POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTATION

LECTURE NOTES

Anwar Sadath M A Dept. of Instrumentation CUSAT

POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTATION

MODULE 1

CONCEPT OF POWER PLANT

A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity, i.e., power with economy and requirements. The power plant itself must be useful economically and environmental friendly to the society. The present book is oriented to conventional as well as nonconventional energy generation. While the stress is on energy efficient system regards conventional power systems viz., to increase the system conversion efficiency the supreme goal is to develop, design, and manufacturer the non-conventional power generating systems in coming decades preferably after 2050 AD which are conducive to society as well as having feasible energy conversion efficiency and non-friendly to pollution, keeping in view the pollution act. The subject as a whole can be also stated as modern power plants for power viz electricity generation in 21st century. The word modern means pertaining to time. At present due to energy crisis the first goal is to conserve energy for future while the second step is to develop alternative energy systems including direct energy conversion devices, with the devotion, dedication and determination.

A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the generation of electric power is generator. When coupling it to a prime mover runs the generator, the electricity is generated. The type of prime move determines, the type of power plants. The major power plants are, 1. Steam power plant 2. Diesel power plant 3. Gas turbine power plant 4. Nuclear power plant 5. Hydro electric power plant The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Nuclear Power Plants are called THERMAL POWER PLANT, because these convert heat into electric energy.

FUELS AND COMBUSTION

The working substance of the energy conversion device viz., primemover (which convert the natural resources of energy into power or electricity) is called fuel. The most common fuel is fossil fuel viz., Coal, petrol, diesel or water gas in the case of steam power plants, I.C. Engines, gas turbines, and hydro-electric power plants. Uranium 235(1U235) as fissionable and 1U238 as fertile fuel in the case of fission reactors of nuclear power plant and hydrogen as fuel in the case of fusion nuclear reactor. While fission reactor is conventional fusion reactor is supposed to be non-conventional due to its uncontrolled reaction rate; and it is believed that Russians have developed it but keeping the whole world silence. In the case of non-conventional power plants the fuels are according to their characteristics viz., Thermoelectric material (Bi2Te3, bismuth telluride, lead telluride etc.); thermionic materials (Na, K, Cs, W etc.); hydrogen or hydrocarbon or coal in the case of fuel-cells and further water and methane etc in the recent development of the sources of energy. Combustion of the fuel is a must in any energy conversion device. It is defined as rapidly proceeding chemical reaction with liberation of heat and light. This phenomenon incurved in the case of thermal power plants especially in I.C. engines and gas turbines. But in the case of fuel cell it

CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANTS

is of the nature of chemical reaction i.e., transfer of ions, similarly in the case of thermo-electric generator it is conduction of electron and holes, in the case of MHD power plant it is drifting of positive and negative ion etc.

In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is intended. The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits :

Steam Power Plant

Steam is an important medium of producing mechanical energy. Steam has the advantage that, it can be raised from water which is available in abundance it does not react much with the materials of the equipment of power plant and is stable at the temperature required in the plant. Steam is used to drive steam engines, steam turbines etc. Steam power station is most suitable where coal is available in abundance. Thermal electrical power generation is one of the major method. Out of total power developed in India about 60% is thermal. For a thermal power plant the range of pressure may vary from 10 kg/cm2 to super critical pressures and the range of temperature may be from 250C to 650C. The average all India Plant load factor (P.L.F.) of thermal power plants in 1987-88 has been worked out to be 56.4% which is the highest P.L.F. recorded by thermal sector so far.

(i) Feed water and steam flow circuit (ii) Coal and ash circuit (iii) Air and gas circuit (iv) Cooling water circuit. A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle. Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the condenser and fed into the boiler again. The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows :

ESSENTIALS OF STEAM POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT

A steam power plant must have following equipments : 1. A furnace to burn the fuel. 2. Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to convert water in steam. 3. Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform work. 4. Piping system to convey steam and water.

(i) High pressure boiler (ii) Prime mover (iii) Condensers and cooling towers (iv) Coal handling system (v) Ash and dust handling system (vi) Draught system (vii) Feed water purification plant (viii) Pumping system (ix) Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.

flow through the dust collector and then through economiser, air preheater and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.

COAL HANDLING
Coal delivery equipment is one of the major components of plant cost. The various steps involved in coal handling are as follows :

Fig. 4.1 shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the furnace by coal handling unit. Heat produced due to burning of coal is utilized in converting water contained in boiler drum into steam at suitable pressure and temperature. The steam generated is passed through the superheater. Superheated steam then flows through the turbine. After doing work in the turbine die pressure of steam is reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through the condenser which maintain the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of turbine. Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and temperature of cooling water and on effectiveness of air removal equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from the various sources such as river, lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of water is not available the hot water coming out of the condenser may be cooled in cooling towers and circulated again through the condenser. Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent to low pressure and high pressure water heaters.
Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after passing over boiler and superheater tubes,

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix)

Coal delivery Unloading Preparation Transfer Outdoor storage Covered storage In plant handling Weighing and measuring Feeding the coal into furnace.

(i) Coal Delivery. The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stations situated near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations which are situated away from sea or river. The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the railway facilities are not available. (ii) Unloading. The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the power station depends on how coal is received at the power station. If coal is delivered by trucks, there is no need of unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to the outdoor storage. Coal is

easily handled if the lift trucks with scoop are used. In case the coal is brought by railway wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may be done by car shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly are quite efficient for unloading closed wagons. (iii) Preparation. When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper size, the preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers driers and magnetic separators. (iv) Transfer. After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the following systems : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Belt conveyors. Screw conveyors. Bucket elevators. Grab bucket elevators. Skip hoists. Flight conveyor.

and compact layers of coal so that air cannot pass through the coal piles. This will minimize the reaction between coal and oxygen. The other alternative is to allow the air to pass through layers of coal so that air may remove the heat of reaction and avoid burning. In case the coal is to be stored for longer periods the outer surface of piles may be sealed with asphalt or fine coal. (vi) In Plant Handling. From the dead storage the coal is brought to covered storage (Live storage) (bins or bunkers). A cylindrical bunker shown in Fig. 4.9. In plant handling may include the equipment such as belt conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket elevators etc. to transfer the coal. Weigh lorries hoppers and automatic scales are used to record the quantity of coal delivered to the furnace. (vii) Coal weighing methods. Weigh lorries, hoppers and automatic scales are used to weigh the quantity coal. The commonly used methods to weigh the coal are as follows: (i) Mechanical (ii) Pneumatic (iii) Electronic.

(v) Storage of coal. It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be stored. Storage of coal gives protection against the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in transportation of coal or due to strikes in coal mines. Also when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased and stored for future use. The amount of coal to be stored depends on the availability of space for storage, transportation facilities, the amount of coal that will whether away and nearness to coal mines of the power station. Usually coal required for one month operation of power plant is stored in case of power stations situated at longer distance from the collieries whereas coal need for about 15 days is stored in case of power station situated near to collieries. Storage of coal for longer periods is not advantageous because it blocks the capital and results in deterioration of the quality of coal.The coal received at the power station is stored in dead storage in the form of piles laid directly on the ground. The coal stored has the tendency to whether (to combine with oxygen of air) and during this process coal loss some of its heating value and ignition quality. Due to low oxidation the coal may ignite spontaneously. This is avoided by storing coal in the form of piles which consist of thick

The Mechanical method works on a suitable lever system mounted on knife edges and bearings connected to a resistance in the form of a spring of pendulum. The pneumatic weighters use a pneumatic transmitter weight head and the corresponding air pressure determined by the load applied. The electronic weighing machines make use of load cells that produce voltage signals proportional to the load applied. The important factor considered in selecting fuel handling systems are as follows: (i) Plant flue rate (ii) Plant location in respect to fuel shipping (iii) Storage area available.

FUEL BURNING FURNACES

Fuel is burnt in a confined space called furnace. The furnace provides supports and enclosure for burning equipment. Solid fuels such as coal, coke, wood etc. are burnt by means of stokers where as burners are used to burn powdered (Pulverized) coal and liquid fuels. Solid fuels require a grate in the furnace to hold the bed of fuel.

TYPES OF FURNACES According to the method of firing fuel furnaces are classified into two categories : (i) Grate fired furnaces (ii) Chamber fired furnaces. Grate fired furnaces. They are used to burn solid fuels. They may have a stationary or a movable bed of fuel. These furnaces are classified as under depending upon the method used to fire the fuel and remove ash and slag. (i) Hand fired (ii) Semi-mechanized (iii) Stocker fired. Chamber fired furnaces. They are used to burn pulverized fuel, liquid and gaseous fuels. Furnace shape and size depends upon the following factors: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) Type of fuel to be burnt. Type of firing to be used. Amount of heat to be recovered. Amount of steam to be produced and its conditions. Pressure and temperature desired. Grate area required. Ash fusion temperature. Flame length. Amount of excess air to be used.

To burn fuels completely, the burning equipment should fulfill the following conditions : 1. The flame temperature in the furnace should be high enough to ignite the incoming fuel and air. Continuous and reliable ignition of fuel is desirable. 2. For complete combustion the fuel and air should be thoroughly mixed by it. 3. The fuel burning equipment should be capable to regulate the rate of fuel feed. 4. To complete the burning process the fuel should remain in the furnace for sufficient time. 5. The fuel and air supply should be regulated to achieve the optimum air fuel ratios. 6. Coal firing equipment should have means to hold and discharge the ash.

MECHANICAL FIRING (STOKERS)

Mechanical stokers are commonly used to feed solid fuels into the furnace in medium and large size power plants. The various advantages of stoker firing are as follows : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Large quantities of fuel can be fed into the furnace. Thus greater combustion capacity is achieved. Poorer grades of fuel can be burnt easily. Stoker save labour of handling ash and are self-cleaning. By using stokers better furnace conditions can be maintained by feeding coal at a uniform rate. Stokers save coal and increase the efficiency of coal firing. The main disadvantages of stokers are their more costs of operation and repairing resulting from high furnace temperatures.

Simply furnace walls consists of an interior face of refractory material such as fireclay, silica, alumina, kaolin and diaspore, an intermediate layer of insulating materials such as magnesia with the exterior casing made up of steel sheet. Insulating materials reduce the heat loss from furnace but raise the refractory temperature. Smaller boilers used solid refractory walls but they are air cooled. In larger units, bigger boilers use water cooled furnaces.

Principles of Stokers. The working of various types of stokers is based on the following two principles: 1. Overfeed Principle. According to this principle (Fig. 4.13) the primary air enters the grate from the bottom. The air while moving through the

grate openings gets heated up and air while moving through the grate openings gets heated up and the grate is cooled. The hot air that moves through a layer of ash and picks up additional energy. The air then passes through a layer of incandescent coke where oxygen reacts with coke to form-C02 and water vapours accompanying the air react with incandescent coke to form CO2, CO and free H2. The gases leaving the surface of fuel bed contain volatile matter of raw fuel and gases like CO2, CO, H2, N2 and H2O. Then additional air known as secondary air is supplied to burn the combustible gases. The combustion gases entering the boiler consist of N2, CO2, O2 and H2O and also CO if the combustion is not complete.

PULVERIZED COAL
Coal is pulverized (powdered) to increase its surface exposure thus permitting rapid combustion. Efficient use of coal depends greatly on the combustion process employed. For large scale generation of energy the efficient method of burning coal is confined still to pulverized coal combustion. The pulverized coal is obtained by grinding the raw coal in pulverizing mills. The various pulverizing mills used are as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Ball mill Hammer mill Ball and race mill Bowl mill.

2. Underfeed Principle. Fig. 4.14 shows underfeed principle. In underfeed principle air entering through the holes in the grate comes in contact with the raw coal (green coal). Then it passes through the incandescent coke where reactions similar to overfeed system take place. The gases produced then passes through a layer of ash. The secondary air is supplied to burn the combustible gases. Underfeed principle is suitable for burning the semi-bituminous and bituminous coals.

The essential functions of pulverizing mills are as follows: (i) Drying of the coal (ii) Grinding (iii) Separation of particles of the desired size. Proper drying of raw coal which may contain moisture is necessary for effective grinding. The coal pulverising mills reduce coal to powder form by three actions as follows: (i) Impact (ii) Attrition (abrasion) (iii) Crushing.

Most of the mills use all the above mentioned all the three actions in varying degrees. In impact type mills hammers break the coal into smaller pieces whereas in attrition type the coal pieces which rub against

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each other or metal surfaces to disintegrate. In crushing type mills coal caught between metal rolling surfaces gets broken into pieces. The crushing mills use steel balls in a container. These balls act as crushing elements. Bin or Central System. It is shown in Fig. 4.26. Crushed coal from the raw coal bunker is fed by gravity to a dryer where hot air is passed through the coal to dry it. The dryer may use waste flue gases, preheated air or bleeder steam as drying agent. The dry coal is then transferred to the pulverizing mill. The pulverised coal obtained is transferred to the pulverised coal bunker (bin). The transporting air is separated from the coal in the cyclone separator. The primary air is mixed with the coal at the feeder and the mixture is supplied to the burner. Advantages 1. The pulverising mill grinds the coal at a steady rate irrespective of boiler feed. 2. There is always some coal in reserve. Thus any occasional breakdown in the coal supply will not effect the coal feed to the

PULVERISED COAL FIRING

Pulverised coal firing is done by two system : (i) (ii) Unit System or Direct System. Bin or Central System.

Unit System. In this system (Fig. 4.25) the raw coal from the coal bunker drops on to the feeder. Hot air is passed through coal in the feeder to dry the coal. The coal is then transferred to the pulverising mill where it is pulverised. Primary air is supplied to the mill, by the fan. The mixture of pulverised coal and primary air then flows to burner where secondary air is added. The unit system is so called from the fact that each burner or a burner group and pulveriser constitute a unit.

Advantages (i) The system is simple and cheaper than the central system. (ii) There is direct control of combustion from the pulverising mill. (iii) Coal transportation system is simple.

burner. 3. For a given boiler capacity pulverising mill of small capacity will be required as compared to unit system. Disadvantages 1. The initial cost of the system is high. 2. Coal transportation system is quite complicated. 3. The system requires more space.

PULVERISED COAL BURNERS

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Burners are used to burn the pulverised coal. The main difference between the various burners lies in the rapidity of air-coal mixing i.e., turbulence. For bituminous coals the turbulent type of burner is used whereas for low volatile coals the burners with long flame should be used. A pulverised coal burner should satisfy the following requirements:

(i)

It should mix the coal and primary air thoroughly and should bring this mixture before it enters the furnace in contact with additional air known as secondary air to create sufficient turbulence. (ii) It should deliver and air to the furnace in right proportions and should maintain stable ignition of coal air mixture and control flame shape and travel in the furnace. The flame shape is controlled by the secondary air vanes and other control adjustments incorporated into the burner. Secondary air if supplied in too much quantity may cool the mixture and prevent its heating to ignition temperature. (iii) Coal air mixture should move away from the burner at a rate equal to flame front travel in order to avoid flash back into the burner. The various types of burners are as follows : 1. Long Flame Burner (U-Flame Burner). In this burner air and coal mixture travels a considerable distance thus providing sufficient time for complete combustion [Fig. 4.29(a)]. 2. Short Flame Burner (Turbulent Burner). It is shown in Fig. 4.29(b). The burner is fitted in the furnace will and the flame enters the furnace horizontally. 3. Tangential Burner. A tangential burner is shown in Fig. 4.29(c). In this system one burner is fitted attach corner of the furnace. The inclination of the burner is so made that the flame produced are tangential to an imaginary circle at the centre. 4. Cyclone Burner. It is shown in Fig. 4.29(d). This burner uses crushed coal intend of pulverized coal. Its advantages are as follows: (i) It saves the cost of pulverisation because of a crusher needs less power than a pulveriser. (ii) Problem of fly ash is reduced. Ash produced is in the molten form and due to inclination of furnace it flows to an appropriate disposal system.

ASH DISPOSAL
A large quantity of ash is, produced in steam power plants using coal. Ash produced in about 10 to 20% of the total coal burnt in the furnace. Handling of ash is a problem because ash coming out of the furnace is too hot, it is dusty and irritating to handle and is accompanied by some poisonous gases. It is desirable to quench the ash before handling due to following reasons: 1. Quenching reduces the temperature of ash. 2. It reduces the corrosive action of ash. 3. Ash forms clinkers by fusing in large lumps and by quenching clinkers will disintegrate. 4. Quenching reduces the dust accompanying the ash. Handling of ash includes its removal from the furnace, loading on the conveyors and delivered to the fill from where it can be disposed off.

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ASH HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Mechanical means are required for the disposal of ash. The handling equipment should perform the following functions: 1. Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges of the equipment should be low. 2. It should be able to handle large quantities of ash. 3. Clinkers, soot, dust etc. create troubles, the equipment should be able to handle them smoothly. 4. The equipment used should remove the ash from the furnace, load it to the conveying system to deliver the ash to a dumping site or storage and finally it should have means to dispose of the stored ash. 5. The equipment should be corrosion and wear resistant. Fig. 4.33 shows a general layout of ash handling and dust collection system. The commonly used ash handling systems are as follows :

(i) Hydraulic System. In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system of water possessing high velocity and is carried to the sumps. It is generally used in large power plants. Hydraulic system is of two types namely low pressure hydraulic system used for continuous removal of ash and high pressure system which is used for intermittent ash disposal. Fig. 4.34 shows hydraulic system.

In this method water at sufficient pressure is used to take away the ash to sump. Where water and ash are separated. The ash is then transferred to the dump site in wagons, rail cars or trucks. The loading of ash may be through a belt conveyor, grab buckets. If there is an ash basement with ash hopper the ash can fall, directly in ash car or conveying system. (ii) Pneumatic system. In this system (Fig. 4.37) ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into a crusher where larger ash particles are crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a high velocity air or steam to the point of delivery. Air leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dust etc. so that the exhauster handles clean air which will protect the blades of the exhauster. (iii) Mechanical ash handling system. Fig. 4.38 shows a mechanical ash handling system. In this system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried out continuously to the bunker. The ash is then removed to the dumping site from the ash bunker with the help of trucks.

(i) Hydraulic system (ii) pneumatic system (iii) Mechanical system.

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(i) Safety. The boiler should be safe under operating conditions. (ii) Accessibility. The various parts of the boiler should be accessible
for repair and maintenance.

(iii) Capacity. The boiler should be capable of supplying steam

according to the requirements.

(iv) Efficiency. To permit efficient operation, the boiler should be able

to absorb a maximum amount of heat produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace. (v) It should be simple in construction and its maintenance cost should be low. (vi) Its initial cost should be low. (vii) The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames. (viii) The boiler should be capable of quick starting and loading. The performance of a boiler may be measured in terms of its evaporative capacity also called power of a boiler. It is defined as the amount of water evaporated or steam produced in kg per hour. It may also be expressed in kg per kg of fuel burnt or kg/hr/m2 of heating surface.

TYPES OF BOILERS
The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria.

Boiler
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is transferred to water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired temperature and pressure. The steam produced is used for: (ii) (iii) (iv) Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam turbine. Heating the residential and industrial buildings Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries.

According to flow of water and hot gases. 1. Water tube. 2. Fire tube. In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion flow over these tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion pass through the tubes, which are surrounded, by water. Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more likely to explosion, water volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change in steam demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger than the shell of water-tube boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can response quickly to change in steam demand. Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers

Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of heat. Usually boilers are coal or oil fired. A boiler should fulfill the following requirements

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and due to smaller size of drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser floor space. The efficiency of water-tube boilers is more. Various advantages of water tube boilers are as follows. (i) High pressure of the order of 140 kg/cm2 can be obtained. (ii) Heating surface is large. Therefore steam can be generated easily. (iii) Large heating surface can be obtained by use of large number of tubes. (iv) Because of high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat transfer becomes large resulting into a greater efficiency. Various advantages of fire tube boilers are as follows. (i) Low cost (ii) Fluctuations of steam demand can be met easily (ii) It is compact in size.

LA MONT BOILER A forced circulation boiler was first introduced in 1925 by La Mont. The arrangement of water circulation and different components are shown in Fig. 5.5.
The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler) through the economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through the economizer. A pump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of steam evaporated. This water is circulated through the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is separated in the separator drum. The large quantity of water circulated (10 times that of evaporation) prevents the tubes from being overheated. The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the evaporator. The steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater. Secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke is fitted entrance to each circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of 120 bar and temperature of 500C. Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large capacity power

HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as they offer the following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity, forced circulation of water through boiler tubes is found helpful. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam is required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used. The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement of furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area. The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water. The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the possibility of gas and air leakages.

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(i) Impulse turbine (ii) Impulse-reaction turbine (i) Impulse Turbine: If the flow of steam through the nozzles and moving blades of a turbine takes place in such a manner that the steam is expanded only in nozzles and pressure at the outlet sides of the blades is equal to that at inlet side; such a turbine is termed as impulse turbine because it works on the principle of impulse. In other words, in impulse turbine, the drop in pressure of steam takes place only in nozzles and not in moving blades. This is obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross- section area As a general statement it may be stated that energy transformation takes place only in nozzles and moving blades (rotor) only cause energy transfer. Since the rotor blade passages do not cause any acceleration of fluid, hence chances of flow separation are greater which results in lower stage efficiency.

Steam Turbine
Steam turbine is one of the most important prime mover for generating electricity. This falls under the category of power producing turbomachines. In the turbine, the energy level of the working fluid goes on decreasing along the flow stream. Single unit of steam turbine can develop power ranging from 1 MW to 1000 MW. The thermal efficiency of modern steam power plant above 120 MW is as high as 38% to 40%. The purpose of turbine technology is to extract the maximum quantity of energy from the working fluid, to convert it into useful work with maximum efficiency, by means of a plant having maximum reliability, minimum cost, minimum supervision and minimum starting time.

(ii) Impulse-Reaction Turbine: In this turbine, the drop in pressure of steam takes place in fixed (nozzles) as well as moving blades. The pressure drop suffered by steam while passing through the moving blades causes a further generation of kinetic energy within the moving blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to the propelling force which is applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft. Since this turbine works on the principle of impulse and reaction both, so it is called impulse-reaction turbine. This is achieved by making the blade passage of varying crosssectional area (converging type). In general, it may be stated that energy transformation occurs in both fixed and moving blades. The rotor blades cause both energy transfer and transformation. Since there is an acceleration of flow in moving blade passage hence chances of separation of flow is less which results in higher stage efficiency.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINE

Steam turbine may be classified as follows: (A) On the Basis of Principle of Operation :

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type of turbine can be warmed and started quickly, so it is very suitable for use at times of peak load. Though this type of turbine is very successful in the smaller sizes but formidable design difficulties have hindered the development of large turbines of this type. In Sweden, however, composite radial/axial flow turbines have been built of outputs upto 275 MW. Sometimes, this type of turbine is also known as Liungstrom turbine after the name of its inventor B and F. Liungstrom of Sweden (iii) Tangential Flow Turbine. In this type, the steam flows in the tangential direction. This turbine is very robust but not particularly efficient machine, sometimes used for driving power station auxiliaries. In this turbine, nozzle directs steam tangentially into buckets milled in the periphery of a single wheel, and on exit the steam turns through a reversing chamber, reentering bucket further round the periphery. This process is repeated several times, the steam flowing a helical path. Several nozzles with reversing chambers may be used around the wheel periphery.

(B) On the basis of Direction of Flow : (i) Axial flow turbine, (ii) Radial flow turbine, (iii) Tangential flow turbine. (i) Axial Flow Turbine. In axial flow turbine, the steam flows along the axis of the shaft. It is the most suitable turbine for large turbo-generators and that is why it is used in all modem steam power plants. (ii) Radial Flow Turbine. In this turbine, the steam flows in the radial direction. It incorporates two shafts end to end, each driving a separate generator. A disc is fixed to each shaft. Rings of 50% reaction radial-flow bladings are fixed to each disk. The two sets of bladings rotate counter to each other. In this way, a relative speed of twice the running speed is achieved and every blade row is made to work. The final stages may be of axial flow design in order to achieve a larger area of flow. Since this

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Dampers
A damper is a valve or plate that stops or regulates the flow of air inside a duct, chimney, air handler, or other air handling equipment. Its operation can be manual or automatic. Manual dampers are turned by a handle on the outside of a duct. Automatic dampers are used to regulate airflow constantly and are operated by electric or pneumatic motors, in turn controlled by a thermostat or building automation system.

Actuator
Put simply, an actuator is something that converts energy into motion. It can also be used to apply a force. An actuator typically is a mechanical device that takes energy, usually created by air, electricity, or liquid, and converts that into some kind of motion. That motion can be anything from blocking to clamping to ejecting. Actuators are typically used in manufacturing or industrial applications and may be used in things like motors, pumps, switches, and valves. Perhaps the most common type of actuator is powered by air the pneumatic cylinder, also known as the air cylinder. Air cylinders are airtight cylinders, typically made from metal, that use the energy of compressed air to move a piston. Air cylinders are most commonly used in manufacturing and assembly processes. Grippers, which are used in robotics, use actuators driven by compressed air to work much like human fingers.

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Actuators can also be powered by electricity or hydraulics. Much like there are air cylinders, there are also electric cylinders and hydraulic cylinders where the cylinder converts electricity or hydraulics into motion. Hydraulic cylinders are often used in certain types of vehicles. Many actuators have more than one type of power source. Solenoid valves, for example, can be powered by air and electricity. Electricity powers the solenoid, and the solenoid, powered by air, actuates the valve. Alternatively, the solenoid can be powered by hydraulics and electricity. Actuators can create a linear motion, rotary motion, or oscillatory motion.

and configurations to meet a whole spectrum of applications. No single steam trap design is ideal for each and every application. This makes understanding each design's abilities and limitations important in selecting the right trap for the right job. Steam traps can be split into three major types:

1.

Steam trap
A steam trap is a device used to discharge condensate and non condensable gases while not permitting the escape of live steam. Nearly all steam traps are nothing more than automatic valves. They open, close or modulate automatically. The three important functions of steam traps are: 1. To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed. 2. Not to allow steam to escape. 3. To be capable of discharging air and other incondensable gases. The earliest and simplest form of steam trap is the orifice trap. It consists of simply a disc or short solid pipe nipple with a small hole drilled through it installed at the lowest point of the equipment. Since steam condensate will collect at the lowest point and this hot liquid is about 1200 times smaller in volume and denser than live steam, condensate is effectively removed and steam is blocked. The problem with orifice traps is the fact that they do not compensate for varying loads and pressures. If the condensate load increases, liquid will back up in the equipment. If the load is light, then there is little condensate present and live steam will escape through the orifice. Orifice traps will not handle or remove non-condensable gases successfully. These basic inabilities have spawned a multitude of steam trap designs

2.

3.

Mechanical traps. They have a float that rises and falls in relation to condensate level and this usually has a mechanical linkage attached that opens and closes the valve. Mechanical traps operate in direct relationship to condensate levels present in the body of the steam trap. Inverted bucket and float traps are examples of mechanical traps. Temperature traps. They have a valve that is driven on / off the seat by either expansion / contraction caused by temperature change. They differ from mechanical traps in that their design requires them to hold back some condensate waiting for it to cool sufficiently to allow the valve to open. In most circumstances this is not desirable as condensate needs to be removed as soon as it is formed. Thermostatic traps and bimetallic traps are examples of temperature operated traps. Thermodynamic (TD) traps. Thermodynamic traps work on the difference in dynamic response to velocity change in flow of compressible and incompressible fluids. As steam enters, static pressure above the disk forces the disk against the valve seat. The static pressure over a large area overcomes the high inlet pressure of the steam. As the steam starts to condense, the pressure against the disk lessens and the trap cycles. This essentially makes a TD trap a "time cycle" device: it will open even if there is only steam present, this can cause premature wear. If non condensable gas is trapped on top of the disc, it can cause the trap to be locked shut.

STEAM CONDENSERS
A closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the heat and where the pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure is known as a condenser.

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The efficiency of the steam plant is considerably increased by the use of a condenser. In large turbine plants, the condensate recovery becomes very important and this is also made possible by the use of condenser. The steam condenser is one of the essential components of all modern steam power plants. Steam condensers are of two types: 1. Surface condenser. 2. Jet condensers

(ii) Central flow condenser. Fig. 1.11 shows a central flow condenser. In this condenser the steam passages are all around the periphery of the shell. Air is pumped away from the centre of the condenser. The condensate moves radially towards the centre of tube nest. Some of the exhaust steams while moving towards the centre meets the undercooled condensate and pre-heats it thus reducing undercooling. (iii) Evaporation condenser. In this condenser (Fig. 1.12) steam to be condensed is passed through a series of tubes and the cooling waterfalls over these tubes in the form of spray. A steam of air flows over the tubes to increase evaporation of cooling water, which further increases the condensation of steam.

SURFACE CONDENSERS
In surface condensers there is no direct contact between the steam and cooling water and the condensate can be re-used in the boiler: In such condenser even impure water can be used for cooling purpose whereas the cooling water must be pure in jet condensers. Although the capital cost and the space needed is more in surface condensers but it is justified by the saving in running cost and increase in efficiency of plant achieved by using this condenser. Depending upon the position of condensate extraction pump, flow of condensate and arrangement of tubes the surface condensers may be classified as follows: (i) Down flow type. Fig. 1.9 shows a sectional view of dawn flow condenser. Steam enters at the top and flows downward. The water flowing through the tubes in one direction lower half comes out in the opposite direction in the upper half Fig. 1.10 shows a longitudinal section of a two pass down-flow condenser.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A SURFACE CONDENSER

The various advantages of a surface condenser are as follows: 1. 2. The condensate can be used as boiler feed water. Cooling water of even poor quality can be used because the cooling water does not come indirect contact with steam. High vacuum (about 73.5 cm of Hg) can be obtained in the surface condenser. This increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.

3.

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The various disadvantages of' the surface condensers are as follows: 1. 2. 3. The capital cost is more. The maintenance cost and running cost of this condenser is high. It is bulky and requires more space.

Cooling tower
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere though the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. The type of heat rejection in a cooling tower is termed "evaporative" in that it allows a small portion of the water being cooled to evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream. The heat from the water stream transferred to the air stream raises the air's temperature and its relative humidity to 100%, and this air is discharged to the atmosphere. Evaporative heat rejection devices such as cooling towers are commonly used to provide significantly lower water temperatures than achievable with "air cooled" or "dry" heat rejection devices, like the radiator in a car, thereby achieving more cost-effective and energy efficient operation of systems in need of cooling.

JET CONDENSERS In jet condensers the exhaust steam and cooling water come in direct contact with each other. The temperature of cooling water and the condensate is same when leaving the condensers. Elements of the jet condenser are as follows: 1. 2. Nozzles or distributors for the condensing water. Steam inlet. Mixing chambers: They may be (a) parallel flow type (b) counter flow type depending on whether the steam and water move in the same direction before condensation or whether the flows are opposite. Hot well.

3.

4.

In jet condensers the condensing water is called injection water.

Cooling towers fall into two main sub-divisions: natural draft and mechanical draft. Natural draft designs use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media. Due to the tremendous size of these towers (500ft high and 400 ft in diameter at the base) they are generally used for water flowrates above 200,000 gal/min. Usually these types of towers are only used by utility power stations in the United States. Mechanical draft cooling towers are much more widely used. These towers utilize large fans to force air through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill surfaces which help increase the contact time between the water and the air. This helps maximize heat transfer between the two.

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Mechanical draft towers offer control of cooling rates in their fan diameter and speed of operation. These towers often contain several areas (each with their own fan) called cells. Limitations of Cooling Towers There are some limitations to using cooling towers. Their ability to cool is based on how much water is lost due to evaporation. The evaporation from a cooling tower is based on the quality of air in the surrounding area. If an area has high humidity, less water will evaporate than in a dry climate. In the winter, cooling towers are usually able to cool more efficiently as the air is drier. If the water is needed to be cooled to higher than 75F, a cooling tower is recommended, dependent upon wet bulb temperature for the region. If water is needed to be cooler, a chiller may be better suited to your cooling needs than a cooling tower.

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as superheated steam; non-superheated steam is called saturated steam or wet steam. Like the superheater, the reheater heat transfer surface may be composed of either radiant or convective surface. Radiant reheater surface can be either radiant wall heat transfer surface or pendant heat transfer surface. A radiant wall reheater can be mounted on the front and/or side walls of the upper furnace. Pendant type heat transfer surface is suspended from the roof of the furnace. The maximum reheater steam side pressure drop ranges from 20 psi (0.14 MPa) to 25 psi (0.17 MPa). Higher reheater pressure drops are undesirable because of the resulting turbine cycle efficiency loss. Lower reheater pressure drops are insufficient to ensure steam flow distribution to adequately cool all the reheater steam circuits, particularly at intermediate and low loads.

There are three types of superheaters namely: radiant, convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few tens of feet to several hundred feet (a few meters or some hundred meters). A radiant superheater is placed directly in the combustion chamber. A convection superheater is located in the path of the hot gases. A separately fired superheater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler. A superheater is a device in a steam engine, that heats the steam generated by the boiler again, increasing its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it will condense inside the engine. Superheaters increase the efficiency of the steam engine, and were widely adopted. Steam which has been superheated is logically known

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Nuclear Power Plant

Today nuclear power plants have become major source of electricity for us. nuclear technology is as safe as any other technology used to generate electricity and possibly much more effective in several situations. Nuclear energy isnt converted directly into electricity but the heat released during the fission reaction is used to convert water into steam which in turn runs a turbine. The turbine turns the alternator which produces electricity to be fed into the power grid. One concept which must be well understood in context of nuclear power plants is the critical mass of the fuel used. We know that fission occurs whenever an atom splits into two or more components. Let us take the case of U 235 which splits to give 2-3 neutrons in the process which in turn strike other atoms and cause further splitting. This chain can only be sustained if the mass of U 235 is of a certain minimum value known as the critical mass. Below this critical value the reaction would ultimately die out, while if the critical value is exceeded it may result in the likes of an atomic bomb. To turn nuclear fission into electrical energy, the first step for nuclear power plant operators is to be able to control the energy given off by the enriched uranium and allow it to heat water into steam. Enriched uranium is typically formed into inch-long (2.5-cm-long) pellets, each with approximately the same diameter as a dime. Next the pellets are arranged into long rods, and the rods are collected together into bundles. The bundles are submerged in water inside a pressure vessel. The water acts as a coolant. For the reactor to work, the submerged bundles must be slightly supercritical. Left to its own devices, the uranium would eventually overheat and melt. To prevent overheating, control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are inserted into the uranium bundle using a mechanism that can raise or lower the control rods. Raising and lowering the control rods allow operators to control the rate of the nuclear reaction. When an operator wants the uranium core to produce more heat, the control rods are raised out of the uranium bundle (thus absorbing fewer neutrons). To create less heat, they are lowered into the uranium bundle. The rods can

also be lowered completely into the uranium bundle to shut the reactor down in the case of an accident or to change the fuel.

The uranium bundle acts as an extremely high-energy source of heat. It heats the water and turns it to steam. The steam drives a turbine, which spins a generator to produce power. Humans have been harnessing the expansion of water into steam for hundreds of years. In some nuclear power plants, the steam from the reactor goes through a secondary, intermediate heat exchanger to convert another loop of water to steam, which drives the turbine. The advantage to this design is that the radioactive water/steam never contacts the turbine. Also, in some reactors, the coolant fluid in contact with the reactor core is gas (carbon dioxide) or liquid metal (sodium, potassium); these types of reactors allow the core to be operated at higher temperatures.

Components of Nuclear Power Plant Fuel

Fuel is needed for any energy producing process and refers to the material which is either burned or altered in order to produce energy.

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Burning takes place in case of chemical reactions, whilst alternation takes place in the nuclear reactions. Both these processes are exothermic but the latter leads to much more release of thermal energy as compared to chemical reactions for similar quantities of fuel. A fissile material is that which attains fission when hit by a neutron of any energy level. The commonly known fissile nuclides are isotopes of Uranium and Plutonium namely U-233, U-235, Pu-239 and Pu-241. Fuel is usually placed within the reactor core in the form of fuel rods which are fabricated and placed within the reactor in such a manner so that it leads to a uniform production of heat within the reactor. There are two types of reactors based on the manner in which the fuel and moderator are placed within the core as follows. 1. 2. The homogenous reactor is one in which the fuel and moderator are mixed to form a uniform mixture which is then placed in the form of rods and plates inside the reactor core. A heterogeneous reactor on the other hands has pure fuel in the form of rods or plates while the moderator surrounds the fuel elements separately. In this case the fuel rods are often clad with different materials including Aluminium, Stainless Steel or Zirconium which help to prevent oxidation of Uranium.

Normal or Light Water is used in majority of the reactors simply because of its cheap and abundant availability. The only flipside of using light-water is that the fuel has to be enriched to use with water Deuterium - also known as heavy water in common terminology, Deuterium is costly to manufacture as compared to light water but gives the option of using un-enriched fuel in the reactor which is a big advantage Miscellaneous - Several materials such as Graphite, Beryllium, Lithium are used in different types of reactors as moderators

Reflector
As we know the reactor consists of the fission process which occurs when a thermal energy neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus leading to its division into two nuclei and emission of 2 or 3 neutrons apart from the heat energy. These neutrons fly randomly in all directions and are usually in the region of fast moving energy neutrons. many of these neutrons may simply get lost by flying off the reactor core and thus serving no useful purpose. In order to reduce this process of neutron loss the inner surface of the reactor core is surrounded by a material which helps to reflect these escaping neutrons back towards the core of the reactor and these materials are known as reflecting materials. There are a variety of materials which are used as a reflecting medium for neutrons and whatever material is used for the process, it must possess these properties.

Moderator
Whenever a thermal neutron causes fission it also leads to the release of fast neutrons. Now these fast neutrons have to be slowed down and brought to lower energy levels if they have to cause successful fission in turn. Moderator is a medium which is used to absorb a portion of the kinetic energy of fast neutrons so that they come in the category of thermal neutrons which help to sustain a controlled chain reaction. The mechanism of speed control works in such a way that fast moving neutrons strike the nuclei of moderator material which is not efficient at absorbing them but simply slows them down with repeated collisions thus bringing them into the thermal zone. There are several materials which are used for the purpose including the following

1. Low absorption - this is necessary since if the reflecting material

itself starts to absorb the very neutrons it is supposed to reflect back, then the purpose of installing the reflector material would itself be defeated and it would be better not to install any reflector at all. High reflection - this is an obvious property and does not need any explanation for that is the very purpose for which the reflector exists in the core Radiation stability - since the reflector material will be exposed to high levels of radiation, it is but natural to assume that it should have a high stability towards radiation

2. 3.

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4. Resistance to Oxidation - the material should not get oxidized

otherwise it will fail to serve the requisite purpose

Coolant
The immense amount of heat energy present in the nuclear reactor core needs to be transferred in some manner so that it is converted into electrical energy. This also helps to keep the working temperature of the core within safe limits for the materials used in the construction of the reactor. Hence a coolant plays an important role in components of nuclear power plant and serves the dual purpose of removing the heat from the reactor as well as transferring it to the electricity generation circuit either directly or indirectly depending on the type of nuclear reactor being used for the purpose. There are some properties of the coolant which are necessary to ensure safety of the reactor and well as proper performance of the coolant for the intended purpose. Some of the desired properties of an ideal coolant are as follows

Since no single material qualifies as an ideal coolant, different coolants are used in different circumstances and some of the commonly used coolants are light water, heavy water, carbondioxide, helium, nitrogen, sodium, sodium-potassium mixture and so on. It can be seen that the coolants used vary from solids, liquids and gases and depending on the type of the reactor, the appropriate coolant is preferred.

Control Rods
Nuclear fission is a source of tremendous energy which could be either used for destructive purposes such as nuclear weapons or constructive purposes such as a nuclear reactor for producing electrical energy. Even though a nuclear reactor in a power plant has got peaceful intentions, the tremendous power, heat and energy which is associated with nuclear fission cannot be left on its own but needs to be controlled in a predictable manner. It is here that controls rods come in the picture and form an important part of the components of nuclear power plant. Some of the basic reasons for control rods in a power plant are as follows. A nuclear chain reaction should be started when a reactor fires from the cold condition. In the absence of such a reaction the process would soon die out. It is not only necessary and sufficient to start the chain reaction but it is equally necessary to ensure that the reaction is sustained in the long run as long as the power requirements are present. In case of emergency situations such as a sudden mechanical or structural damage, the reactor needs to be shut down quickly in order to prevent any major disaster like say Chernobyl which could be very costly in terms of loss to life and environment. Fuel rods inside the reactor should be prevented from melting or getting disintegrated and therefore a control mechanism is absolutely necessary.

A coolant should not absorb neutrons or should have a minimum neutron absorption cross section. It should posses excellent resistance to both high temperatures as well as high levels of radiation. A coolant should be non-corrosive in nature otherwise it might tend to damage and corrode the very core which is meant to be protected by it through proper removal of heat. Coolants used in nuclear reactors could be either in the liquid state or in the solid state. In case the coolant is a liquid it should have a high boiling point so that it does not get evaporated due to the high heat inside the reactor. But in case it is a solid it should have a relatively low melting point due to obvious reasons. Since a coolant needs to circulate using a pump it should be capable of being pumped easily so that least amount of energy is spent in pumping the coolant.

One property which is a must for control rod material is the heavy absorption capacity for neutrons so that they can carry out the control function effectively. The commonly used materials which satisfy these

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criteria include cadmium, boron, iridium, silver and hafnium. Another property of control rods is that the material should not start a fission reaction despite the heavy absorption of neutrons. The mechanism of control consists of arranging control rods in assembles which are usually mounted vertically within the reactor core and are inserted into the guide tubes with the fuel elements. For purposes of safety of a reactor in case the lifting mechanism also suffers a failure, the control are arranged in such a way that they will get into the stop position and shut down the reactor completely in such a case.

safety aspect in this article but we will certainly have a look at some of the most basic features relating to nuclear power plant safety. The Building: since the nuclear power plant has exothermic nuclear reactions going on inside its core, it is very important that the structure housing this reactor should be made from relevant materials which have the appropriate capacity to shield the outside environment both during normal operations as well as minimize risk of damage in case of unfortunate accidents such as the Chernobyl blast. The Core: this is the place where the actual reaction takes place. Fission occurs with the release of neutrons causing further fission thus sustaining a chain reaction. Appropriate measures must be taken to maintain ideal conditions via control rods and core cooling. Monitoring: human beings working inside the power plant need to be constantly monitored for any over exposure of radiation as a result of their routine job operations. The standards laid down in this regard should be strictly adhered to and the working environment should be regularly checked for radiation levels. Waste Disposal: one of the most challenging tasks is the proper disposal of waste materials from the nuclear power plant. These waste materials come in different forms such as solid, liquid and gaseous. All these types of wastes have their own methods of disposal and the main idea is to dispose off these wastes in a manner which is least harmful for human beings, flora, fauna and the natural environment. Proper Emergency Response Plans: nobody wants an accident to happen but things do go out of control sometimes either due to human error or machinery failure. The best thing is to be prepared for such a situation and have properly trained personnel as well as the requisite equipment in order to deal effectively with such situations.

Shielding
As you know when a nucleus gets split into two parts during the fission process it results in the production of large amounts of heat energy since the reaction is exothermic in nature. But this is not the only product of nuclear fuel "combustion" but there are several other by-products such as alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays and of course the fast moving neutrons. These by-products in the form of different kinds of radiation would simply leak out into the atmosphere in the absence of proper arrangements to prevent this. Radiation leakage would be very harmful for the personnel working in the nuclear plant as well as the nearby flora and fauna. This makes clear the case for having a proper shield so that these radiations get absorbed within the reactor without having a chance to escape into open air. This is done by using materials which are good absorbents of the same. Concrete and steel are very good at absorbing radiation and they are equally strong as well, hence used in forming the shielding material.

Nuclear Power Plant Safety

Safety should be ensured in a nuclear power plant from all aspects and during all stages: from the inception of the plant as an idea to its full fledged commissioning providing continuous source of power to the requisite purpose. It would not be possible to go into the full details of the

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If the above mentioned dictums are followed properly it would ensure that the tremendous energy which lies in the atom is harnessed in a proper manner without causing damage to men, material or environment.

Hydropower Plants
Hydropower plants harness water's energy and use simple mechanics to convert that energy into electricity. Hydropower plants are actually based on a rather simple concept -- water flowing through a dam turns a turbine, which turns a generator. Here are the basic components of a conventional hydropower plant:

Intake - Gates on the dam open and gravity pulls the water through the penstock, a pipeline that leads to the turbine. Water builds up pressure as it flows through this pipe. Turbine - The water strikes and turns the large blades of a turbine, which is attached to a generator above it by way of a shaft. The most common type of turbine for hydropower plants is the Francis Turbine, which looks like a big disc with curved blades. A turbine can weigh as much as 172 tons and turn at a rate of 90 revolutions per minute (rpm). Generators - As the turbine blades turn, so do a series of magnets inside the generator. Giant magnets rotate past copper coils, producing alternating current (AC) by moving electrons. Transformer - The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC and converts it to higher-voltage current. Power lines - Out of every power plant come four wires: the three phases of power being produced simultaneously plus a neutral or ground common to all three. Outflow - Used water is carried through pipelines, called tailraces, and re-enters the river downstream.

The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy: the kinetic energy due to flow of water and potential energy due to the height of water. In hydroelectric power plants or dams potential energy of water is utilized to generate electricity. The formula for total power that can be generated from water in hydroelectric power plant due to its height is given by P = rhg Where: P is the total power that can be produced in watts r- is the flow rate of water measured in cubic meters per second. h- is called height of water measured in meters. It is also head of water. It is difference in height between the source of water (from where water is taken) and the waters outflow (where the water is used to generate electricity, it is the place near the turbines). g- is the gravity constant 9.81 m/second square

Dam - Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back water, creating a large reservoir.

The formula clearly shows that the total power that can be generated from the hydroelectric power plants depends on two major factors: the flow rate of water or volume of flow of water and height or head of water.

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More the volume of water and more the head of water more is the power produced in the hydroelectric power plant. To obtain the high head of water the reservoir of water should as high as possible and power generation unit should be as low as possible. The maximum height of reservoir of water is fixed by natural factors like the height of river bed, the amount of water and other environmental factors. The location of the power generation unit can be adjusted as per the total amount of power that is to be generated. Usually the power generation unit is constructed at levels lower than ground level so as to get the maximum head of water. The total flow rate of water can be adjusted through the penstock as per the requirements. If more power is to be generated more water can be allowed to flow through it.

In the solar power plant, solar energy is used to generate electricity. Sunrays are focused using concave reflectors on to copper tubes filled with water and painted black outside. The water in the tubes then boils and become steam. This steam is used to drive steam turbine, which in turn causes the generator to work. Many power plants today use fossil fuels as a heat source to boil water. The steam from the boiling water rotates a large turbine, which activates a generator that produces electricity. However, a new generation of power plants, with concentrating solar power systems, uses the sun as a heat source. There are three main types of concentrating solar power systems: parabolic-trough, dish/engine, and power tower. Parabolic-trough systems concentrate the suns energy through long rectangular, curved (U-shaped) mirrors. The mirrors are tilted toward the sun, focusing sunlight on a pipe that runs down the center of the trough. This heats the oil flowing through the pipe. The hot oil then is used to boil water in a conventional steam generator to produce electricity.

Solar power Plant

Solar power is nothing but the sunlight that shines on the Earths surface. It has been estimated that one hour of solar power on the earth can meet the energy demand of the world for one year. The solar power can be used in two different ways. One way it can be used as a heat source and another way it can be used as an energy source. Sunlight can be converted directly into electricity using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly with concentrating solar power (CSP) The process of making electricity directly out of solar energy is called photovoltaic. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. Your solar-powered watch or calculator uses this method for working. Solar cells are being used for this. The electrical energy out of the sun light is derived from the electromagnetic radiation of the sunlight. The conversion of solar energy in to electrical energy in a concentrating solar power technology is achieved by many ways using solar thermal electric power plants, Power towers, parabolic troughs etc. In all these methods, the underlying principle is converting solar energy into electrical energy.

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A dish/engine system uses a mirrored dish (similar to a very large satellite dish). The dishshaped surface collects and concentrates the sun's heat onto a receiver, which absorbs the heat and transfers it to fluid within the engine. The heat causes the fluid to expand against a piston or turbine to produce mechanical power. The mechanical power is then used to run a generator or alternator to produce electricity. A power tower system uses a large field of mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto the top of a tower, where a receiver sits. This heats molten salt flowing through the receiver. Then, the salts heat is used to generate electricity through a conventional steam generator. Molten salt retains heat efficiently, so it can be stored for days before being converted into electricity. That means electricity can be produced on cloudy days or even several hours after sunset.

A Solar Chimney Power Plant. The air stream is heated by solar radiation absorbed by the ground and covered by a transparent cover. The hot air flow through or chimney which gives the air a certain velocity due to pressure drop caused by the chimney effect. The hot air flows through an air turbine to generate power.

Wind Power
Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity. Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller blades, turn in the moving air and power an electric generator that supplies an electric current. Simply stated, a wind turbine is the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The

A heliostat field consists of a large number of flat mirrors of 25 to 150 m2 area which reflects the beam radiations onto a central receiver mounted on a tower. Each mirror is tracked on two axis. The absorber surface temperature may be 400 to 1000C. The concentration ratio (total mirror area divided by receiver area) may be 1500. Steam, air or liquid metal may be used as working fluid. Steam is raised for the conventional steam power plant.

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wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity.

blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy; a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator; a tower that supports the rotor and drive train; and other equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment, and interconnection equipment.

Wind turbines are often grouped together into a single wind power plant, also known as a wind farm, and generate bulk electrical power. Electricity from these turbines is fed into a utility grid and distributed to customers, just as with conventional power plants. Wind turbines are available in a variety of sizes, and therefore power ratings. The largest machine has blades that span more than the length of a football field, stands 20 building stories high, and produces enough electricity to power 1,400 homes. A small home-sized wind machine has rotors between 8 and 25 feet in diameter and stands upwards of 30 feet and can supply the power needs of an all-electric home or small business. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 750 kilowatts. Single small turbines, below 50 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or water pumping.

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups; the horizontal-axis variety, like the traditional farm windmills used for pumping water, and the vertical-axis design, like the eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. Most large modern wind turbines are horizontalaxis turbines.

Geothermal Plants
Geothermal power plants use steam to drive a turbine, which turns a generator to produce electricity. The turbine is like a large propeller. When the steam flows through it, it creates lift along the edge of the blades, spinning the turbine. The turbine is attached to an electric generator, which is basically a spinning magnet surrounded by coils of wire. When the magnet spins, its magnetic field moves through the wire. This creates a moving electric current in the wire called alternating current, or AC. The most common current way of capturing the energy from geothermal sources is to tap into naturally occurring "hydrothermal convection" systems where cooler water seeps into Earth's crust, is heated up, and then rises to the surface. When heated water is forced to the surface, it is a relatively simple matter to capture that steam and use it to drive electric

Horizontal turbine components include:

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generators. Geothermal power plants drill their own holes into the rock to more effectively capture the steam. There are three designs for geothermal power plants, all of which pull hot water and steam from the ground, use it, and then return it as warm water to prolong the life of the heat source

Dry steam plant

The oldest design in geothermal power plants is the dry steam plant, in which steam from deep underground runs up a tube to spin the turbine. Then the steam is either cooled and pumped back underground or released.

Binary system
In binary geothermal plants, the subterranean water doesn't actually drive the turbines. It is pressurized and pumped up through a tube, as in a flash steam plant, to where it meets a secondary tube. The secondary tube also has water in it, but at a lower pressure. Heat from the first tube flows into the second tube, boiling the water to drive the turbine. The water in the first tube is then pumped back down into the earth to gather more heat.

Flash steam power plants

Flash steam power plants are a newer and more sophisticated design. Deep underground where the water is heated, the pressure is much higher. The water can remain liquid at temperatures well above the normal boiling point. Dry steam plants pump this pressurized water directly to the surface. Right before it gets to the turbine, however, the pressure is reduced. The superheated water instantly turns to steam, creating a huge burst of pressure to drive the turbine. The water is then cooled and sent back into the ground to start the process over again.

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The choice of which design to use is determined by the resource. If the water comes out of the well as steam, it can be used directly, as in the first design. If it is hot water of a high enough temperature, a flash system can be used, otherwise it must go through a heat exchanger. Since there are more hot water resources than pure steam or hightemperature water sources, there is more growth potential in the heat exchanger design.

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