12

Chemical Actinometry
The photochemist is interested in the reactivity of substances under light excitation. The rate of a photochemical reaction can be quantified by the quantum yield, also called quantum efficiency, defined as:

number of reacted molecules per time unit number of photons absorbed per time unit

Actinometry allows determination of the photon flux for a system of specific geometry and in a well defined spectral domain; the most favorable case is when the incident light is monochromatic. The term actinometer commonly indicates devices used in the UV and visible spectral range. In absolute actinometric measurements a physical device (such as a photomultiplier, a photodiode, a bolometer) converts the energy or the number of the incident photons in a quantifiable electrical signal [9101, 0401]. However, the most commonly utilized method is based on a chemical actinometer, a reference substance undergoing a photochemical reaction whose quantum yield is known, calibrated against a physical device, well studied actinometers or by calorimetric methods. In principle, any photoactive compound whose quantum yield is known could be used as an actinometer. For a good actinometer, this quantum yield should be, as much as possible, independent of excitation wavelength, temperature, concentration, trace impurities, and oxygen; moreover, the number of reacted molecules should be determined with a convenient and quick analytical method, but none of the numerous actinometers proposed in literature meets all the given criteria. A general report on chemical actinometry was prepared by the Iupac Commission on Photochemistry [0401]. Surveys on the most commonly used actinometers can be found in references [8901, 9101, 9301, 9801]. In the following, we will briefly discuss only the most extensively studied and widely used actinometers, with the aim of covering the entire UV and visible range of wavelengths. A table of the actinometers satisfying at least some of the above mentioned requisites will also be given.

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12a FERRIOXALATE ACTINOMETER

This is the most reliable and practical actinometer for UV and visible light up to 500 nm, proposed first by Hatchard and Parker in 1956 [5601]. Under light excitation the potassium ferrioxalate decomposes according to the following equations:
h Fe(C2O4)33 Fe2+ + C2O4 + 2C2O42

Fe(C2O4)33 + C2O4 Fe2+ + 2CO2 + 3C2O42 The quantity of ferrous ions formed during an irradiation period is monitored by conversion to the colored tris-phenanthroline complex ( = 11100 L mol1 cm1 at max = 510 nm). The original ferric ions are not appreciably complexed by phenanthroline and the complex does not absorb at 510 nm. The moles of ferrous ions formed in the irradiated volume are given by moles Fe2+ =
V1 V3 A(510 nm) 10 3 V2 l (510 nm)

where V1 is the irradiated volume, V2 is the aliquot of the irradiated solution taken for the determination of the ferrous ions, V3 is the final volume after complexation with phenanthroline (all in mL), l is the optical pathlength of the irradiation cell, A(510 nm) the optical difference in absorbance between the irradiated solution and that taken in the dark, (510 nm) is that of the complex Fe(phen)32+. Thus, the moles of photons absorbed by the irradiated solution per time unit (Nh / t) are: Nh / t =

moles of Fe 2 + t F

where is the quantum yield of ferrous ion production at the irradiation wavelength, t is the irradiation time, and F is the mean fraction of light absorbed by the ferrioxalate solution (this is important when irradiation is carried out in visible region, where the actinometric solution doesnt absorb all the incident light). The dependence of the quantum yield on the irradiation wavelength has been extensively studied. Table 12a-1 gives most of the available data.
Procedure A lot of variations of the basic Hatchard and Parkers procedure [5601] have been proposed. The ferrioxalate solution can be prepared just before irradiation mixing ferric sulfate and potassium oxalate [9301], in red light, but is preferable to use solid ferrioxalate [5601, 7701, 9101], whose very easy preparation [5601] must be followed by recrystallization (three times).

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Table 12a-1 Quantum Yields of Production of Ferrous Ions from Potassium Ferrioxalate as a Function of the Excitation Wavelengtha
(nm)
222 230 238-240 248 254 254 297/302 313 334 358 363.8d 365.6 365.6 365.6 392 405-407 406.7d 416 436 436 436 458d 458d 468 480 488d 509 514.5d 520d 530d 546 550d [Fe(C2O4)33] (mol L1) 0.006b 0.006b 0.006b 0.006b 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.15 0.005 0.15 0.015 0.15 0.15 0.08 0.15 0.16-0.20 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

Fe2+
0.50 0.67 0.68 1.35 1.25c 1.25 1.24c 1.24 1,23c 1.25 1.28 1.21c 1.20 1.26 1.13 1.14c 1.19 1.12 1.11c 1.01 1.07 0.85 1.10 0.93 0.94 1.08 0.86 0.90 0.65e 0.53e 0.15 0.15e

Ref. [7901] [7901] [7901] [7901] [5601] [5501] [5601] [5601] [5601] [6601] [8101] [5601] [5501] [6401], [6601] [6601] [5601] [8101] [6601] [5601] [5601] [5501] [8101] [8102] [5601] [5601] [8102] [5601] [8102] [8301] [8301] [5601] [8301]

a Room temperature, mercury lamp lines, unless otherwise noted; b Not stated, assumed from the procedure used, according to ref. [5501]; c Recommended value, obtained by different methods; see ref. [5601], page 526; d Laser source; e Experimental value, but derived from a graph of vs. ex.

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We recommend the procedure suggested by Fisher [8401], a microversion of the Hatchard and Parkers method: 3 mL of a 0.012 M solution of ferrioxalate in a spectrophotometric cell is irradiated at any wavelength between 254 and 436 nm, while an identical sample is mantained in the dark. At the end of the irradiation, 0.5 mL of buffered phenanthroline solution is added in the cells and the absorbance at 510 nm measured immediately. Waiting for an hour between irradiation and addition of phenanthroline, or after the addition, does not make any difference. Oxygen does not have to be excluded, because the quantum yield of the ferrioxalate actinometer is independent of the presence of oxygen [5601, 8101, 8901]. Furthermore, the quantum yield of ferrioxalate actinometer does not show a strong temperature dependence, as first pointed out by Hatchard e Parker [5601], and subsequently carefully investigated by Nicodem et al. [7701]. Stirring (with a suitable magnetic stirrer or a flux of nitrogen) is not necessary, but recommended [9301, 0301]. The irradiation time must be short enough in order to avoid more than 10% ferrioxalate decomposition. This micro-version procedure is currently used in our laboratory, but for irradiation at 436 and 464 nm a 0.15 M ferrioxalate solution is used, as suggested in the classical procedure [5601]. The results are in good agreement with those obtained with the more dilute solution (0.012 M) or using the Aberchrome 540 or the Reinekate actinometer [0301]. For these two last actinometers, see below.
Preparation of solutions Ferrioxalate 0.012 M: 6 g of potassium ferrioxalate in 1 liter of H2SO4 0.05 M. Buffered phenanthroline 0.1%: 225 g CH3COONa3H2O, 1 g of phenanthroline in 1 liter of H2SO4 0.5 M. Both solutions can be kept for at least a year in dark bottles in a closed cupboard [8401]. When phenanthroline is stored in the light for a long period, its photodecomposition products inhibit color development [7601, 8302]. 12b PHOTOCHROMIC ACTINOMETERS

This kind of actinometers are based on a photochromic reaction, photoreversible or thermoreversible; therefore, the actinometric solution can be regenerated by irradiating or heating, with the consequent advantages of ease of handling, accuracy and reusability.
12b-1 Azobenzene

Azobezene undergoes a characteristic trans-cis photoisomerization:

N N

h h',

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Table 12b-1 Quantum Yields for Isomerization of Azobenzene as a Function of the Excitation Wavelengtha

(nm) 254 254 280 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 334 365 365 365 365 405 405 436 436 436 436 436 436 436 436
a

[azobenzene]b (mol L1) 2.5105 610

4 4

T (C) 25 RT RT RT RT 20 RT 15-25 RT 20 20 20 25 RT 20 20 RT RT 15-25 25 RT RT 25 RT RT 15-25 RT RT 25 RT 25

Solvent Isooctane Methanol Methanol Methanol Methanol Methanol Ethanol Ethanol Isopropanol H2O-EtOH MeCN THF Isooctane Cyclohexane Cyclohexane n-heane Methanol Methanol Ethanol Isooctane Cyclohexane Methanol Isooctane Methanol Methanol Ethanol Ethanol Isopropanol Isooctane Cyclohexane Benzene

t c
0.13 0.26 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.12 0.22 0.10

c t
0.44 0.31 0.34 0.30 0.37 0.31 0.69 0.50 0.40 0.35 0.40 0.41/0.42 0.42 0.40 0.44 0.30 0.35 (0.6 0.48 0.57 0.55/0.51 0.63 0.45 0.53 0.42 0.55 0.55 0.46

Ref. [5801] [8501] [8501] [8501] [7401] [8701] [8402] [5401] [7401] [8701] [8701] [8701] [5801] [7401] [8701] [8701] [8501] [8501] [5401] [5801] [7401] [8501] [5801] [7401] [8501] [5401] [8402] [7401] [5801] [7401] [5801]

610 6104 41052103 21055104 105104 11052103 41052103 21055104 21055104 21055104 2.5105/1103 41052103 21055104 21055104 6104 6104 11052103 2.5105/1103 41052103 6104 2.5105/103 41052103 6104 11052103 105104 41052103 2.5105/103 41052103 103

0.10 0.10

0.15 0.15 0.20 0.12 0.14 0.20 0.23/0.21 0.28 0.22 0.36 0.24 0.26 0.28/0.27 0.28 0.26

Room temperature, mercury lamp lines; b Total concentration of irradiated azobenzene.

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The thermal or photochemical back reaction can be use for regenerating the actinometric solution, making it reusable, but implies that temperature must be kept as low as possible [9801], although between 15 and 25C the quantum yield values are unaffected within the experimental error [5401]. For the thermal cis trans reaction in isooctane a rate constant k = 1.37104 min1 was obtained [5801]. Both the forward (trans cis) and back (cis trans) photoreactions have been extensively studied in a lot of solvents (see Table 12b-1), and are used as actinometric reactions, the first in the 275-340 nm range, the second in the 350-440 nm range and also for 254 nm mercury line. In the UV region conditions of total absorbed light can be used, while in the visible, when cis isomer is irradiated, a pre-irradiation of the trans isomer is required to produce a photostationary state, but the solution in this case only partly absorbs the incident light, which implies a more complicated procedure [0302]. The kinetic analysis can be done from the spectrophotometric data using two different methods [8701]: i) the tangent at the origin of the isomerization and ii) the method originally proposed by Mauser [7501] for the linearization of the kinetic curves and used by Gauglitz and Hubig [7602, 8103]. A convenient method using concentrated solution of azobenzene in the UV region was also suggested by the same authors [8501]. A practical procedure that can be used for irradiation of azobenzene in the different ranges of wavelengths, together with some suggestions for the kinetic treatment of the absorbance data, are also given in ref. [0401].
12b-2 Fulgide Aberchrome 540

The pale yellow fulgide (E)-2-[1-(2,5-dimethyl-3-furyl)-ethylidene]-3-isopropylidene succinic anhydride (hereafter indicated A), whose commercial name was Aberchrome 540, is considered a convenient actinometer in the near UV and visible region, because of its reversible photocyclization into the deep red cyclized valence isomer 7,7a-dihydro-2,4,7,7,7a-pentamethylbenzo(b)furan-5,6-dicarboxylic anhydride (C) [8104, 8105]. The quantum yield of this photocyclization (0.2) is independent of the temperature ranging from 10 to 40 C and it is also claimed to be independent on the cycling for photocoloration [8105]; see, however, comments below. Photocoloration at 254 nm is accompanied by marked photodegradation and the use of the actinometer below 300 nm is not recommended [8105].
O O O O

h
O O A(Z) A(E)

O O

h h',
O

O O C

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This compound is no longer available from Aberchromics Ltd; however, it can be synthesized following the method by Darcy et al. [8104]. Some hundreds of milligrams will last for many years. According to Heller and Langan, one of the main advantages of this fulgide is the chemical stability and reversibility of its photocyclization reaction [8105]. This actinometer can be used in the range 310-370 nm and 435-545 nm. NevertheA(Z) photoisomless, the reversible photocyclization competes with the A(E) erization reaction [8801], whose quantum yields (toluene, RT) at 365.6 nm are 0.13 (EZ) and 0.12 (ZE), respectively [9601]. The photostationary state depends on the irradiation wavelength. So, it is suggested not to reuse the irradiated solution when the actinometer is used in the range 310-370 nm [9302]. To overcome this problem one could use the isopropyl derivative, which doesnt give the Z E photoisomerization reactions [8801, 9302]. The problem does not concern the use of Aberchrome 540 in the range 435-545 nm, which corresponds only to the bleaching of the cyclic form C.
Procedure for UV region (310-370 nm) [8105, 9101, 0401]

An approximately 510-3M solution is prepared by dissolving the fulgide A (25 mg) in dry distilled toluene (20 ml). A known volume of this solution is put in a cell, a magnetic bar is added. Bubbling Ar for about 20 min, or degassing is desired, while not necessary, then the cell is sealed. Read the absorbance (if any) at 494 nm. The stirred solution is then irradiated with monochromatic light for a known period of time, taking care that the magnetic bar does not enter the light beam. After irradiation measure the absorbance at 494 nm. The increase in absorbance at 494 nm enables the photon flux (moles of incident photons in the irradiated volume per time unit) to be calculated using the following equation: Nh / t =

A V

where A is the increase in absorbance value at 494 nm, V is the volume of the irradiated solution (L), is the quantum yield of the photocyclization reaction (0.2 in the range 310-370 nm), is the molar absorption coefficient of C (8200 L mol1 cm1 at 494 nm), and t is the irradiation time.
Procedure for the visible region (435-545 nm) [8105, 9101, 9201]

The reverse photoreaction CA(E) can be easily exploited for actinometry in the visible region by measuring the decrease in absorbance at 494 nm of a known volume of the red solution, obtained irradiating for a suitable period of time the fulgide A with UV light (up to an absorbance value of about 2). The quantum yield for the bleaching reaction shows a remarkable linear dependence on the irradiation wavelength, on the temperature, and on the solvent. In toluene, at 21C, the following expression is valid [9201]:

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= 0.178 2.4 104

where is in nm. The numbers of moles of incident photons can be calculated using an equation analogous to that used for the UV region: Nh / t =
A V

t F

where A is the decrease in absorbance at 494 nm, the other symbols have the above given meaning, and F is the mean fraction of light absorbed at the irradiation wavelength.
Comments on the use of the Aberchrome 540 Many criticisms have been reported in the literature about the use of this fulgide as actinometer since it was proposed, concerning the repeated use in the UV region, maily due to the A(E) A(Z) competing photorections, which could cause underestimation of the number of incident photons [8801, 9302]. Practically, it is suggested not to reuse in the UV region the irradiated solutions of Aberchrome 540, since the photostationary state and, as a consequence, the measured light intensity are affected by the number of cycles [9302]. This last observation was also confirmed by experiments performed in our laboratory. All these problems could be overcome using the isopropyl derivative, which does not lead to the A(E) A(Z) photoisomerizations, because of the steric hindrance of the bulky groups [8801, 9001]. Taking into consideration one of the most recent criticism [9601], the conclusion of the authors is that the photoisomerization reactions A(E) A(Z) do not appreciably influence the quantum yield of the photocyclization, as the high concentration of Aberchrome 540 used for this purpose leads only to a low conversion and negligible concentration of the Z isomer. On the other hand, they measured the molar absorption coefficient of the cyclized isomer C obtained by photocoloration of A, after careful chromatographic purification, and found = 8840 L mol1 cm1 at 494 nm, which is smaller than the value previously reported by Heller and Langan [8105]. They also determine for the photocoloration reaction a smaller quantum yield value, 0.18 instead of 0.20 [8105]. In the calculations for obtaining the light intensity using the equation reported above, this means that the product changes from 1640 to 1590 (in toluene); the consequent underestimation amounts only to 3%. In the visible, irradiating the solution obtained by photocoloration, the cyclized compound will be reconverted to the open isomer A(E). As both the A(E) and A(Z) isomers do not absorb visible light, the ring opening photoreaction occur without any side reaction and can be repeatedly used for the determination of the photons of monochromatic light in the range 435-545 nm [0301], as proposed by Heller et al. [8105, 9201].

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12c REINECKES SALT ACTINOMETER

This actinometer is based on the photosubstitution reaction undergone by Reineckes salt, [Cr(NH3)2(SCN)4], in aqueous solution. Irradiation with UV and visible light causes the substitution of a SCN ligand by a water molecule [6601]: [Cr(NH3)2(SCN)4] + H2O [Cr(NH3)2(SCN)3(H2O)] + SCN The number of photons are determined from the SCN released. These ions are complexed by addition of ferric nitrate and the absorbance of the resulting bloodred complex is measured at max = 450 nm ( = 4300 L mol1 cm1): Fe3+ + SCN Fe(SCN)2+ The quantum yield of the photoaquation reaction shows only a little dependence on the irradiation wavelength in the range 316750 nm (Table 12c-1). The Reineckes salt may be used with ease out to 600 nm, and with more difficulty out to 735 nm. Since the quantum yield depends on the pH [6601] it is necessary before irradiation to verify whether the pH of the aqueous solution of Reineckes salt is between 5.3 and 5.5. To take into account the analogous thermal aquation reaction [5802], the actinometer needs a correction. Wegner and Adamson [6601] recommend that all the spectrophotometric measurements of the SCN concentration should be performed relative to a sample kept in the dark.
Materials and procedure Reineckes salt is commercially available as ammonium salt. This can easily converted in the potassium salt [6601]. Alternatively, it can be prepared starting from chromium(III) sulfate according to the method suggested by Szychlinski et al. [8902]. It may be stored indefinitely if kept away from light. The recommended actinometric procedure is the following [6601]: fresh aqueous solutions in distilled water are prepared for each run and, if more than 0.01 M, filtered. Read the absorbance at the chosen wavelength, before and after irradiation, to account for possible incomplete absorption of the incident light. An aliquot of the same solution is kept in the dark at the same temperature of the irradiated one (this second is better if stirred during illumination), and the temperature should be as low as possible to minimize the thermal reaction contribution. At the end of the irradiation period, aliquots are taken from both the irradiated and dark solutions and analyzed for degree of photoaquation. The extent of either thermal or photochemical aquation of [Cr(NH3)2(SCN)4] can be determined by analysis of the thiocyanate ion. An aliquot of the solution to be analyzed is accurately diluted (at least 4:1) into the reagent consisting of 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3 in 0.5 M HClO4. The resulting iron(III) thiocyanate complex has an absorption maximum at 450 nm, with a molar absorption coefficient of 4300 L mol1 cm1. There is no noticeable
h

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effect of pH on quantum yields at 23 C [6601], so long the solution are acid (up to pH = 5.3-5.5, natural value of pH on dissolving the Reinekates salt in water). The almost constancy of the quantum yields of photoaquation allows the use of Reineckates salt as actinometer also for polychromatic light, but in this case the concentration of the solution must be chosen so that all the incident light of the examined spectral domain is absorbed. This actinometer can be used for polychromatic light in the range 390-600 nm, but beyond 600 nm the molar absorption coefficients are too small to reach total absorption. For the experimental procedure and calculations in the case of polychromatic light, see ref. [9101].

Table 12c-1 Quantum Yield Values of SCN Production by Photolysis of Aqueous Reineckes Salt (23 C, pH=5.3)a

(nm) 316 350 366 392e 415 452f 504 520e 545 585 600 676 713 735 750

(L mol cm ) 11000 >100 93.5 67.5 31.2 97.5 106.5 90.5 43.8 29.0 0.75 0.35 0.27 0.15
1. 1

[Reineckes salt] (mol L1 103) 1.1 3.1 5.0 8.0 10.0 5.0 4.0 5.5 10 25 45 46 45 48

SCN b
0.29c 0.39 0.32d 0.32 0.31c 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.30 0.27

a Data from ref. [6601], unless otherwise noted; b Mean values from at least four different runs, except for 316 nm (2 runs) and 366 nm; the original values were reported with three significant figures; b Value confirmed by Szychlinski et al. [8902]; c From ref. [8403]; d max; e min.

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12d URANYL OXALATE ACTINOMETER

This was the standard actinometer in solution before the introduction of potassium ferrioxalate [3001]. The photochemical reaction exploited is:
2 H2C2O4 CO2 + CO + H2O

h, UO

2+

where UO22+ acts as photosensitizer. The spectral range covered is 208-426 nm, with a quantum yield almost constant ( CO = 0.5-0.6) [3001, 6301, 6402, 9301]. The influence of the pH on the photolysis of uranyl oxalate was also carefully examined [7001]. The quantum yield for the consumption of oxalate was found to be independent of the pH between 1 and 5, but decreases outside this range; CO strongly depends on pH. The number of oxalate ions trasformed in the photochemical process is classically determined by titrating the actinometric solution, before and after irradiation, with potassium permanganate. The uranyl oxalate actinometer shows lack of sensitivity for two reasons: the long path lengths needed for complete light absorption in the visible and near UV, and the differential titrimetry method to determine the oxalate consumption, which implies that a significant loss of reactant is needed [5601, 9101, 9301]. Other analytical methods have been attempted, as gas cromatography for CO production [6402], or back titration after addition of an known excess of Ce(IV) [7001], but the GC method should be not useful, considering the above mentioned influence of the pH on the CO production, and the second does not overcome the complexity of the titration method [8901, 9101].
12e OTHER ACTINOMETERS

Other selected actinometers in liquid phase, in order to cover the widest wavelength range, are collected in Table 12e-1. The choice criteria were the reliability of the procedure used for irradiation and the simplicity of the analytical methodology. Polychromatic light: methodologies for actinometric measurements of polychromatic light sources are reported in ref. [8202] and [9101] (pages 88-93 and 101104). Solid and gas phase: for a list of actinometers (with appropriate references) in solid and gas phase see ref. [0401]. Heterogeneous phase: a standardization protocol for relative photonic efficiencies in heterogeneous photocatalysis (solid/liquid or solid/gas systems) is extensively treated by Serpone et al. in refs. [9602, 9702, 9903, 9904]. Drug photostability: a general discussion on actinometers particularly suitable for studies of photostability of drugs are reported in ref [9801], pages 295-304. Laser actinometry: various actinometers have been proposed for laser sources, e.g., the actinometric compounds labeled g in Table 12e-1. For the use of potas-

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sium ferrioxalate with lasers see refs. [8002, 8101, 9103]. Azobenzene also is applicable for lasers [8103]. Ru(bpy)32+/ Fe(ClO4)3 was used for laser intensity at 353.3 nm [8203]. Demas et. al proposed a photooxigenation actinometer based on the system Ru(bpy)32+/TME, which has a quantum flat response over the 280-560 nm region [7604]. Of the same author a review on the measurements of laser intensities by chemical actinometry has been published [7605]. For laser pulse actinometry via standard transients see compilation in ref. [0401]. Ru(bpy)3(PF6)2 and Os(bpy)3(PF6)2 immobilized in PMMA thin films have been proposed as actinometers for transient absorption spectroscopy in the 300-550 and 300-700 nm ranges, respectively [0304]. Table 12e-1 Selected Liquid Phase Actinometers
Compound cis-Cyclooctenea Ethanol Iodide/iodate Malachite green leucocyanidec (nm) 172, 185 185 214-330 225-289 Solvent n-Pentane Water Water EtOH CH2Cl2 Methylcyclohexane Methylcyclohexane, EtOH EtOH Water Various CH2Cl2, H2O/EtOH Various Analytical method GCb H2 production, GCb Abs. 352 nm Abs. 620 nm Abs. 572 nm Abs. 295 nm Abs. 331 nm Abs. 458 nm Abs. 450 nmi Abs.i,GC GC, pH-metry GC Ref. [8106], [8404], [9802] [7603], [7702] [9701], [9901], [0303] [5201], [6701] [8303], [8405], [9101] [7902], [9102] [9102] [7002], [8406] [8601] [7703], [7903], [8407], [8802] [3401], [9902], [0001], [0002] [6602], [6801], [9301]

Heterocoerdianthrone 248-334 endoperoxided,e,f 1,2,3,4-Tetraphenylcyclobutaneg 2,4-Dimethoxy-6phenoxy-s-triazineg Azoxybenzeneh 1,2-Dimethoxy-4nitrobenzeneg Stilbenes o-Nitrobenzaldehyded,h,j,k Hexan-2-one 250-270 250-270 250-350 254-366 254-366 300-410 313

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Table 12e-1 Selected Liquid Phase Actinometers

Compound trans-2-Nitrocinnamaldehyded,k Penta-1,3-diene / benzophenone Cyclohexa-1,3diene/benzophenone 9,10-Dimethylanthracened 2,2',4,4'-Tetraisopropylazobenzene Ru(bpy)32+ / Co(NH3)5Cl2+ Ru(bpy)32+ / peroxydi-sulphate Hematophorphyrin/TANl 5,12-Diphenyltetracened DCM styrene dyeg mesoDiphenylhelianthrened,f mesoDiphenylhelianthrened,f / methylene blue mesoDiphenylhelianthrened,f / HITC
a d

(nm) 313, 366 313, 366 313, 366 334-395 350-390 360-540 366, 405, 436 366-546 405-500 410-540 475-610

Solvent MeOH Benzene benzene Freon 113 n-heptane water water water Freon 113

Analytical method Abs. 440, HPLC GC GC Abs. 324 nmb Abs. 365 nmi Photocurrent Abs. 450 EPR Abs. 383b

Ref. [9803] [7101], [9301] [7301] [8803] [7704], [9101] [8201] [8001], [8702] [7904] [8803] [9303] [8304], [8305], [8405], [9101] [8903]

CHCl3, MeOH HPLC toluene Abs. 429 nm

610-670

CHCl3

Abs. 405

670-795

CHCl3

Abs. 405

[9002]

Xe-excimer source; b For standard procedure, see also ref. [0401]; c Especially useful for low fluences; Suitable as polychromatic quantum counter; e Reusable; f No longer commercially available; g Also proposed for lasers; h Also proposed in solid phase; i Kinetic analysis; j For the determination of solar UV radiation and penetration in waters [9304];k Proposed also for drugs photostability testing; l Actinometry in an EPR cavity.

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REFERENCES
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