NUS/ECE

EE4101

Antenna Arrays
1 Introduction Antenna arrays are becoming increasingly important in wireless communications. Advantages of using antenna arrays: 1. They can provide the capability of a steerable beam (radiation direction change) as in smart antennas. 2. They can provide a high gain (array gain) by using simple antenna elements. 3. They provide a diversity gain in multipath signal reception. 4. They enable array signal processing.
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Antenna Arrays

NUS/ECE

EE4101

An important characteristic of an array is the change of its radiation pattern in response to different excitations of its antenna elements. Unlike a single antenna whose radiation pattern is fixed, an antenna arrays radiation pattern, called the array pattern, can be changed upon exciting its elements with different currents (both current magnitudes and current phases). This gives us a freedom to choose (or design) a certain desired array pattern from an array, without changing its physical dimensions. Furthermore, by manipulating the received signals from the individual antenna elements in different ways, we can achieve many signal processing functions such as spatial filtering, interference suppression, gain enhancement, target tracking, etc.
Hon Tat Hui

Antenna Arrays

NUS/ECE

EE4101

2 Two Element Arrays

z
Far field observation point

Dipole 2

r1

I 2 = Ie j
d

I1 = I

r1 = r d cos , 0

Dipole 1

Two Hertzian dipoles of length d separated by a distance d and excited by currents with an equal amplitude I but a phase difference [0 ~ 2).
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Antenna Arrays

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EE4101

E1 = far-zone electric field produced by antenna 1 = a E1 E2 = far-zone electric field produced by antenna 2 = a E2

kI1d e jkr kd e jkr E1 = j r sin + 2 = j 4 r cos I1 4 e jkr e jkr kI 2 d kd E2 = j r sin + 2 = j 4 r cos I 2 4 1 1

1 1

Use the following far-field approximations:

1 1 r1 r e jkr1 = e jk ( r d cos )
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Antenna Arrays

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EE4101

The total E field is:

E = ( E1 + E2 ) a

kd e jkr = a j cos I1 + I 2e jkd cos r 4 kI1d e jkr = a j cos 1 + e j e jkd cos 4 r kId e jkr = a j r cos AF 4
where
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Antenna Arrays

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AF = Array Factor = 1 + e j e jkd cos

1 + e e

jkd cos

= 2e

1 ( + kd cos ) 2

1 + kd cos cos ( ) 2
= 1 I1 + I 2e jkd cos I1

The magnitude of the total E field is:

kId e jkr E = a j r cos AF 4

= radiation pattern of a single Hertzian dipole AF
6

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Antenna Arrays

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Hence we see the total far-field radiation pattern |E| of the array (array pattern) consists of the original radiation pattern of a single Hertzian dipole multiplying with the magnitude of the array factor |AF|. This is a general property of antenna arrays and is called the principle of pattern multiplication. When we plot the array pattern, we usually use the normalized array factor which is:
1 1 1 + kd cos AFn = AF = 2cos ( ) 2
7
where is a constant to make the maximum value of |AFn| equal to one.
Antenna Arrays

Hon Tat Hui

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Examples of array patterns using pattern multiplication:

Array pattern of a two-element array of Hertzian dipoles ( = 0, and d = /4)

1 1 + kd cos = 1 2cos 1 cos AFn = 2cos ( ) 2 2 2

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Antenna Arrays

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Array pattern of a two-element array of Hertzian dipoles ( = -90, and d = /4)

1 1 + kd cos = 1 2cos 1 + cos AFn = 2cos ( ) 2 2 2 2

Hon Tat Hui

Antenna Arrays

NUS/ECE

EE4101

In many practical arrays, the element radiation pattern is usually chosen to be non-directional, for example the -plane pattern of a Hertzian dipole or a half-wave dipole. Then in this case, the array radiation pattern will be totally determined by the array factor AF alone, as shown in the example below:

Element pattern
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|F()| Array factor |A()| = Array pattern (normalized)

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3 N-Element Uniform Liner Arrays (ULAs)

Far field observation point r

Dipoles are parallel to the z direction

Dipole 1 d

rN-1 x Dipole N

An N-element uniform antenna array with an element separation d

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The principle of pattern multiplication can be extended to N-element arrays with identical antenna elements and equal inter-element separation (ULAs). If the excitation currents have the same amplitude but the phase difference between adjacent elements is (the progressive phase difference), the array factor for this array is:
AF = 1 + e j ( kd cos + ) + e j 2( kd cos + ) + + e j ( N 1)( kd cos + ) N sin j( N 1) N 2 e 2 = e j ( n1) = n =1 sin 2 where = kd cos + and 0 , 2
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The normalized array factor is:

N sin 1 2 AFn ( ) = sin 2
where is a constant to make the largest value of |AFn| equal to one.

The relation between |AFn|, , d, and is shown graphically on next page. Note that |AFn| is a period function of , which is in turn a function of . The angle is in the real space and its range is 0 to 2. However, is not in the real space and its range can be greater than or smaller than 0 to 2, leading to the problem of grating lobes or not achieving the maximum values of the |AFn| expression.
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|AFn( )|

= kd cos +

kd

kdcos

The relation between AFn,, d, and

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Properties of the normalized array factor AFn: 1. |AFn| is a periodic function of , with a period of 2. This is because |AFn( + 2)| = |AFn()|. 2. As cos() = cos(-), |AFn| is symmetric about the line of the array, i.e., = 0 & . Hence it is enough to know |AFn| for 0 . 3. The maximum values of |AFn| occur when (see Supplementary Notes): 1 = (kd cos + ) = m , m = 0,1,2, 2 2 1 ( 2m ) max = main beam directions = cos 2 d
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Note that there may be more than one angles max corresponding to the same value of m because cos-1(x) is a multi-value function. If there are more than one maximum angles max, the second and the subsequent maximum angles give rise to the phenomenon of grating lobes. The condition for grating lobes to occur is that d (disregarding the value of ) as shown below:
2nd grating lobe 1st grating lobe Main lobe 1st grating lobe 2nd grating lobe

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2nd grating lobe 1st grating lobe

Main lobe
|AFn( )|

1st grating lobe

2nd grating lobe

When = 0, grating lobes are formed when kd 2, i.e., d . If is taken into account, the smallest value of d to form a grating lobe is 0.5 . If d < 0.5, no grating lobe can be formed for whatever value of .
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Visible region kd

=kdcos

General conditions to avoid grating lobes with :[0,2] and d:[0,]: 1.For 0 < : kd + 2 2. For < 2: kd - 0

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4. There are other angles corresponding to the maximum values for the minor lobes (minor beams) but these angles cannot be found from the formula in no. 3 above. 5. When and d are fixed, it is possible that can never be equal to 2m. In that case, the maximum values of |AFn| cannot be determined by the formula in no. 3. 6. The main beam directions max are not related to N. They are functions of and d only. 7. The nulls of |AFn| occur when: n n = 1,2,3, = , N 2 n N ,2 N ,3 N , 2n 1 null = null directions = cos ( ) N 2 d
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Note that there may be more than one angles null corresponding to a single value of n because cos-1(x) is a multi-value function. 8. The null directions null are dependent on N. 9. The larger the number N, the closer is the first null (n = 1) to the first maximum (m = 0). This means a narrower main beam and an increase in the directivity or gain of the array. 10.The angle for the main beam direction (m = 0) can be controlled by varying or d.

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Example 1 A uniform linear array consists of 10 half-wave dipoles with an inter-element separation d = /4 and equal current amplitude. Find the excitation current phase difference such that the main beam direction is at 60 (max = 60). Solutions d = /4, max = 60, N = 10

main beam dirction = max

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m2 = 60 = cos ( ) 2 d
1

( m2 ) = cos ( 60 ) = 0.5

4 when m = 1
Antenna Arrays

= m2 = 45 + 360 = 315,
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Other values of corresponding to other values of m are outside the range of 0 2 and are not included.

sin 5 cos + 1 2 AFn = 1 sin cos + 2 2 = 10

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Antenna Arrays

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EE4101

4 Mutual Coupling in Transmitting Antenna Array What we studies before about antenna arrays has assumed that the antenna elements operate independently. In reality, antennas placed in close proximity to each other interact strongly. This interaction is called mutual coupling effect and it will distort the array characteristics, such as the array pattern, from those predicted based on the pattern multiplication principle. We need to consider the mutual coupling effect in order to apply the pattern multiplication principle. We study an example of a two-element dipole array. We characterize the mutual coupling effect using the mutual impedance.
Hon Tat Hui

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Antenna Arrays

NUS/ECE

EE4101

Consider two transmitting antennas as shown on next page. They are separated by a distance of d and the excitation voltages sources, Vs1 and Vs2, have a phase difference of but an equal magnitude. Hence if there is no mutual coupling effect, the excitation currents also differ by a phase difference of and have an equal magnitude. When the mutual coupling effect is taken into account, the two coupled antennas can be modelled as two equivalent circuits. Now because of the mutual coupling effect, there is another excitation source (the controlled voltage source) in the equivalent circuit. This controlled voltage source is to model the coupled voltage from the other antenna.
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Antenna Arrays

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EE4101

Dipoles are parallel to the z direction

Far field observation point, r

Dipole 1

x d
Dipole 2

Two coupled dipoles

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Antenna #1

Antenna #2

Vs1
Terminal current Excitation voltage source

I1

Zg1

a b

Vs2 Zg2 d

I2
c d

I1 a

Coupled voltage

I2 c Vs2

Vs1 Zg1
Source b internal Impedance (Zg1 = Zg2 = ZL)
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V12 Z11
Antenna input impedance ZA

V21 Z11

Zg2 d

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Z12 = mutual impedance with antenna #2 excited Voc1 = I 2 I1 =0,Vs1 =0 open-circuit voltage at antenna #1 V12 = = I2 I2
I2 Voc1 a
b

c d

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Z 21 = mutual impedance with antenna #1 excited Voc 2 = I1

I 2 =0,Vs 2 =0

open-circuit voltage at antenna #2 V21 = = I1 I1

I1

a b

Voc2 c

Note that for passive antennas, Z12 = Z 21

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Using the mutual impedance, the coupled voltages V12 and V21 can be expressed as follows:

V12 = Z12 I 2

V21 = Z21I1

I1 and I2 are the actual terminal currents at the antennas when there is mutual coupling effect. From the antenna equivalent circuits on pp. 25,
Vs1 V12 I1 = ZL + Z A
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Vs 2 V21 I2 = ZL + Z A
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Is1 and Is2 are the terminal currents at the antennas when there is no mutual coupling effect.
Vs1 I s1 = ZL + Z A Vs 2 Is2 = ZL + Z A

Our aim is to express I1 and I2 in terms of Is1 and Is2.

Vs1 V12 I1 = ZL + Z A I 2 Z12 = I s1 ZL + Z A
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Vs 2 V21 I2 = ZL + Z A I1Z 21 = Is2 ZL + Z A

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From these two relations, we can find:

Z12 I s1 Is2 Z A + ZL I1 = Z12 Z 21 1 2 ( Z A + ZL )

That is:

Z 21 Is2 I s1 Z A + ZL I2 = Z12 Z 21 1 2 ( Z A + ZL )

1 I1 = ( I s1 Z12 I s 2 ) D
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1 I 2 = ( I s 2 Z 21I s1 ) D
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where

Z12 Z 21 D = 1 2 ( Z A + ZL ) Z12 Z12 = Z A + ZL

Z 21 Z 21 = Z A + ZL Now if we want to find the array pattern E on the horizontal plane (=/2) with mutual coupling effect, then E is just equal to the array factor (see pages 10 and 6). 1 Vector E =AF = I1 + I 2e jkd cos magnitude, not I1 absolute value
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1 E = I1 + I 2e jkd cos I1 1 ( I s1 Z12 I s 2 ) + ( I s 2 Z 21I s1 ) e jkd cos = I1D 1 ( I s1 + I s 2e jkd cos ) Z12 ( I s 2 + I s1e jkd cos ) = I1D ( with Z12 = Z 21 )

I s1 Is2 j jkd cos j jkd cos j (1 + e e = ) Z12 ( e + e ) with I = e I1D s1 I s1 1 + e j( kd cos + ) Z12e j 1 + e j( kd cos ) = I1D

original pattern

additional pattern

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We see that the array pattern now consists of two parts: the original array pattern plus an additional pattern:
Z12e j 1 + e j( kd cos )

which has a reverse current phase - and a modified amplitude with a multiplication of a complex number Z12ej. Note that all parameters in the above formula can be calculated except I1 which will be removed after normalization. Normalization of the above formula can only be done when its maximum value is known, for example by numerical calculation.
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Absolute value Example 2 Find the normalized array pattern |En| on the horizontal plane (=/2) of a two-monopole array with the following parameters with mutual coupling taken into account: I s1 = 1, I s 2 = e j , I s1 = I s 2 = 1, = 150

d = 4,

= 4
d

Z12 = Z 21 = 21.8 - j 21.9 Z A = 47.3 + j 22.3 Z L = 50

I s1
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I s2
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Solution

I s1 = 1,

Is2 = e

I s1 = I s 2 = 1 I s1 = 0,
2 kd = = 4 2

As the required array pattern |En| is on the horizontal plane, it is equal to the normalized array factor |AFn|.

I s 2 = = 150 = 2.62 rad

Z12 Z 21 Z12 = = = 0.16 j 0.26 Z A + ZL Z A + ZL

Z12 Z 21 D = 1 = 1.042 + j 0.09 2 ( ZA + ZL )

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I s1 1 + e j( kd cos + ) Z12e j 1 + e j( kd cos ) E = AF = I1D 0.95 j 0.08 1 + e j 2.62e j( 2 ) cos = I1

( 0.16 j 0.26 ) e j 2.62 1 + e j 2.62e j( 2) cos 0.94 j 0.37 j ( 2 ) cos = 1 + ( 1.14 + j 0.40 ) e I1

The pattern of f = 1 + ( 1.14 + j 0.40 ) e j( 2 ) cos next page.

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is shown on

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f = 1 + ( 1.14 + j 0.40 ) e j( 2 ) cos

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Normalization

The pattern of f attains the maximum value when = 180. When = 180,
E =180 0.94 j 0.37 j ( 2 ) cos = 1 + ( 1.14 + j 0.40 ) e =180 I1 1.83 = I1

Hence we normalize |E| by this factor (1.83/|I1|) to get:

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0.94 j 0.37 1 + ( 1.14 + j 0.40 ) e j( 2) cos I1 En = 1.83 I1 = 0.52 1 + ( 1.14 + j 0.40 ) e j( 2) cos

The polar plot of |En| is shown on next page.

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En = 0.52 1 + ( 1.14 + j 0.40 ) e

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j ( 2 ) cos
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The case when there is no mutual coupling is shown below for comparison. 1 j jkd cos En no mutual coupling effect = 1 + e e where is a constant to make the largest value of |AFn| equal to one ( = 1.73).

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References: 1. C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2005. 2. W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, Wiley, New York, 1998. 3. David K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetic, AddisonWesley Pub. Co., New York, 1989. 4. John D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988. 5. Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 2007. 6. Joseph A. Edminister, Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993. 7. Yung-kuo Lim (Editor), Problems and solutions on electromagnetism, World Scientific, Singapore, 1993.
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