speech production. Goldstein et al. It is important to note that social deprivation whether through human causing the problem or atypical brain function can cause serious problems in acquiring language. Finally, even the socioeconomic status of infants can have impact on them learning language. In a study that was done where children whose parents were professional and children whose parents that were living on welfare showed that children of professional environment, parents talk to them more than children who from a home that is not so fortunate. It also showed that

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children with professional parents had a better vocabulary by 36 months than children of welfare parents. (Santrock, 2008) Last, the biological effects on language acquisition. It is believed by many that there are specific region in the brain that is designed for the use of language; The Brocas area (left frontal lobe responsible for producing words) and the Wernickes area (a region of the left hemisphere- language comprehension). It argued that if these areas are damage it can bring about aphasia, which is loss or impairment of language processing (pg. 196). It indicated that when the Brocas area is harmed, it result in difficulty in generating words correctly and if the Wernicke is damaged, the individual will mostly like to suffer from poor comprehension and fluent but incomprehensive speech. There is also a suggestion that LAD (language acquisition device) in the brain. It was suggested by Chomsky. It is artificial construct not a physical part and it is said to be a biological ability that enables children to detect certain features and rules of language; phonology, syntax, etc. Conclusion In conclusion, the acquisition of language has been on the minds of many individuals from since the beginning of time and it is still picking the curiosity of many people today. In the past, it viewed on the basis of reinforcement and reward contingencies, which was suggested by B. F Skinner. Later this assumptions was challenged by Chomsky theory who believed that language universal are innate, meaning that it is prespecified in the childs linguistic attribute thus, resulting learning ( Saffran, 2003). Unlike, these two theories, there is new theory that suggest an entirely new view based on six different principle. With all the six

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principles combined, the new theory is basically stating that innate does not necessarily means universal grammar and phonetics; however, it means innate partiality and strategies that put constraints on perceptual learning. During the process of acquiring language, children go through a number of stages, babbling and gestures, recognizing language sounds, first words and

tow words utterances. Each of these significant stages has a fundamental basis as to why children go through them and each builds on the one prior to it. Finally, there are number of factors that can influence language acquisition (biological, socials factors including the environmental as well). As the search continues for the reasons as to how language learning happens, shows promising signs of the nature of the connection between language and the mind.

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Reference Kuhl, P.K. (n.d). A New View of Language Acquisition. Retrieved March 4, 2011 from: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/22/11850.full Kuhl, P. K. (2004). Early Language Acquisition: Cracking the Speech Code. Neuroscience, 5, pp.831-843, doi: 10.1038/nrn1533

Kuhl, P. K, Meltzoff, A. N. (1997). In the Inheritance and the Innateness of Grammar. New York: Oxford University press. PP. 7- 44 Saffran, J. R. (2003). Statistical Learning: Mechanisms and Constraints. Blackwell publishing Inc, pp.110-114. Santrock, J.W. (2008). Life Span Development (11th ed.) New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc. March 4, 2011, from:

Wikipedia. (2011). Language Acquisition. Retrieved

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition

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