TELECOMMUNICATION BASICS

1. INTRODUCTION Telecom & Telephony Need and role of a switch Telecom Networks CCITT 2. SUBSCRIBER LINE Details of a telephone equipment Subscriber line network Line circuit 3. TRANSMISSION Transmission Parameters Transmission techniques TDM, FDM basics First order PCM (30 channel PCM) Transmission media & equipments 4. SWITCHING Basic concepts Switching techniques T, S, TST basics Switching systems Manual, Strowger, X bar SPC & Digital Switching Systems Exchange configuration (DSS) block level 5. SIGNALLING Need & Importance of signalling Signal carriers - circuits Subscriber signalling Exchange signalling CAS & CCS #7 CAS - Line & register signalling CCS #7 6. NETWORK PLANNING Traffic theory BHCA, erlang, GOS, CCR. Fundamental plans Conclusion

Telecom Basics

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INTRODUCTION
TELECOMMUNICATION refers to exchange of information between any two points via a medium. Information can be signals, images, data, voice etc. Medium can be copper wire, cable, directional radio links, satellite, optical fiber etc. TELEPHONY refers to the exchange of speech / voice information between subscribers connected by pairs of wires or long-distance voice transmission, in short. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone equipment and demonstrated telephony in 1876, which was a point-to-point telephone communication. In the simplest form of a telephone circuit, there is a one way communication involving two entities, one receiving (listening) and the other transmitting (talking). This form of one way communication is called simplex communication. In a normal telephone communication system, information is transferred in both the directions, although both do not take place simultaneously. An entity is either sending or receiving at any instant of time. Such a form of communication where the information transfer takes place in both directions, but not simultaneously is called Half-duplex communication. If the information transfer takes place in both the directions simultaneously, then it is called Full-duplex communication. TELECOMMUNICATION

TRANSMISSION

SWITCHING

UNRESTRICTED PROPAGATION

GUIDED PROPAGATION

CONNECTION

SIGNALLING

CIRCUIT SATCOM DIRECTIONAL RADIO LINK OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

PACKET

SUBSCRIBER

BETWEEN EXCHANGES CAS CCS

TIME

SPACE PULSE TONE

Introduction

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Need for a switching center A network using point-to-point connections is shown in Figure 1.
A

Figure 1. A network with point-to-point links In such a network a calling subscriber chooses the appropriate link to establish connection with the called subscriber. Networks with point-to-point links among all the entities are known as fully connected networks.

Figure 2. Problem of interconnecting several users The problem of interconnecting several users, i.e., n(n-1) / 2 connections required for n subscribers, is illustrated in Figure 2. The number of links
Introduction Page 3

required in a fully connected network becomes very large even with moderate values of n, where n is the no. of entities to be connected. For e.g., we require 1225 links for fully interconnecting 50 subscribers. Consequently, the practical use of Bells invention on a large scale demanded not only the telephone sets and the pairs of wires but also the so called switching system or the switch office or the exchange. Role of a switch With the introduction of switching systems, the subscribers are not connected directly to one another; instead they are connected to the switching center as shown in Figure 3. The main function of the switch is to provide connectivity.

SWITCH

Figure 3. Role of a switch When a subscriber wants to communicate with another, a connection is established between the two at the switching system. In other words, the switch / exchange provides the connectivity between the two subscribers. In this configuration, only one pair of wires per subscriber is required between the subscriber and the switching system and the total no. of such pairs is equal to the capacity of the exchange. There are various functions performed by the switching system in establishing and releasing connections. These are called control functions. Telecom networks By introducing several switching systems in appropriate geographical locations, communication capability can be established among the subscribers in the same locality. However, for subscribers in different localities to communicate, it is necessary that the switching systems are interconnected in the form of a network.
Introduction Page 4

The infrastructure including all the hardware and software equipment allowing the interconnection of users for exchange of information is called the Telecom network. Elements of a network are user (subscriber) connection equipment transmission equipment switching equipment

The lines connecting the switching centres with each other are called trunks, and those that connect the user with the switch are called subscriber lines. Figure 4 shows a simple switching network.
Subscribers TRUNKS
Switch A Switch B

Subscribers

Switch C

Switch D

Subscribers Subscribers

Figure 4. A simple switching network Depending upon the service provided telecom networks can be classified as below : 1. Telegraph networks 2. Telex networks 3. Telephone networks 4. Data networks Telecom networks may be categorized according to their coverage of geographical areas, which have distinct telecom requirements. Local
Introduction Page 5

networks are characterized by many local exchanges and short distances between exchanges as well as subscribers. Long distance or toll networks interconnecting local networks act as backbone networks. They support national (STD), international & intercontinental (ISD) communications. The most stupendous telecom network in existence is the PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network or sometimes called POTS Plain Old Telephone System. CCITT With a number of agencies (like DOT, NTT etc.) providing telecom services, there is clearly a need to ensure a compatibility on a world wide scale to enable networking. The International Telecommunication Union ITU, an agency of the United Nations (UN), provides this coordination. ITU has three main groups, one of which deals with telephony and data communications. This group is called by a French name Comite Consultatif Internationale de Telegraphique & Telephonique or CCITT, i.e., International Consultative Committee for Telegraph & Telephones. The practical work is mainly carried out in study groups made up of experts from the companies and administration of member countries. CCITT gives only recommendations and neither do they control development nor do they force anybody to follow their recommendations. The recommendations are updated every four years and each issue has a different colour like Yellow book in 1981, Red book in 1985 etc.. CCITT recommendations cover practically all areas namely general and equipment specific performance data, numbering plan, signalling, charging, routing, O&M etc.. CEPT (Conference Europenne des administration des Posts et des Telecommunication) is a similar organization for the telephone companies of European countries.

Introduction

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Subscriber line
Every subscriber in a telephone network is connected generally to the nearest switching office by means of a dedicated pair of wires. This is known as the subscriber loop that connects the subscriber equipment (telephone) to the exchange. The interface equipment that connects the subscriber line with the exchange is called the line circuit. Subscriber equipment The basic functions of the telephone set are listed below : Attract the attention of the exchange to make a call / to end a call Called subscriber number transfer Speech circuit speech to electric signals and electric signals to voice conversion Attract the attention of the subscriber when there is an incoming call

The details of a telephone set are illustrated in figure 1. The simple telephone set consists of 1. 2. 3. 4. Hookswitch or cradle switch Dialling equipment Speech circuit with a microphone and receiver Bell
Receiver

Hookswitch Tip

Mic

C Bell

Dial

Ring

Figure 1. Telephone set

Subscriber Line

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1. Hookswitch : The equivalent circuit of a telephone set during onhook and offhook condition is shown in figure 2. When the telephone is onhook it is like a capacitance and offers high impedance to the DC voltage present at the exchange. When the subscriber lifts the handset, the equivalent circuit is a low resistance loop that makes a current to flow from the exchange battery. This presence and absence of the current in the loop can be sensed by the exchange. On hook Off hook

Figure 2. Equivalent circuit The arrangement in the telephone set is such that when the receiver is onhook only the bell is connected (to receive a call)and when it is offhook the bell is disconnected and the speech circuit and dial are connected to the line. 2. Dial : This provides the mechanism to transfer the called subscribers identity to the exchange. The digits of Bs number are sent by the dial, in the form of pulses or tones. When it is sent in the form of pulses, it is called rotary or decadic dialling. The pulses are generated by alternately making and breaking the subscriber loop. The number of pulses is equal to the digit value except in the case of zero when it is ten pulses. Each digit generates a pulse train and the successive digits are separated by an interdigit gap of atleast 200ms. Instead of the pulse train, the digits can be sent in the form of tones. Each tone is a combination of two frequencies. This type of dialling is called pushbutton or tone dialling. 3. Speech circuit : The speech circuit in the telephone set consists of two amplifier units one for amplifying the current generated by the microphone and another for amplifying the signals from the line and feed the speaker or receiver. A little amount of the signal generated is fed back to the receiver so that the speaker can hear it. This is called sidetone, which should be controlled for the appropriate level, i.e., it should be neither too low nor too high, for comfortable conversation. There is a circuit for balancing this sidetone effect. 4. Bell : This is to draw the attention of the subscriber when there is an incoming call. The exchange sends the ringing current (75 V rms) and the bell with the series capacitor is activated. When the subscriber lifts the handset, offhook condition, the loop current is detected by the exchange, which then stops the ringing signal.

Subscriber Line

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Subscriber line The physical pair of wires from the exchange to the subscriber premises is called the subscriber line or loop. It is not wise to run physically independent pairs from every subscriber premises to the exchange. Instead it is easier to lay multipair cables for different geographical locations and run dedicated pairs as required by the subscriber premises. Generally various levels of cabling are used from the exchange to the subscriber premises. The drop wires are the individual pairs that run to the subscriber premises. These drop wires are connected to distribution cables terminated at the distribution point. Several distribution cables from different geographical locations are terminated on a feeder point, where they are connected to branch feeder cables, which, in turn, are connected to the main feeder cable. The main cables consisting of 100 2000 pairs are terminated on a Main Distribution frame (MDF) at the exchange. The subscriber cable pairs coming from the exchange are also terminated on the MDF. Jumper wires are used to connect the line side and exchange side pairs of the subscribers. From economy point of view, it is desirable that the subscriber loop lengths are as large as possible so that a single exchange can cater to large area. But the loop resistance is a limiting factor, which affects the signalling and performance requirements. A maximum loop resistance of 1300 ohms is acceptable for driving a minimum current of 25mA required for signalling functions and biasing the microphone in the telephone set. In rural areas, subscribers are generally dispersed. Hence it is both unnecessary and expensive to provide a dedicated pair for every subscriber. There are some methods to reduce the number of individual pairs. One such method is called concentration, where several subscribers are made to share a common but limited resource. Concentration is often done at the exchange but remote line concentrators are also used now a days. Here the subscribers do not have their own channel to the exchange but share a common link. Carrier systems employ FDM and TDM techniques and enable all users to access the exchange over a single line. Line circuit The interface equipment that connects the subscriber loop with the exchange is called the line circuit. Every subscriber is provided with a line circuit in the exchange. The signalling and speech transmissions on the subscriber lines are done by these line circuits. The complete set of functions performed by a line circuit is listed below : Battery feed battery reversal Overvoltage protection Ringing
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Subscriber Line

Supervision subscriber loop monitoring Coding ADC / DAC (coding / decoding) Hybrid 2 wire to 4 wire conversion Test test equipment for automatic measurement and fault finding (TA) on the line Some functions are required in analog networks, some in digital and some in both. Digital exchanges require receive and transmit signals on separate 2-wire circuits. This calls for a 2-wire to 4-wire conversion. Such a conversion is required for trunk transmissions in analog exchanges. The circuit that performs this conversion is called a hybrid. The main of the hybrid is to ensure that there is no coupling of signal from the input to the output in the 4-wire circuit. A transformer based hybrid circuit is shown in figure 3. Input

4-wire circuit

2-wire circuit

Output Figure 3. Hybrid transformer

Subscriber Line

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TRANSMISSION
Transmission in telephony refers to the transfer of speech and signalling information from one point in the network to another. Generally, there are two modes of transmission namely asynchronous and synchronous transmission. In asynchronous mode, each character is framed by a start bit and stop bit which allow the receiver to determine the bit at which a character begins. Another method consists of transmitting the information and a clock signal simultaneously, so that the receiver can synchronize on its own. This is transmission in synchronous mode. In transmission some parameters are required to compare, calculate and specify the performance of the system. These are called transmission parameters. There are different techniques to transfer information from one point to another called transmission systems. Lastly, various media can be used for transmission in telephony. Transmission parameters 1. Bandwidth : The frequency range of the signals to be transmitted is referred to as bandwidth. In telephony, the frequency range of 300 - 3400 Hz is quite sufficient for intelligibility of speech. A bandwidth of 3.1 kHz is recommended by CCITT for telephony. Bandwidth is directly proportional to the number of channels (in TDM, FDM). A single channel analog connection for speech occupies a bandwidth of 3.1 kHz, a 12-channel FDM system occupies 48 kHz (60 108 kHz), a 900 channel FDM occupies 13.188 MHz and so on. For TDM systems, the bandwidth is quite large due to pulse signals. 2. Attenuation : The signals undergo attenuation during transmission and hence reach the receiving point in a distorted manner. This attenuation depends upon the medium, line resistance, frequency of the signals etc. which results in weakening the strength of the original signal. Amplifiers and regenerators are used to minimize the problems due to attenuation. 3. Noise & SNR : Noise is produced by different sources, which is gathered along the channel and deforms the signal. The acceptable level of noise in the signal is determined the parameter called Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). SNR is the ratio of signal energy to noise energy and is given by the formula SNR = 10 log10 (S / N), and is expressed in decibels (dB). In telephony, this value is less than or equal to 50 dB. 4. Crosstalk : The disturbance in a connection by a conversation on another adjacent line is called Crosstalk. Crosstalk is observed both in analog and digital transmission links between pairs of wires in cables, media and exchanges. In digital links, crosstalk occurs as NEXT and FEXT (see figure 1). When there is interference between adjacent pairs of wires working in the same direction then it is called Far End Cross Talk (FEXT). When the interference is between adjacent pairs working in the opposite direction,
Transmission Page 11

then it is called Near End Cross Talk (NEXT). NEXT is more serious of the two as the amplified signal is interfering with the adjacent channel signal that is comparitively weak in strength. Interfering FEXT Affected Interfering NEXT Affected Figure 1. Crosstalk FEXT & NEXT 5. Side Tone : In the telephone equipment, some of the speech signal is fed back to the receiver so that the speaker can hear his/her own voice during the conversation. This sidetone level should be appropriate, i.e., it should be neither too high nor too low, so that the conversation is comfortable. The telephone equipment has some devices in its speech circuit for balancing this sidetone effect. 6. Echo : In full duplex systems on two wires, a portion of the transmitted signal is reflected back in the opposite direction and heard as echo. This gets superimposed on the original signal and distorts it. There are devices called echo suppressors that are used at the end points to overcome this problem. Apart from these, some more transmission parameters like quantization distortion, propagation time delay etc. are also to be considered in a transmission system. Transmission systems Basically, transmission systems are of two types single channel and multichannel systems. In a single channel system, the medium is used only for one signal in a particular frequency band. This type remains idle for most of the time. E.g. Subscriber line connection. It is very expensive indeed to build and maintain transmission links in the network. Therefore, the transmission link between two points should be used to the optimum and maximum possible by transmitting several conversations over the same pair of wires. The

Transmission

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technique used in this type of multichannel systems is called multiplexing. Multiplexing can be used in both analog and digital networks. The two most common methods of multiplexing are Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). In TDM, several speech channels are separated in time domain and transmitted at different instants of time. The time frame allotted for one signal is called a time slot. In FDM, several speech channels are separated in frequency domain and transmitted at different frequency ranges within the available bandwidth. The principle of TDM and FDM is illustrated in figure 2. f
Channel 5 Channel 4 Channel 3 Channel 2 Channel 1 C h a n n e l 1 C h a n n e l 2 C h a n n e l 3 C h a n n e l 4 C h a n n e l 5

FDM Figure 2. Multiplexing

TDM

Both TDM and FDM are based on some type of modulation. Modulation is a process in which the signal to be transmitted varies some characteristic of a carrier signal. There are different types of modulation namely Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation etc. in analog and Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) etc. in digital systems. In FDM on an analog transmission link, several carrier signals, one for each speech channel, are sent down the same pair of wires. The carrier signals are modulated by the respective speech signal and corresponding demodulation is done at the receiver. CCITT recommendations for carrier frequency systems are available for 12, 60, 300, 900, 960, 2700 and 10800 channels. The media used can be paired cables, coaxial cables, radio links and satellites. TDM with Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is mainly used in digital networks. In digital PCM, the analog voice signal is converted into digital form and transmitted in the form of binary pulses (bits). Thirty two such channels are multiplexed in time domain to yield the first order PCM (30 channel PCM).
Transmission Page 13

First order PCM (30 channel PCM) Digital speech transmission involves the following steps Sampling Quantization Coding Multiplexing Line coding 1. Sampling : This method for analog to digital conversion is used to get sufficiently close to the original signal. In this, the original speech signal is sampled at regular intervals which results in a PAM signal, where each pulse corresponds to the amplitude of the speech signal at that particular instant of time. Sampling is done according to sampling theorem which states that all the information in the original analog signal would be present in the reconstructed signal if the sampling frequency is greater than or equal to twice the maximum frequency of the analog signal, which has a limited bandwidth. In the case of telephony, the sampling frequency of 8000 samples per second is found to be optimum. Sampling is illustrated in figure 3.

Sampling pulse

Analog signal

P A M signal

Figure 3. Sampling 2. Quantization : The amplitude level of the signal is divided into intervals and each interval is given a value. All samples falling within the given interval are given the same value. This process is called quantization of the sample. Hence, the amplitude of the pulses in the PAM signal is measured and every pulse is given a numerical value that is to be transmitted. This
Transmission Page 14

process gives rise to quantization distortion that is overcome by a technique called companding compressing and expanding. 3. Coding : In telephony, 256 levels are used for quantization that are uniquely coded using binary digits (bits). Eight bits are sufficient for coding 256 values. The entire process of sampling, quantization and coding is called Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) that results in an 8 bit PCM word. One PCM word corresponds to one sample and 8000 samples per second are generated. The bit rate for a single speech channel is 64 Kbps. 4. Multiplexing : A PCM system is able to transmit two million bits per second (2.048 Mbps) on a pair of wires. Since each channel requires only 64 Kbps, it is possible to transmit thirty-two channels simultaneously on the same pair of wires yielding the first order PCM. Each channel uses the link for its allotted time interval called time slot(TS). The 32 time slots for all the 32 channels together form one frame of 125 microseconds duration (figure 4). Normally, TS0 is used for synchronization and TS16 for signalling information and so 30 different conversations can be conveyed by the remaining 30 time slots, called voice channels. TS16 can carry signalling information for only 2 voice channels (4 bits / channel). For conveying the signalling information of all 30 voice channels, a multiframe consisting of 16 frames is used. Each frame consists of one PCM word from each of the 32 channels. TS16 in frame 0 is used for multiframe alignment and acknowledgement of the same. frame
TS 0 voice channels (1 15 ) TS16 voice channels ( 17 31 )

Signalling information Figure 4. PCM frame 5. Line coding : In the PCM link, when there are too many zeroes or ones in succession, synchronization at the receivers clock frequency becomes difficult. This reduces the reliability of the information received that is overcome by line coding the information, prior to transmission. There are various line codes available but the most popular is the HDB3 code. It is a improved version of AMI coding. In AMI coding, every alternate mark pulse (one) is inverted which results in a bipolar pulse train. In HDB3 coding, the number of successive zeroes is restricted to three. It is same as the AMI code but if 3 zeroes are followed by a fourth, it will be replaced by a violation pulse, with same polarity as the previous mark pulse. HDB3 coding is used in first order PCM.
Transmission Page 15

Digital transmission is only in one direction and hence corresponding function should be available for transmission in the other direction also. Several first order PCMs can be multiplexed using TDM to yield higher order PCMs carrying thousands of speech channels. Transmission media Both in analog and digital systems, some suitable medium is required to transmit the speech and signalling information from one point to another. The selection of an appropriate transmission medium depends upon the nature of the information, traffic to be handled, geographical constraints etc. Basically, there are four types of media available that are listed below. Metallic cable paired cable and coaxial cable Directional radio link Communication Satellites Optical fibers 1. Metallic cable : There are two types of metallic cable paired cable and coaxial cable. A paired cable consists of a set of individual pairs of conductors. It is also called multipair core cable 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 pairs etc.. These pairs can be twisted pairs or quads. The bandwidth for paired cable is small and is best suited for low bit rates. It is mainly used between the subscriber and exchange in line network. A coaxial pair consists of two concentric conductors separated by an insulating material. A coaxial cable consists of several coaxial pairs. The bandwidth of coaxial cables is higher than paired cables and hence used for higher multichannel transmission in FDM and TDM systems between exchanges. Coaxial core cables with 2, 4, 6, 8 pairs are used for telephony. 2. Directional radio links : The technology is based on directed radio waves sent between antennae. The frequency range of 300 MHz 10 GHz is used for telephony. Each connection requires 2 radio channels, one for each direction separated by a few MHz. The same antenna is used for transmission and reception. The range depends upon the frequency used, 15 20 kms at higher frequencies and 50 60 kms at lower frequencies. Radio links are used for inter-exchange links and can cater to 2700 FDM channels in the case of analog and 3840 channels for digital systems. 3. Communication satellites : Space technology has produced communication satellites and a new medium for very long distances. The operating principle is similar to that of radio links. Radio waves from a ground station are directed towards the antenna of a geostationary satellite, regenerated and sent to another ground station located at some other point on the globe. The range is extremely large the entire globe can be covered with 3 satellites. The capacity is also very large catering to thousands of conversations simultaneously. Satellites are used in national and international networks.
Transmission Page 16

4. Optical fiber : Laser light and silicon dioxide (glass) are the main components of this medium. A light emitter sends light into the optic fiber cable that is detected at the other end of the cable (see figure 5). This light signal can be analog or PCM coded telephony uses PCM signals. Laser diode
T R

Optical fiber cable Figure 5. Principle of fiber optic transmission Optical fiber has numerous advantages. Some of them are listed below : Light weight and flexible It is insensitive to magnetic field interference Very high bandwidth Minimum loss large distance between repeaters Immunity to noise and crosstalk Optical fibers are used for inter-exchange networks especially for long distances. Transmission equipments The different equipments used for transmission are repeaters, line terminal equipments, multiplexers, optical digital terminal, radio relay antennae etc. Repeaters are used for improving the signal strength and retransmitting in the forward direction. These can be amplifiers for analog and regenerators for digital systems. These repeaters are powered by line terminal equipments, which also do remote monitoring of the system. Multiplexers are used for sharing the same medium for several equipments. With the use of multiplexers, higher order TDM / FDM channels can be obtained. Electrical / optical conversion is achieved by optical digital terminal equipments. Radio relays equipped with antennae are necessary for directional radio links and satellite links. The size and diameter of the antenna depends upon the application for which the link is installed.

Transmission

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Switching
The primary function of a switching system is to establish a connection between two points. The major component of the switching system or exchange is the switching matrix. Apart from the switching matrix, the switching system consists of many other functions to perform call processing. Switching basic concepts Switching matrix is the hardware that provides the connectivity between any input - output line pair. There may be n inlets and m outlets and these inlets/outlets may be connected to subscriber lines or trunk lines (see figure 1). IC trunks
Switching matrix

OG trunks

Subscribers Figure 1. Switching matrix

Subscribers

When all the input lines and output lines are connected to subscribers then the switch provides the connectivity among the subscribers connected. In this case, there can be n/2 simultaneous conversations that can be connected by the switching matrix. This type of a switch is said to be non-blocking, in other words, no subscriber is denied a connection for want of switching resources. Normally, not all the subscribers converse simultaneously. Hence, a switch is designed to cater to the average number of simultaneous calls that is expected. This design may, occasionally, bring up a situation when there is no free switching path available, when a subscriber requests a connection. This is called a blocking switch in which the number of simultaneous connections possible is less than the maximum number of simultaneous conversations possible. Switching techniques Different methods are employed to establish the required connection in an exchange. The two most widely used methods are time switching and space switching. Space switching was exclusively used in electromechanical switching systems and with the advent of digital technology, time switching has become a popular option. Also, to increase the switching capacity combination of time and space switching methods are also employed. This is called combination switching.
Switching Page 18

Space switching : In space switching, a dedicated path is established between the two subscribers for the entire duration of the call. This method is used in electromechanical and electronic exchanges, by forming a matrix of incoming and outgoing lines. In digital exchanges, speech is coded on PCM and the information is transferred at the same instant of time from input to output. Many PCM links may be inputs and outputs to the space switch, which transfers the information from one link to another at the same interval. This switching between links is called space switching (figure 2).

Input links

Space Swi tch

Output links

Figure 2. Principle of space switch Time switching : In digital systems, speech samples are transferred at regular intervals of time, in other words, every subscriber is allocated a timeslot to send his speech samples on the PCM link. These speech samples are stored and transferred to the output during a different timeslot. This technique of timeslot interchange of information is called time switching. Here the information is switched within the same link, but at different instants of time. The principle of time switching is shown in figure 3. ts 7 ts 1 speech memory ts 7 ts1

write

read
7

Clock

address memory Figure 3. Time switching

Switching

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In the time switch, the incoming information is written sequentially in a memory. A control memory contains the list, or the order in which the read operation should take place. A counter synchronizes both the write and read operations together with the outgoing time slots. Combination switching : There are some limitations in both time and space switching that can be overcome by multistage and combination switching. These structures also permit to increase the switching capacity for a given technology. A combination switch can be built by a number of stages of time (T) and space (S) switches. A three-stage combination switch in which time stages are placed on either side of a space stage is referred to as TST switch. Other multistage typical configurations include TSST, TSSSST and TSTSTSTS. The configuration of a TST structure is shown in figure 4.

15

14

13

12

11

1 2

T1
I

SPACE SWITCH

T2
O

1 2

21

20

19

18

17

21

20

19

18

17

15

14

13

12

11

I Inputs

O Outputs

Figure 4. TST combination switch

Switching

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Switching systems A switching system is composed of elements that perform switching, control and signalling functions. When the control subsystem is an integral part of the switching network, then it is called direct control switching systems. Those systems in which the control subsystem is outside the switching network are called common control switching systems. Strowger exchanges are direct control systems, whereas, crossbar and electronic exchanges are common control systems. Manual exchanges : The early exchanges were manually operated in which all the functions were performed by humans. All the subscriber lines were terminated on a switchboard present at the exchange. A lamp indicating the status of the line was available for every subscriber. The operator sends the ringing current to the called subscriber using a plug ended cord pair. When the called subscriber goes offhook, connection was made by the plug ended cord pair in the corresponding subscriber line jack. In a manual switching system, the operator controlled the entire call processing function. A simple manual switching system is shown in figure 5.

Figure 5. Manual exchange

Switching

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Automatic exchanges : Strowger switching system was the first automatic switching system developed in 1889. It is an electromechanical exchange that performs the switching function in a step-by-step fashion. In the Strowger system, there are two types of selectors that form the building blocks for the switching system : Uniselector Two-motion selector A uniselector has a single rotary switch with a bank of contacts. Each bank is associated with a wiper for making the contact. The first contact is called the homing contact and the remaining are switching contacts. Depending upon the number of switching contacts, uniselectors are identified as 10-outlet or 24-outlet uniselectors. A two-motion selector is capable of horizontal as well as vertical stepping movement. Normally, there are 11 vertical positions and 11 horizontal contacts in each vertical position. The wiper in a two-motion selector has access to 100 switching contacts, the remaining being homing contacts. The schematic representation of a uniselector and two-motion selector is given in figure 6. 1

10 Figure 6. Uniselector & Two-motion selector The Strowger system may be constructed using these two types of selectors. The wiper movements of the selectors are controlled by the dial pulses or other signals like offhook etc. from the subscriber line. The configuration of a step-by-step switching system is shown in figure 7.
From A To B

Line finder

Group selector Switching network

Final selector

Line equipment

Connector

Figure 7. Step-by-step switching

Switching

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The line finder provides the subscriber access to the switching resources. Depending upon the exchange capacity the number of group selectors may vary. The final selector establishes the connection with the called subscriber. The entire call set up is controlled by the subscriber signals. A simple call setup is illustrated in figure 8.

Call Finder

Group Selector Final Selector B

Figure 8. Call setup controlled by subscriber signalling 1. When A goes offhook, a relay activates the call finder, which hunts for As line. 2. Call finder operation is stopped and another relay connects tone generator to feed dial tone to A. 3. A starts dialling. The first digit activates the group selector, which advances in time with the incoming pulses and is directed to the final selector that is connected to B. 4. The final selector advances with the incoming pulses of the next digit and selects Bs line. 5. Connection is established. Ring to B and RBT to A. Crossbar switching : The basic idea of crossbar switching is to provide a matrix of n x m sets of contacts and select one of the n x m set. This is also called coordinate switching as the contacts are arranged in x-y plane. The subscriber lines are connected in an array of horizontal and vertical wires, which have a set of horizontal and vertical contacts connected to them. Each contact point pair acts as a crosspoint switch. The sequencing of energizing the horizontal inlets and vertical outlets performs the switching function. Crossbar switches used electromechanical relays for establishing the connection and later switched over to electronic devices to perform the switching function. The crossbar systems are designed using space-switching techniques. There were many limitations of the electromechanical switching systems like delayed call setup, maintenance of mechanical parts, capacity expansion, feature addition etc. With the arrival of digital electronics and computers modern electronic exchanges started replacing their electromechanical counterparts.
Switching Page 23

Stored Program Control & Digital Switching Systems In modern digital systems, computers are used for controlling the switching and other subscriber services in the exchange. The processor executes a set of programs stored in the memory automatically one by one. This technique of controlling the functions of an exchange through programs stored in computer memory is called Stored Program Control (SPC). SPC has numerous advantages, some of which are listed below : Simple management of equipment Suitable for small and large exchanges Flexibility in design and modularity in expansion Low total cost Extended functions and new services Reliability

SPC can be used for both analog and digital switching systems. The functions are often realized as a combination of hardware and software. Some functions are solely hardware or software. The development of SPC techniques resulted in modern digital switching systems. In digital switching systems, the connection is established between the incoming and outgoing timeslots that carry the speech information in digital form. Digital Switching Systems (DSS) designed using SPC inherited all the advantages of SPC. DSS are modular in design, which makes it easy for expansion in capacity. Software modules can be added or modified for new services and functions without making changes in the basic design. Also, the operation and maintenance of these systems are very simple and easy. DSS mostly employ time switching but combination switching is also very much in use. The different control functions are divided into subsystems in the DSS. Normally the system core of a DSS consists of the following : Switching matrix performs switching function and provides connectivity. Trunk and Signalling equipment takes care of the interexchange signalling and provides the trunk interface. Operation & Maintenance for Man Machine Interface (MMI). Control call processing functions. Charging metering of the calls for billing. Subscriber stage line circuit for ADC, connection of remote. subscribers from concentrators, signalling and power supply to the subscribers etc.

The block level diagram of a DSS is shown in figure 9.

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C O N C

S U B S C R I B E R

S T A G E

Trunk & signalling interface Switching Matrix

Control Charging O&M

Figure 9. Digital Switching System (DSS) In DSS, functions are almost entirely performed by software that is cheap to produce. The control function can be centralized or distributed between several processors. Thus in distributed control, several processors perform different parts of the control function. This is also known as multiprocessor configuration of control subsystem. DSS work faster and are more reliable in service than analog exchanges with moving parts. More subscribers can be serviced by the same exchange. Digital transmission technology has higher quality and operational reliability. Digitalisation of the entire network has to be carried out in stages considering the traffic and economic requirements.

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SIGNALLING
Signalling in the area of telephony implies : 1. All the signals which are needed for setting up of the calls and other services offered by the exchange. 2. The transmission technology for the transfer of the signals. Need & Importance of signalling Monitoring the line condition On hook / Off hook Call attempt, Call disconnect, Call answer etc. Request the distant exchange for call connection / routing seizure. Called subscriber busy signal to originating exchange etc.

The basic information to be interchanged between a subscriber and an exchange or between exchanges to process a call is called signalling. Signalling is required to draw the attention of the exchange to establish or release a connection. Signalling is the means by which two points (i.e., subscriber & exchange or two exchanges) understand each other s requirements for establishing or releasing a connection. Signalling exists in the telephone network to expedite telephone traffic between subscribers. This is a complex process and places high demand for fast and reliable signal transfer between exchanges and between exchange and subscribers. Thus we have a definite need for signalling and for efficient technology for signal transfer. Signalling is done in both the directions forward and backward. Signal carriers Different types of transmission media can transfer signals namely 1. Physical circuits a 2W connection with neither TDM / FDM (no speech info) 2. Non-physical circuits speech is transformed into high frequencies using FDM or into digital form by TDM. 3. Signalling networks new technology for signal transfer where signal routing is independent of the routing of speech. Lines connecting two exchanges are called as trunks IC, OG & BW trunks (Figure 1). They are also called circuits. Signals between the subscriber and
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exchange are transferred through the 2-wire connection of the subscriber line. OG
Exch Exch A

IC OG BW
Exch B

IC

Figure 1. Signal carriers Basically, signalling can be divided into two stages 1. Subscriber exchange signalling 2. Exchange exchange signalling The various signalling schemes are illustrated in the tree structure below : Signalling Subscriber - exchange Exchange - exchange

Pulse

DTMF

Channel associated Line

Common channel

Register Digital Decadic Multi Frequency

DC loop

I. Subscriber exchange signalling The different types of information exchanged between a subscriber and the exchange are listed below : 1. Calling subscriber (A) exchange Subscriber line condition, i.e., hook switch position. Called subscribers (B) number. 2. Exchange Subscriber (A) Exchange ready to receive Bs number Congestion / Routing Line condition of B ringing / engaged
Signalling Page 27

Reversal (CCB) / pulses for subscriber premises meter

3. Exchange Subscriber (B) Ring 4. Called subscriber (B) exchange Hook switch position All these above mentioned information are exchanged between the subscriber and the exchange in the form of changes in the line condition, dialling and various tones. Hook switch Line condition RL The status of the subscriber line can be deduced from the position of the hook switch (cradle switch) in the telephone equipment. The equivalent of a subscriber RL line (see Fig 2) is a resistance loop which is open when the subscriber Figure 2. Subscriber line is onhook. When the subscriber goes offhook, the loop is closed with a low resistance of the telephone equipment, which results in a current to flow from the battery located at the exchange. This information is transmitted over the subscriber line, which is a 2 wire physical connection. For signalling the DC loop resistance of the line should not be more than 1800 ohms. Dialling The calling subscriber A informs the exchange about Bs number by dialling the digits. Dialling can be done by any one of the methods mentioned below: 1. Pulse or Decadic 2. Tone or DTMF In pulse dialling, the digits are transmitted by alternate make and break of the subscriber loop. For e.g., when digit 1 is dialled, one make and break of the loop is performed; for digit 2 it is done twice and so on upto digit 0, when it is performed ten times. This operation is done at a speed of 10 IPS. This type of signalling using only the make and break of the loop is called loop signalling. In tone dialling, a combination of two frequencies is sent on the line for each digit dialled. It is a frequency matrix type method, in which each digit is coded as a combination of two frequencies (see figure 3).

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697 770 852 941

1 4 7 *

2 5 8 0 1336

3 6 9 # 1477

1209

Figure 3. DTMF dialling One great advantage of this method is the speed achieved in dialling the digits. This enables in quicker transfer of the number, which results in faster call setup. Also, more than ten different signals can be sent. Tones Some of the common tones used for signalling between the exchange and the subscriber are listed below : 1. Dial Tone (DT) : The exchange feeds the dial tone to subscriber A and informs that it is ready to receive the digits of Bs number. 2. Ring Back Tone (RBT) : When B is free and ringing signal is fed to B, the exchange sends RBT to A and informs that B is rung. 3. Busy Tone (BT) : In case B is engaged, then the exchange sends BT to A. 4. Routing Tone : The exchange sends routing tone to A, when the call is being processed. Normally, this tone is sent before RBT / BT, after dialling is complete. 5. Congestion Tone : In case there is no equipment available in the exchange to process the call, then A is fed with congestion tone. Apart from these, some more tones like special information tone, special dial tone etc. are also used from the exchange towards the subscriber.

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The interchange of information in subscriber exchange signalling stage is illustrated in the figure below :

Subs A

Exchange

Subs B

Off hook Dial Tone Dialling B number

Ring Back Tone

Ring signal

B answer

CONVERSATION

On hook On hook

Figure 4. Subscriber exchange signalling

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II. Signalling between exchanges When the called subscriber is connected to a different exchange other than that of the calling subscriber, then signalling between exchanges is required to establish / disconnect the connection. This signalling is mainly for informing the exchanges involved of what is to be done to process the call. The signalling between exchanges can be done by two different techniques namely 1. Channel Associated Signalling - CAS 2. Common Channel Signalling CCS Regardless of the signalling technique used, there are a number of signals that must always be exchanged. This is called the basic information and is illustrated in figure 5.

Exch A Seizure Seizure Acknowledge Address information

Exch B

seizes an IC trunk & eqpt. for receiving Bs no

Exch B sensed seizure

Bs number

Exch B informs Exch A B is off hook

B answer CONVERSATION

Clear Back A onhook Clear Forward

B onhook Disconnection

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Figure 5. Basic information between exchanges Channel Associated Signalling (CAS) All the traditional methods of signalling fall under this category and it is still the most common form of signalling. CAS can be used between all types of exchanges. In CAS, the speech and signalling information travel the same path through the network. CAS can be done in 3 different ways depending upon the type of circuit connection between the exchanges. Inband : Signalling done in the same frequency band as that of speech. E.g. DC signalling Outband : Signalling done in another frequency band as that of speech. E.g. Tone frequency Digital : Signalling done in TS 16, where every speech channel has its fixed, allotted and recurring signalling channel. E.g. 30 channel PCM

Channel Associated Signalling between exchanges comprises of two stages namely line signalling and register signalling. Line signalling refers to the information regarding the line condition before, during and after call setup. The line signals are used to transfer the state of the hook switch which can affect the condition of the line at any instant time. Seizure, B answer, Clear back, Clear forward are some of the common line signals. Every connection needs equipment for continuous monitoring of the line condition. Line signalling equipment is simpler and is separated from register signalling equipment in an exchange. Register Signalling refers to the transfer of address information, which is considerably large in quantity. As address information is transferred only once, the register equipment can be released after call set up. Therefore, the same equipment can serve several speech channels, i.e., register signalling equipments form a common resource for the exchange. Digital R2 (MF) is one of several CAS systems recommended by CCITT for national and international networks. In a 30 channel PCM, TS16 is used only for line signalling. Line signalling is done using two bits (out of four in TS16) in each direction for every speech channel, i.e., bits aF and bF in the forward direction and aB and bB in the backward direction. Bit aF is used for indicating the state of As hook switch and state of OG signalling equipment; bF for forward transfer of alarms; aB for state of Bs hook switch and bB for indicating free / engaged IC equipment. Register signalling is done on the speech channels and not used during call set up. The signals are in the form of continuous tones that can be sent in both
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directions simultaneously. The forward signals contain numeric information ( mainly Bs number), category of A, end of pulsing (after A's number) etc. and the reverse signals are control signals like proceed-to-send signal when the exchange is ready to receive the digits. CCITT R2 is a compelled signalling system signal in forward direction is sent until control (reverse) signal is received from the terminating exchange. The CCITT R2 signalling for a local call is illustrated in the figure below. A Exch A Exch B Exch C B

251153 Seizure (LS) 1:2 A:1 1:5 A:1 1:1 A:1 1:1 A:1 1:5 A:1 1:3 A:3 2:1 B:3 Seizure

Figure 8. CCITT R2 signalling in a local call Common Channel Signalling (CCS)

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A signalling method in which a single channel conveys by means of labelled messages, signalling information relating to a multiplicity of circuits, calls or other information such as that used for network management. The total signalling time is very short compared to the average call time and so a single channel can take care of several thousand calls. In CCS, unlimited selection of signals can be sent rapidly between units in the network. Some of the advantages of CCS are listed below. Economical Fast Reliable High capacity Flexible For security purposes, each signalling link set consists of atleast two physically independent signalling channels operating in loadsharing mode, with one channel capable of handling the entire load. speech + signal CAS
A B

CCS

signal
A B

speech Figure 9. Comparison of CAS & CCS CCITT #7 is the widely used CCS method and is mainly intended for digital networks where the transmission rate of 64Kbps can be exploited. It is also suitable for analog lines. In CCS #7 several different user groups called User Parts (UP) use the same network path for communication. This common path is called the Message Transfer Part (MTP). The user part for telephony is called Telephone User Part (TUP). There are other UPs namely data and O & M. The basic structure in #7 is divided into four levels. MTP consists of the first three levels consisting of (i) the signalling link, (ii) the fault handling function for error detection and correction and (iii) the message handling, signalling and network handling functions for addressing and message routing to the correct destination. Level 4 is the user part (UP) which contains the actual information that is to be transferred (Bs number in telephony). A local call set up using CCITT #7 signalling is illustrated in figure 10.

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2 4 3 3 7 1

IAM SAM ACM RBT ANC

CONVERSATION

Ring

CBK CLF RLG IAM Initial Address Message, first message with all information for call set up Subsequent Address Message with remaining digits of B Address Complete Message confirms that routing is completed and no further signal is required and state of Bs line ANswer signal with Charge (B offhook & start charging) Clear Back indicates B onhook Clear Forward sent for all exchanges involved. All exchanges disconnect and send RLG Release Guard is the response to CLF indicates IC circuit is free

SAM ACM ANC CBK CLF RLG

Figure 10. CCITT #7 signalling local call

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Network planning
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or the POTS is the most popular network in existence today. There are over 400 million subscribers and over 60000 telephone exchanges all over the world. A unique feature of the PSTN is that equipments based on various technologies from several countries are capable of interworking with each other. Network planning should be done comprehensively considering several factors. Traffic engineering provides the basis for the analysis and design of telecom networks. Also some fundamental plans are mandatory for planning a network. Traffic parameters Traffic is the measure of occupancy of the systems in the network and is expressed in Erlangs. In a telephone network, the traffic load for a 24-hour duration is observed. The 60-minute interval in a day when the traffic is the highest is called as Busy Hour. The number of call attempts made during this hour is referred as Busy Hour Call Attempts (BHCA). BHCA is an important parameter in deciding the processing capacity of the SPC system of the exchange. It is useful in sizing the exchange to handle the peak traffic. Due to various reasons all call attempts are not successful. A call attempt is successful only when the called party answers. Call Completion Rate (CCR) is defined as the ratio of the number of successful calls to the number of call attempts. The CCR parameter is used in dimensioning the network capacity. Networks are usually designed for a CCR value of over 0.70 Sometimes due to overload, some amount of traffic is rejected or lost in the network. The amount of traffic rejected by the network is an index of quality of the service offered by the network. Grade Of Service (GOS) is the ratio of lost traffic to total offered traffic. The smaller the value of GOS, the better is the service. The recommended value of GOS for India is 0.002 The traffic load on a network may be on the local switching unit, interexchange trunk lines or other common subsystems. The traffic load on the subscriber lines can be expressed as given below : Traffic (in Erlangs) =
________________________________________________________________________

Average holding time of a call Total observation period

x BHCA

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Fundamental Plans Network planning should be done considering several factors like usage of the existing equipment, increase in demand due to population, transition to new technology, adherence to technical specifications etc. Planning should be long-term foreseeing the scope of expansion and upgradations. The fundamental plans serve as the foundation for a telephone network. The fundamental plans include the following : Numbering Scheme Transmission Plan Routing Strategy Signalling Plan Charging Plan Synchronization Quality Of Service Plan

Numbering Scheme : The objective of the numbering plan is to provide every subscriber and service in the network with a unique and simple code, which allows automatic call setup in the network. There are two methods of numbering open numbering plan or non-uniform numbering scheme and closed numbering or uniform numbering. In the open numbering, the country is divided into number of trunk code areas and the number of digits in the subscriber number is not uniform. This method is not used presently. A semiopen numbering plan permits number lengths to differ utmost by a digit or two. This is the most common plan and widely used in many countries including India, UK, Sweden and Switzerland. In closed numbering, the number of digits is fixed for a subscriber number and uniform throughout the country. This scheme is followed by a few countries including USA, France, Belgium and Canada. Closed numbering plan is very much suited for small countries where trunk area codes are not necessary. A subscriber has to be identified uniquely in the national as well as in the international network. The international number identifies a subscriber at a global level and a national number at the country level. The structures of both these are shown below: ISD prefix
0 0

Country
9 1

Area code

Subscriber number

STD prefix

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Transmission Plan : This describes the technical specifications and norms for the performance of the transmission systems in the network. The maximum allowable limits for various parameters like attenuation in the line, distortion in speech, SNR, crosstalk, echo, bit rate (for digital links) etc. This plan also focuses at the appropriate and feasible systems to be a part of the network. Routing Strategy : This is the basis of network design and usage for traffic. This plan includes the hierarchy of exchanges in the network, nodes for switching national and international traffic, alternate routes during overload or congestion, routing of various services etc. There can be different types of exchanges depending upon their position in the network hierarchy. Local exchanges cater only to local subscriber traffic within its area. Transit exchanges or trunk exchanges cater to trunk traffic between several local exchanges. They can also act as transit centers for national and international traffic. The same exchange can function both as local and transit exchange. Exchanges handling international traffic exclusively are called Gateway exchanges. Normally in India, a four level hierarchy is followed which includes a local exchange, a secondary TAX, a primary TAX and finally a gateway exchange. Signalling Plan : This plan defines the methods for controlling the switching of calls and services in the network to provide fast and reliable signalling. This includes signalling between subscriber and exchange, interexchange and signal design for transfer of telephone numbers. Charging Plan : A telecom agency receives its revenue from its subscribers. The charging plan provides for recovering both the capital costs and the operational costs. Basically three different costs are levied on the subscribers. They are 1. Installation costs initial one time cost for providing an connection. 2. Rental fee fixed and periodical cost. 3. Call charges for using the network. The charging plan defines the tariff for charging the calls made by the subscriber. The tariff can be flat charge, unit fee, time dependent or service activation. Normally local calls within the same trunk area are unit fee and trunk calls have time dependent tariff. The charging methods are also defined by the charging plan. It can be duration independent or duration dependent. Trunk calls are invariably charged on a duration dependent basis. The radial distance between the calling and called stations is also considered for charging the call. Duration dependent charging is also called periodic pulse metering. Synchronization Plan : This plan is mandatory and critical for digital networks. It lays down the rules for transmission of control signals to set the clocks in the
Network Planning Page 38

exchanges. The specifications for slip and acceptable values are also defined in this plan. It also provides the models and systems for synchronization in the network. Quality Of Service Plan : This is more of quality related and service requirements of the network which defines the Grade Of Service, dependability, reliability, call set up time, CCR etc. are included in this plan. All these plans have to be reviewed periodically considering the development and growth in technology. Also some new plans should be introduced or present plans altered depending upon the current requirements. Conclusion The enormous complexity of the telephone network is managed by using a hierarchical structure, worldwide standardization and decentralization of administration, operation and maintenance. A modern telecom network can be viewed as an aggregate of point-to-point electrical or optical communication systems. Fiber optic systems are emerging as a major transmission system for telecommunications. Depending upon the service provided, telecom networks are classified and hence we have a multiple network in existence. Management and maintenance of multiple networks are expensive and cumbersome. If all the service specific signals are converted into a common digital domain, a network capable of transporting digital signals can cater to a multitude of services on a single pair of wires. This approach has lead to the evolution of Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).

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