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^^
^^H

ANGLO-SAXON COLLECTION
TH BEQUKST OF

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IN THE Cornell, University
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026451009

GMMMATOGRAPHY
MANUAL
OF REFERENCE

ALPHABETS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN

LANGUAGES

BASED ON THE GERMAN COMPILATION

F.

BALLHOEN.

LONDON

TRUBNBR AND

CO.,

60,
1861.

PATERNOSTER ROW.

k.'L^^^%

PREFACE.

The Geammatogeapht

is

offered to the Public as a compendiojis introduction to

the reading of the most important ancient and

its design, it will

modem

languages.

Simple in

be conBulted with advantage by the Philological Student, the

Amateur

Linguist, the Bookseller, the Corrector of the Press, and the diligent

Compositor.

Although substantially based on " BalUiorn's Alphabete," a German compilation, which, in the space of

a few years, passed through nine editions, the

present manual has in several articles been very considerably improved and
enlarged.

Of the new when

this

observations which have been inserted, some

may prove

useful even

work

shall

be consulted by the side of the respective

Grammars.

With regard

to the Asiatic Alphabets, it

may be

stated, that the

-continued efforts to obtain trustworthy specimens have, in some instances, led

to highly satisfactory results.

In preparing the type of the Chinese characters,

the lateral "Tones" have been adjoined to the 214 symbols of pronunciation.

These additions

will enable the student, instructed

by native

teachers, to re-

member
The

with greater facility the varying articulation of vowel-sounds.

publishers entertaiu the hope, that the present work, an

humble attempt

to assist in the furtherance of philological pursuits, will obtain the eiftsouraging

consideration of competent scholars, whose suggestions, avaiMile for future

editions, are respectfully solicited.

M.PHABETia!i.L INDEX.

Page

^han

(or Pnshto)
.

28
.
.

Hebrew (Judaeo-German),

13
.

Amhiaric

23.

24,25
73

Hebrew (Current hand)

nganan
^rian
Irish
.
.

14 68
63

Anglo-Saxon
Arabic
. ' .

20,21 21,22
.

Arabic Ligatures
Araraaeio
.

78
,

Italian (Old-)

9 34

Archaic Characters

8,9
.

Armeniau
Assyrian Cuneiform

58

Javanese
Lettish
.
.
. .

46.

47,48
69
50, 51

7
.

Bengali

45

Mantshii

Bohemian (Czechian)
Biigis

67,68
.

Median Cuneiform

6 57
.

45

Modem

Greek (or Komaic)

. . .

Burmese
Chinese
Coptic
.

41
,

Mongolian
Ifumidian

52 8

Canaresef(or Camitaca)

42

30,31 32,33
.

Old-Slavonie (or Cyrillic)

58 9

29
60

Palmyrenian
Persian
.

Croato-Glagolitio

27
5

pufio

9 58

Persian Cuneiform

Cyrillic (or

Old SlaTonio)

Phoenician
Polish
.

Czechian (or Bohemian)

67,68
71
.

65

Danish

Pushto (or Afghan)

28
Greek)

Demotic

8 9

Ecmaio
Kussian

(or

Modem
, .

57

Ethiopio

23,

24,25
9

Htmes

....
. . .
,

61,62
75,76
15
35-36, 37, 38

Etruscan
Georgian

Samaritan
Sanscrit

54

German
GlagoKtic

70
59

Servian

63
.

Slavonic (Old-)

58

Gothic

74
.

Serbian (or Wendish)

66

Greek

55

Swedish
Syriao

.72
ie, 17, 18,
.
.

Greek Ligatures

j^

56 9 48 8 8 10 11,12

19

Greek (^chaio)**l
Gujerati (or Guzerattee)
Hieratic
.

Tamil
Telugu
Tibetan

39,

40

44
.

Hieroglyphics

Turkish

26

Hebrew Hebrew Hebrew

Wallachian

64
66 41
'.

(Archaic)

8
.

WendishTPw Serbian)
Zend
. .

(Eabbinical)

18

^.#

PERSIAN CUNElf OEM CHAMCTEES. *

There are two main families of Cuneiform Characters which, before the expedition of Alexander the Great, were in use nearly in all Asiatic Countries, subjected to the (Ac'hsemenides) Persian Kings. One of these, the Arian arrow-headed, is here given, aiwt is a pure alphabet of fixed characters, which was made use of by the old Persians, proper,
.

and

is

now

read with tolerable accuracy. [.The other, however, not yet deciphered with

sufficient certainty,

was employed, withfsome modifications, by

,

at least five different nations,

the Babylonians, the Assyrians

the Medo-Scythians (the second in the triglot inscriptions

of Persepolis and Bisutun), the Susians and the Armenians.

Almost

in

each of these five

sorts of characters can be distinguished three styles, the Archaic, theLlJidary,

and the Cursive.

Form

MEDIAN CUNEIFORM CHAEACTERS

A8SYRIA1S CUISEIFOEM

CHARACTERS

OLDEST CHARACTERS

10

HEBREW
Form

Kame

Pronunciation

Numer.
value

NOTES.
The Hebrew Alphabet,
like all Semitic al-

Aleph

Spiritus

lenis

phabets, consists only of consonants, 22 in

2
:

Beth Gimel
Daleth

b bh g
gli
,

2
3

number, some of which, however, hare also the force of vowels. Hebrew is read from right to left. Because at the end of the lines words
,

cannot be divided

the following dilatable cha-

d dh

4 5
6
7

racters (dilatabiles)
justify, or
fill

were employed to help to up the lines; but now the prac-

n
)
k
t

He
Vav
Zayiii

tice is all

but obsolete.

w
S sbft
cli

tzD

m S

r-i

!-i

&<

CONSONANTS.
Cheth
Teth
8
)j^

Notes on Pronunciation,

the softest guttural, an emission of the breath scarcely to be heard, the Spiritus
is

Yodh
]D, final

lenis of the
j

Greeks, similar

to -, but

much

10

softer.

*!

Kaph
Lamedh

k kh
1.
ni

20
30

PI befora a
ritus

vowel,

is

our aspirated h (the Spi-

asper of the Greeks); but after a

h
D,
J,
final

vowel, at the end of a syllable, it is guttural, and, at the end of words, it

often supplies the place of a vowel.
is a guttural g, accompanied by a grating or rattling sound ; 2) a softer breathing

D Mem
Nun
I

40 50 60
70

final

n
s
guttural

1)

Samek
Ayin
final

like N. In reading

words,
e. g.
'iss;

it is

now

and transcribing hebrew usual to omit ; and s,

V
,
^,
tl
final ]>

Eli.

n
Pe
Tsadhe
Q'oph

is

the harshest guttural , like the

German

P Ph
ss

80
90
100

ch as pronounced by the Swiss, or the Spanish x and j.

is

pronounced in Hebrew more like a rattling guttural, than as a pure lingual, and

q
r
s

partakes of both sounds.

t??

Resh
Sin

200
300

and t^ were originally but one and the

same
letter

letter, as they still are

;

when

written
this

without points

but as in

some words

had a softer sound, similar

to

s,

Shin

sh
t

this two-fold pronunciation is distinguished

by the grammarians by the diacritical point

Tav

th

400
*

*
is

(sh)

and a

(s).
z.

Final- Kaph with Shva Tf with Q'amets

with Daghesh and Q'amets

the English

?[

2,

p and j{ are strongly articulated sounds, produced by a, compression of the lower

orgafls of the

LIGATURES.
or

mouth; the two first, therefore,

=
also instead

differ essentially

equivalent to our
of
a-^n'-js

from n and s which are t and k, and are often

/K)

aspirated.

"

) )

11
The six consonants PESTja have a twofold pronunciation: 1) aharder and more slender sound (tenuis), like our b g d k p t, and
2) a smoother sound accompanied by a soft The harder sound is the primeval it occurs at the beginning of words and syllables without a vowel preceding immediately, and is indicated by a point (Daghesh tene) in those six consonants. They are aspirated after a vowel immediately preceding; in manuscripts this is indicated by the Raphe ( " ), but in printed books the aspiration is shown by the absence of the Daghesh.
aspiration.

The vowels, or vowel-points, are placed under the consonants after which they are pronounced (i ra); but the Patach, placed under a guttural at the end of a word is pronounced before this guttural, ~ni ruaoh, in which case it is named Patach furtleum. The Cholem (without Vav) is placed above the consonant on the leftside: Hro. The figui-e i is to be pronounced sometimes ov, the i being preceding it sometimes consonant and the vo, the Cholem being read after the Vav. It
,

is

a)

According

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONSONANTS. to the organs of speech by which they are pronounced

1) gutturals (gutturales)

n
p S

*
j

n s
<

ou, i more accurate to distinguish thus vo,^ 6\ likewise also 1 (Shm-eq) and ! (Vav with Daghesh). As, however, 5 (Shureq) is readily discernible, because a vowel neither can precede nor follow it, only this form is made use of. In opposition to the vowels
:

i'

2) palatals (palatinae) 3)

Unguals llinguales) ts P i and ) h i 4) dentals (dentales) svi 5) labials (labiates) q n n i The 1 partakes of the 1. and 3. classes.
b) According to their sound: 1) aspirated consonants (aspirantes): -yrts 2) soft consonants (molles) liquids -i : a i,
:

-j Shva (Sh^va) indicates the absence of a Therefore full and distinct vowel.
1 )

semivowels
4)

3) sibilants (sibilantes):

"a

mutes (mutae)

s 3 t

D t a and p c

VOWELS.
That the scale of the five vowels a S o oo is derived from the three primitive vowels a t 00, is to be seen much more distinctly in the Hebrew and the other Semitic languages than in other languages. The S has been formed oo, and, properly speakby a -f- i, the o by a ing, both are contracted diphthongs e =; ai, The full vowels formed by this S z=: au.
i

placed under a consonant concluding a it indicates the complete absence of a vowel and serves to divide the preceding syllable from the following (Sh^va quiescens). It is not made use of, however, when the consonant concluding the syllable at the same time concludes the word, except in the case of the Final Qoph ('^), and those words ending in two consonants, when each of them is to be furnished with a Sh^va, c. g. 'I'l;
syllable ,

as

itrepresents a slight and indistinct vowel, it were only the onset or beginning

of a vowel (^ShHa mobile).

mobile is pronounced somewhat and distinct in the so called Chateph-vowels (S|Bn rapidum), joining a short vowel to the Sh'^va simplex in opposition to which it is also named Sh^va compositum. There are three Chatephs

The Sh^va
clear

more

process are the following, arranged according to the three principal vowels and to their prosodical quantity:

Vowel a (X)

-^

-J- Q'amets, S a Patach, a.

-^ Chateph Patach -^ Chateph -Seghol

half a
,

half 6
,

^r- Chateph- Qamets

half

o.

Vowel e
^-r;"fr-

i C
READING -SIGNS.
There are some reading - signs which have
also
i

Tsere (with Yodh), e

Chireq (magnum),
Seghol, 6, e (the
written

-;:-:r~

Tsere (without Yodh), e (e)

latter is

close connexion with the vowels and probably were introduced at the same time. Amongst these is to be noticed the diacritical point of

^~^)
it

r- Chireq (parvum),

(i).

Vowel
j

00
fi

( T

and v. Meeting together with the Cholem {), only one point is made use of which represents both; therefore iuis to be pronoimced so if no other vowel - point is added and o$h,
ii
,

Cholera (magnum), 6

when
e.

Shureq,

the preceding consonant g, sji sone , -ra mosheh.

is

unpointed,

_^

C'holem (parvum), 5 (6)

-r- Q'amets -chatuph, 6

-r Q'ibbuts, 66 (65)-

More frequently we see a point placed in the consonant to indicate in general a harder pronunciation. There are three cases to be distinguished, viz.:

2*

12
Dagheah forte doubling the consonants. Daghesh lene, hardening the consonant; it 3 a in stands only in the six mutae: n B S the above named oases otherwise the point occurring in these consonants must be a Da,

ACCENTS PLACED ABOVE CONSONANTS.

.'.

Segholta

'

"i

Zaqeph-qaton
Zaqeph-gadhol
'

"

Bebhia

ghesh forte.

Mappiq, indicates that those consonants, which are also us^d as vowels are then to be pronounced as consonants; in modern printing it is made use of only in the B at the end of the words.
,

~ Zarqa
^
^

Qadma
Pashta
i

Shalshelet

''

Paser

In opposition to the point hardening the consonant, a little stroke standing above the consonant indicates his softer sound. This
stroke called

'*''

Qarne-phara
Great-Telisha
Little-Telisha

Raphe

(") is

now

almost out of use, and

is

'

Garesh

only employed in order to indicate expressly the absence of a Daghesh or Mappiq.

"

Double- Garesh.

ACCENTS.
general design of the accents is to indicate the rhythmical members of the verses in the Old Testament. In doing this , they perform a twofold duty; for the accents mark at one and the same time partly the logical relation of each word to the whole sentence, and partly the accented syllable of each single word. In the first case the accents supply the punctuation, in the latter they are signs of tone. As signs of tone, the different accents are equivalent, '.because there is in Hebrew only one kind of accentuation. In most words, the last syllable is accented, more rarely the last but one. As signs of punctuation, their use is more complicated, because they not only separate words , like our points , commas and colons, but also join one to the other. Therefore they are divided in Distinctivi and Conjunctivi. In the following list they are arranged not according to their grammatical value, but according to their being placed below the consonants or above them, in order to give a more facile view of them.

The

ACCENTS CONSISTING OF TWO PARTS BELONGING TOGETHER, THE ONE ABOVE, AND THE OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS. Merkha mahpakhatum

Merkha sarqatum

Mahpakh sarqatum.
:

Soph-pasuq, separating

verses,

Pesiq, between the words.

aloft, between the words. Metheg, sign of tone (to the left of the

- Maqqeph, hyphen,
I

vowel).

ifUMERALS.
There are no numerical ciphers in Hebrew but consonants are used instead of them. The units are expressed by s is, the tens by s,

100400

by

p r.
=

''

The numbers 500 900

five final letters
P|

sometimes are expressed by the

[500

600

poo

800

1^900,

ACCENTS PLACED UNDER CONSONANTS.

I

Silluq only at the end of the verse , therefore always joined with : Soph-pasuq, which stands between the single verses.

sometimes by r 400 with addition of the other hundreds , e.g. prr=500. In compound numbers , the greater is placed first, e. g. s' 11, SDp 121. The number' 15 is written with Its (9+6), instead of ni, because the name of God begins with these letters and for the same reason, 16 is written tp instead of T. The thousands are expressed by the units, superscribing two points, e. g. s 1000.

nw

Athnach, mostly
(

in the

midst of a verse
stroke aloft to the left of the consonant, c. g. 's, denotes that this consonant serves as a numeral. By the side of the last consonant of a word, e. g. 'oa (^micn) it marks an abbreviation. " Two strokes above a word, e. g. rr's, indicate that each of these letters stands for a separate word abbreviated.
'

^ Yethibh
.,

always

to the left of the vowel).

Tebhir

ABBREVIATIONS.

Tiphcha

initiale

Merkha
Double-Merkha

Munach

,
J

Mahpakh
Darga
Yarach
Tiphcha

(to the right of the

vowel)

"

finale.

or * in copies of the Hebrew Bible refer to the readings placed in the margin or at the foot of the page. The first is of Masoretic, and the other is of modern origin.

13

14

HEBREW RUNNING-HAND
Form

15

SAMARITAN
Form

16

SYRIAC
Name
connected with a preceding letter

connectconnect- ed with ccl with a followboth Enp letter

Pronunciation

Numer.
value

VOWELS.
The Syriac
left,

Olaph

Spiritas leni

are expressed by some marks iu imitation of the greek; the latter of which are now mostly in use. In former times both kinds were cmdiacritical signs or

Tlxe vowels

is written

from

riglit to

ployed promiscuously.

Beth

^s

^Cl.

a.

or

2
3

Figure

Gomal
Dolath
5

\
r
ai

g d

4
5
or

He
Vau
Zain

01

o
1

a
>

W
Z

6
7

Cheth
Teth

ch
t

8 9 10

Yud
Koph
5*

ch
1

20

Lomad

30 40 50
60

Mim
Nun
Semcath

la

m
J

Ee
Pe
Tsode

wj as in

faebrew

70

or f

80 90
100

tS or Z

Quph
Kish Shin

q
r

200
300

sh

Tau

thort

400

17

SYRIAC
Cut iu the printing-office of B. G. Teubner in Leipzig conformably to original drawings by Frofessor TuLLBERO of Upsala and Professor Berhsteim of Breslau.

Porm

18

19

SYRIAC
Form
Pronunciation

Name

Vowels, Accents and Orthographical Signs

Points and

Numbers

174 175
176 177

x:

Yud-Nun

VOWELS AND ACCENTS.

203
a 224

POINTS.
.

X
H

Pethocho

204

la

LomadOlaph

205
206 207

178)^
179
);

Rebotzo

180^

208

181^ 182^
183^
184'^

Loraad-

209 210
211

.-

Chebotzo

Teth

212

Zekopho

185^
Double
186 >SS.
187 \SS.
188>{&>

213

Lomad

214

>

Etsotso

189 190 191 192

iS^

ORTHOGRAPHICAJ.
Lomadlee

SIGNS.
215
216 217

SS.

Ee

VSS.

Ribui

'^

Mehagyono
Marhetono
Qushoi,Ruchoch

193 !&.

194 &>
I It

Lomad-

218

Tau

195
196
197

-iS*.

&>.

^
Jj

Mim-

Nan
NunOlaph
Tsode-

219 220

hooks at the beginning of a word

Little
at the
I

198
199

end of a

word
221

U
Of:

222
I

Strokes between
>

200
201

Nun
Tsode-

223

the single letters to adjust the lines

202

Gomal

20

ARABIC

21

VOWELS.

-^
At

Fatha, a a e
-S_

^^
on

Kesre,

_jl

Damma,

oo o
-.

the end of the suhstantives the vowels are doubled to indicate the case, viz.

~'

in

-_ an

This

is

called Nunation, because, in pronouncing,

'

Nun

is

added

to the

vowel.

DIPHTHONGS:
"

^^^

ai

au

as i

ge^an.
"',-

ORTHOGKAPHICAL
Jezma^

SIGNS.

separating syllables, is written over the final. consonant of all shut syllable and indicates j that the syllable is finished and the consonant to .be pronounced with the preceding vowel ; it corresponds to the Shma quiescens of the Hebrew.
th?it

JH-

of doubling. The final consonant of a syllable being the same as , beginning the following one, this consonant is written only once, but marked with the sign which corresponds to the Hebrew Z)a^/ies/j/orte. In African manu,

Teshdid mark

scripts it is written v or

a.
,

^e_

placed genferally above the Elif when this is used as a consonant and furnished with a vowel; when this vowel is a Kesre, the Hamza is placed beneath; sometimes also it stands above the Y. In Kufic Korans it is supplied by a little green stroke, in Moorish or African manuscripts by a thick green or yellow dot.
is

Hamza

*"

Wesla, joining- mark. The Elif, at the commencement of a word) is sometimes in pronunciation absorbed by the final vowel of the preceding word. In this case, the vowel of the Elif is elided and marked by the Wesla.
above ap Elif pronounced by Fatha and followed by a Hamza; it indicates the prolongation of the a. It is placed , also , above an ^\ii at the commencement of a word, or instead of an omitted Elif. Besides, this sign is a mark of abbre-

~ Medda stands
'''**'".-

PUNCTUATION.
,

There are no signs of punctuation in Arabic only in the Koran the verses are separated by :^. This sign, however, or ' or < or a red dot, is employed also. in other books at the end of a section. In manuscripts, sometimes, anew section begins with a word written
in red colour; in manuscript dictionaries a red line
is

placed above each catch -word.

CIPHERS.
Formerly, the Arabs, like other oriental nations, used the letters of the alphabet to express numbers; at a later period, however, they adopted the following 10 special figures, cfiUed by us Europeans the Arabian ciphers, by the Arabs themselves the Indian ones,
.

Regarding their composition and value they accord with our numerals which are taken from them, whereas the consonants expressing ciphers are written from right to left,
,

IfrfclVAl. 1234567890

viz.

Ulr

(1861).

22

ARABIC LIGATURES

23

AETHIOPIAN AND AMHARIC

24

AETHIOPIAN
Cut
ill

the printing-office of F, A.

Bkockhaus

in Leipzig

under the direction of the German Oriental Society,

With a

25
DIPHTHONGS.
}]d

kua gua

V|.

kui gui

tf

kue gue

5p^

kuA
gud

Ij,

ku6 gu6

To

7.

^
-Jo

qua -J
hua

4* qui . -J
>.

4"" que ,

f
:5i

qua huA

^ ^
J.

qu6 hu6

hui

-^ hue
PUNCTUATION.

Stop f6r the division of words

Comma
NUMBEES.

Semicolon

Full stop

1234567
,

89

10

11 etc.

'JO

30 40

50 60

70

80

90 100 200

c-ti-.

1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

Ethiopic formerly the vernacular language of the Abyssinians by whom it was called GeEz, is only preserved in writings. As a Semitic language it bears a close affinity to the Himyaric, a South-Arabian dialect, which was superseded in the times of Mahomed. The Ethiopic possesses a high degree of flexibility which is mainly due to the diligence with which the study of Greek writings was cultivated in Abyssinia. The Alphabet originally consisted of consonants without indications of vowels. In form it approaches the Himyaric and thus differs from the other Semitic characters. Ancient Ethiopic inscriptions show examples of writing from right to left; owing, however, to the early influence of Greek literature, especially after the introduction of Christianity, the arrangement of words was fixed from left to right. At the same time the coalition of consonants and vowels was indicated by particular forms, which gave rise to the adoption of a complete syllabarium. With the change of the ruling power in the fourteenth century the Ethiopic language began to decay, and rapidly falling into disuse, it is now replaced by the Amharic language.
,

AMHARIC.
This language deriving its name from the kingdom of Amhara in Abyssinia, has supplanted the ancient Ethiopic idiom. The kings of Shoa, on gaining the upper handj efl'ected the preponderance of ths Amharic language, to the exclusion of the kindred Ethiopic. The Alphabets of both languages are identical, except the following Characters, which are peoiiliar to the Amharic language.
wilh

26

TURKISH.
a compound of wordB taken from the Tatar, Persian and Ara1>ic languages. The high dialect, only, spoken at Constantinople by people of quality, and serving as the written language, is Turkish is written and read a compound of Persian and Arabic words. Like most oriental languages
TJie Turkish language

is
,

from right

to left.

Elif supplies the

u, the

german vowels

a, y,

o,

<Ssa(2 like

sharp

ss.

consonants of the word being hard but the german e, i, o, u, the consonants being soft. When Alif is followed by hard consonant, the ( Ustun) is pronounced like a, the ~7~ {Esre) like y, and the _!_ {Utru) like o or u. Following, however, a soft consonant, the ^ {Ustun) is to be read as e, the~7" {Esre) as i, and the > {Utru) as o or u. In the middle and at the end of words, without Hamzalif the Alif is always pronounced like a, but with Hamzalif, like e.
,

Ddad,
it

like our' z; the

Arabs pronounce
often

like d.
is

is Tta like t or M; it with Ta and Dal.

confounded

Zza

like

our

z.

Ain
y, "

like a strong guttural

and nasal

a,

Ghain like j guttural.

i^a like our/.

;_

Ba

After Ta, Tlia, Jim, Cha, Sin, Shin, Ssa4, Tla\ Qaf, Gef it is often read like p.
is

our

b.

Qo/like

A,

iA or

ck.

Kaf,
Gef,
soft;

like y or k, as in the french

words

L^ Pa
tty

is is

our p.
our
it is
t.

qui, quel.

Ta

In the conjugation of some

or ss, except the

accords with our g in give;

it is

in

verbs
^AJ

changed into Dal.

s

some eases

pronounced like gi very in the middle of words and in some

Tha
tult.

is

our

word
like
i.

viJLj
th.
.

terminations like y.

The Arabs projiounce

,

it

^ t

Jim

the Italian g before

or

When

^5= SaghuT Nun,

i.

e.

mute Nun,

like the

meeting the consonants named above in connection with the letter i_j, it is pronounced like Tchim.
Tchin like. our Qh in chess.

french nasal -n in mon, son.

J Lam
r

our I; in some cases it is soft like ^in limb, in some hard like ^ in all.
Mint, like m.

Hha

Nun ou*
lika ^ in h a V e.
it is

n; but when followed by a Ba, pronounced' like m.

Cha, the german ch in brauchen.

Dal

like d. It

is

pronounced

like

when

it is

meeting the consonants named above in connection with the letter i_y
.

our * or ; furnished with Utru, pronounced like in conjunction with hard consonants like german u or o, how ever, in conjunction with soft ones.
; ;

Waw

Dhal

Ha
like
z.

like our h at the end of words mostly pronounced like a or e.

it is

Ra
; )

like;/-.

Lamelif, la or
z.
,

lia

(Ligature).

Za

like

our

Sin like

s, ss.

Shin like

sh.

like our y, when a vowel' like i\ it represents a vowel only in the middle or at the end of words.

Ya when a consonant

ORTHOGRAPHICAL
'

SIGNS.

placed over the consonants and pronounced like a with a hard consonant, like e with a soft one. ^ Esre below the consonants is pronounced like vowel y with a hard consonant, but like with a soft one. Utru is pronounced like o or u with a hard consonant, but like o or ti with a soft one.
{/ijton

is

"

Jesm (sign of pause) is placed over a consonant wanting a vowel, foUojv^ed by an

other consonant.

Teshdid or Shedde sonant doubles it.

when placed over -a

is

con-

~ Meddelif or Medda,

ff

Iki ustun (double Ustun) like -en.

Alif, which, then, is like a.

only placed over the always pr'onounced

^ Iki esre (double Esre) like in. S Iki utru (double Utru) like on or un. The three last marks are only employed
Arabic words.

in

Hamzelif or /^amjo; placed over Elif, is pronounced like e\ over Waw, like , over Ya, like i; at the end of words, ending with a vowel like i.
,

27

PERSIAN

28

AFGHAN OR PUSHTOO
Figure

29

COPTIC
Figure

3V

30

CHINESE.
calculation, based upon the Imperial Chinese Dictionary, shows that the Chinese language is represented by 43,496 characters or symbols. Of this number 13,UO0 are totally irrelevant and consist of signs which are obsolete , incorrectly formed, and unexplained. For the expressions in ordinary literature about 4000 signs appear to suffice. The writings of Con-foo-tse (Confucius) and his disciples can even be read by the help of only 2500 characters, and a knowledge of these will enable the student tolera^ily to understand all Chinese works on history and philosophy. In lieu of the phonetic and lexicographical system, which appertains to most languages, the Chinese have adopted 214 signs any of which, being placed by the side of an unknown character, indicates at once its pronunciation. These indicators of sound, are termed by the Chinese "Tribunalu". European grammarians have called them **Keys" or "Radicals". Occasionally the "Tones" (modulating accents) are appended at the top or foot of the character, at the right or the left side. Such accents are described as follows,

1 o

[]

even tone.

ew^eritt^ tone.

3 Q

falling tone.

rising tone.

The "Keys" are divided into 17 Classes, according to the number of strokes of which each character is composed, and are arranged in the following order: Class Class 1. consisting of 1 stroke extends from Nr. 1 10. consisting of 10 strokes extends from Nr.lS7-^194

2.

..

w
..

729 30- 60 6194 95117

118146 147166 167-175 176-186

..

..
..

31

49

50

^ m
~Y~
p

chi, self

73

Q
1^

yuih, to talk

9^ o IS.

^w^oA, melon

chin, cloth

o
fcaw, shielcl,spear

74

yueh, moon

98

^
1

wd/i, tiles,

earthenware
o fcon, sweet senn, to live, to birth

51

75

/Jv o moh, tree

99

W
"-t-

fii?

yj

i/wSW; source

76

y^
_LL

chi&n, debtor

100

53o/
54 jy
55 ^
56

J/*n,

hut

77

fs',

to stop

fflgiveuse ybng, to
102

isow, long

walk

78 79

^
3^
"ft

^i^j

wicked

W
y
'^

o tihn, field

TT
Vi

kong , higher
yiSh, spear

^^^

>

^^^ young 103 of animals

^to

pj^/j,

piece

80

f'6, is not

104

o tsiSh, sick

57

*~^

kdng, a

bow

81

J^'

pi, to

compare 105
106

^o

fah, to divide

58
59

^L-o kway, Come!

82 o

"C
i\t

'"<'*';

feather

f-I o buh

white

^
-^

san, coat
shuang-jin,
o

83

sz, clan

107 o

/X^ JJ^
o

6i,

skin

60

two

84
85

^1^

cni, an-

108

min, implement

y
61

men
sm, heart
ftd/i,

jL|\
^Ji^

7j>

shway, water

109

mbh, eye

62

a lance

86

,j^
/Iv

chaw,

fire

110 111

o'^
''^
"** D

mabh, spear
s/it,

63

P
"f"

to'oo^ inner

door

87

^SOM, claws, nails

arrow
stone

64

sheu,

hand

88

^
?t
^1
ij

f'6h, father

112

sAi^ft,

65 66

^
^^
^>C.

tz',

branch

89 o >^.

yow,

sign

113

^Iv

sz^ to

admonish
or

chi; the stalk

90

chwang pole
,

114

1^
--.

nahy

cla pper of a

shbh, b ell

67

funn,
tou, a

gentiJe

91

/-J

pt^n, spUnter

115o^lV
116

Aaw,
J/M^/i,

grain

68

o^
/X
o
I
J,

measure

92

o^
7V

2/a/i,

teeth

y Vo
ji-o
'

cave

69
"'^

cto/, hatchet,

93o"T^
94

nJM;

ox
dog

117

Zi^, to

stand

pound
fang, a square, then
cA/.^n,

/J
o ..^

118

choh,

bamboo

^1

TC S

fi, no
sh^h, sun, day

95o.Z^
96

yuSn, intermin- 119 o -^V.

able

mi, rice

72

jG. o

w*'^^^

gem

120

s':, silk

32

21

'ffij

f'ow, jar
/canj,

45 ,^J
46 47
48'
ffi

i,

clothing

.69

Pt

mun, a door
/oM, a

22|)M|
23 24

hedge

yiu, twilight

70jjjp.

mound

j/an^, sheep

@
==
o
r-*

c/i!^K, to

see

71o^J
72

rf,

to accomplish

?|^

M,

long feathers
old

krlh, horn, cor-

^
P5
-^p
o
|flj

cfea/i, fine

ner
25

^o
S

iffo,

49 50
51

ni&n,
/coA,

word
apertures

yu,

ram
green

26 27

Mr/i;

and

^
^-*

^^\^
o

m rocks

74
75

tsin,

fe, handle of a

spade

1^

tou, head

^ee/i,

not

28 29

jA-

ull, the

ear

52

:^^

sftw,

swine

.76

OTJew, face

yueh, to mani-

53

J^

'''**'

o
30

fest,

a baton
54
55

superior order of animals

77

-^ o
-^
itt7

/i^ft^

leather

1^
t^J

jbh, flesh

m
,^^
/\zo

pei, valuables

78

ftwoy, high

31

cWn, an
<s'z,

official

cMh, red
tsou, to

'y

c/j}M^

leeks

32
go

'H

from one self

56

walk

.80

El
I

j/in^a

sound, tone

"^
-*-

isz, to arrive,

57

extreme

^
-^'
-^y-

<so/i,

leg

.81

hieh, a sheet, a

leaf
s/jm^

34
35
36

y
yif-

cMm, mortar

58

body

.82

f'^ng,

wind

p5" o chweh; tongue

chiah, strong

59 o

C/JM, cart

.83

/ee, to fly

60

sin, bitter, hard-

.84

ships

K'
"Sr

sheh, to eat

37
,

7n"
"^^

cfttM^

vessel

_/en,

38

Q
A;Mn, inferior or-

an hour, azure
run

.85

s/ieM,

head

62 63

der of nature
seh, colour

_^Ci

iseW; to

.86

shiang, scent

39

"gf^
!/Jll*

E
l=J

o /e, a

town

87

maa,

horse

40

fsa6

grass

64

j^oo^ twilight

kivilh.

bones

65 66

7|\

fsj'g^

to separate

.89

/cao, high

IHJ
.90
c

42

ii^

chdng, insects

li,

43 44

^'
# o -^^

one third of a mile

kab, whiskers, beard

toUf to fight

shweh, blood
y^n, to walk, to act

67

.St. o cto,gold,metal

.91

68,

chang, long

.92

ift
lii

chang, sweet wine

,.

33
193
li^h, to

cup

201

hwmig, yellow

208

^
S_
^K

cte; rat

194

kway,

devil

202

o ''l>

^i

shii, millet

209

joje/i,

nose

195

^
@L

nil, fish

203

M
"3^

'M/,, black

210

'SJ,

to put in order, equal

196

w6,

bird

204

cfe',

embroidery 211

I44|

/s'S;

the back
teeth

197

loOf brine

205 o hI,
206

mix, a toad

212^^1
213

^""S' dragon

198

Ibh, stag

ml

^2W,

tripod

^k
'ffiS"

kway,

tortoise

199

m^ft,

wheat

207 o

8^

^00;

drum

214

"fl o

y^^> * musical instrument

200,

md, hemp

AEITHMETICAL FIGURES.
All arithmetical combinations are performed by 17 Cardinal iigures. In the subjoined
table, three different forms of numerical characters are given.

The

series in the left

column represents the jj/am hand which serves for literary and' ordinary purposes. In the middle column wards are employed instead of figures. This class is used in bonds contracts etc., where it Is of importance to guard against alterations and fraud. The figures in the right column, written in a "running hand", are used by merchants and traders in
,

keeping their business accounts.

+ tS^+
l|

shihh

10

urh,
sail,

2
-j5

peh,
tsi^n

100

ll|

^
~Tj

1000
10,000

If
rAi-

^
-g

s'z,

4
5

van,
ee.

00,
loh,

100,000
1,000,000

chab*

c/im^ 10,000,000

jf^o ny&h, 100,000,000'

The numbers by which The numbers added to

10, 100 etc. are multiplied are placed at the top of the multiplicand.

ten

etc.,

are

marked below the

-\-

figure.

Example

-f-

ten.

twice ten and two

or 22.

34

JAPANESE
IN
(This
tyiJe

THE

KATA-KANA

chaeaCtee.

was cut

35

SANSCRIT
CONSONANTS.
Each couaonant
is

VOWELS.
The vowels
in the left row are uttered as initials or are placed before their consonants. The vowelsigns in the right division being medials and finals, coalesce with their consonants, and are respectively p.aced over, under, before and after the letters.

sounded with an inherent

short a.

GUTTDBALS.

LABIALS.

ka
li.ha

pa
COALESCENT VOWELS.

pha
ba
blia

Ta follows
(

llie

consonant

3T

ga

^ T

gha
I'la

f. precedes
I

r
I

ma
SEMI-VOWELS.

follows

PALATALS.

^ U under
u
<^

cha
r
ch'ha

u
r

^
rJf

ra
la

r
I
<t.

j'ha
fia

va

FT

nl
c^l

..

..

CEREBEALS.

fa

SIBILANTS Jlsd ASPIRATES.

DIPHTHONGS.

^
J^
srr

"^

e
=^

C
ai

over

tha

5r

sha
ai

da

sh'ha

follows

).

dba
na
DENTALS.
FT
ta
tlia

sa

ha
35

m
.

au
NASAL SOUNDS. Anusvcira and Anundsika,
isj

da

dha
na
^

This character peculiar to the Big -Veda has a, Bound which partakes of^andr. It stands for the cerebral da. When it represents the aspirate of this letter it is expressed by^gj {l/ia).
,

are substitutes for and ii. The auun&sika has its place above the letter or laterally wth viraraa

underneath.
;

h (orproperiyg) visarga, 4* jihv^miiiiya

and

}i

upadhra^niya

are strong final aspirates. The visdMTOfhich Is the substitute for s ancUe^s the only one in common use. The last twoTBgns bear also the common designation of ardhavisarga.

ADDITIONAL SIGNS. Virama (pause) is placet! under a final consonant and denotes the absence of the inhe,

denotes brevity,

PEOSODIAL MARKS. ^ length.

rent short a. indicates the close of a sentence, ending in a vowel, a diphthong or a visarga. In poetry it denotes the half of a verse. At the end of a verse or a period this mark is doubled .|{. sX serves 1. as the sign of hiatus, 2. as sign of the elision of a aiter e and o, 3. as the sign of coalescence of two a. O is the 'Sign of abbreviation. The former sign r and -^ represent the letter r. is pronounced before the consonant (and the of which it is placed; semivowel ri) at the top the latter sign is placed under the consonant
I

ACCENTS. _ Anudatia or grave accent stands under the vowel.

I

Svarita or circumflex is put over the vowel, in connexion with these marks the numerals J and 3 serve as accents.

NUMEBALS.

and sounded

after

it.

H 1234567 890
?

t;

5*

36

SANSCRIT
similarity of shape occasions mistakes in correcting proofs; it may therefore be of compositors and readers of proofs to make use of the annexed numbers of reference.

The

advantage both to The form of the

subjoined Alphabet differs from'thut which precedes, but OUWJU

is

superior in point of correctness.

37.

SANSCRIT
105

38

ay

TAMIL
The Tamil language was
It includes
is

two

earlier cultivated than the other members of the Dravidian family. dialects the (ancient) Shen -Tamil and the (modern) Kodun -Tamil. Tamil

spoken throughout the plain of the Carnatic, below the ghauts from Pulicat to cape Comorin, to the neighbourhood of Trivandrum; also in the northern and western part of Ceylon where in ancient times Tamilians established their settlements. This language has 12 vowels and 18 consonants. It is read from left to right.

40
The Tamil Alphabet being
sonant remains united with
its

syllabic,

word

is

diyisible in

any part, so long as the conalone

is

vowel.

In punctuation the

full stop

employed.

The vowels, in their separate forms, are only used as initials. The following table shows their mode of coalition whith the consonants. The short a, as in Sanscrit, is not
expressed before a consonant.

41

42

CANARESE
Malabar

(carnataca).
coast.

TUis language, belonging to the Drftvidian family, is spoken throughout the plateau of Mysore, in some of the western districts of the Nizam territory, and in the district of Canara on the

43

GUJERATI

OR

GUZERATTEE.
,

This Alphabet is derived from the Sanscrit (Devauagari) characters, ftom which it principally differs in the omisaion of the connecting lines. Gujerati is spoken in the province of Gujerat (Guzerat) especially by the Parsee inhabitants, and is considered to be the mercantile language ofWestern India. In modem times various Gujerati publications have appeared in Bombay.

44

TELUGU
one of the branches of the Dravidian stock, is spokfin along the eastern coast of India from the neighbourhood of Pulicat to Chicacole. Inland it extends to the eastern boundary of the Maratha Country and Mysore, including within its range the ceded districts and Kurnool, the greater part of the territories of the Nizam, the Hyderabad Country and a portion of the Nagpore Country. This language is spoken by about 14 millions.

^
S%

3
<0

?;nga
CS cha

(ee)

2o

u
6

chha

to
1

(ee)

^
"^UiO

u (oo)
6 (66)
r
:

Kb

jha

3^
h

nya
t'a

6)

1^

ka

S
2
2
I

t'ha

^J kha

d'a

ga

d'ha
n'a(hard)

CUJ gha

gQ

45

BENGALI.
based on the Sevanagari character. In some instances the circular shape has been altered into an angular form, in others the form has been entirely changed. The Bengali language is less mixed than the neighbouring idioms.
This Alphabet
is

VOWELS.

. .

46

JAVANESE
ORDINARY LETTERS
Ordln.

INITIAL LETTERS
Ordin.

Form

Fasangans

Sound

Form

Fasangans

Sound

(Uin

-jin

.ha
.

ainn

Na

(K1

d
TO

nk

Tya.
.

aoi

.tya

(KV

Ka
Ta
(a'
,

in(Kin
(ki,'

.ra

i^
or

tim,

OA
.

sa

(10

^
(151,

da
,ta
.

(Ui

pa

(ism

Nya.
(lOJl
.

(KJI

Ga

(a
oaii

o
.la
-Jl

^
UNCONNECTED VOWELS,
pa
ga.

(U
(Ul

CT

a^

c,

CJ
(IK

(IIUI

ADDITIONAL CONSONANTS.
mill"

The following four

letters,

with the sign

a (Sastrosworo) as

dnm
(J1

nya

at the top, occur in

words derived from the Arabic,

.ma
.

there are no oonaonants in the Javanese Alphabet, which fully express these sounds.

am
Tfri
ICTl

ga

(KIT

Cha
fa

stands for thf Arabic

L'hd

.ba
cci'

(ui

NUMERALS.

.ta
03'

Ilk

za

j ze
ghain

(b'

nga

m
im

gha

Pa-tyere', re

ig

ll^jl

Qj

CL,

(I'Ul

(L\

aiui

Ngd-letet, 16

47

VOWELS
Form

AND DIACRITICAL SIGNS,

called Sandangan.

48
LIGATURES.
The following
ligatures consist of the (Vowel-) sings Suku, Tyohro, Keret

ordinary characters and Pamangans.

The

diacritical

and Pinhal combined with the marks are also added.

49

TIBETAN
Form

sss

50

cc

--3

"TS

--s

'TIS

pW

&C

t<

>^
<
o

rr

fe?

J
n
h

LP. IP

IP'.l5>'r>u-

t-00Ck

<-<^"^MMp^^^

i/i^o0'<

^^^ ^^>^^^^ ^S^\

s
!2i

03

J3

ee_^

U^

OS =3^3^=3

aS,'*.'^

'2^'^

H
uuniasQ ui su
OS (U
.rt

<^-

-i><

fee

,=3

.a

Ph

1^

<r

<-

1/

'

->'

I:

-t

"-t

<4>

5^

-t

>

^ ^

'J'

^.

"(i^

Cp

?p

<

< H

51

NH

to

H d 3 mo " Wo" gS ^ 5 h
fe
fl BO

5
W

-.s

'B
"^

5^
ft

ja

J
CO

9 h

<

g..

boo

5 Is

fl S SCO 73

-a .p
fi,

W OS

Q}

u B b

sere

khergen

+*

4 1

Of

J3-S

EH eScfl

B 3
^

<3

OJ
=i

(13

=>

-^

<^
00

(3 '(3

(^^

(^ '(^

(^^ C?^

c^(^4^ ^*-(^(^<^<?a
C5

cp(b(3(^ ?^(?'C^(^c^cB;t

<S(3'(3(r^^'^^^^

52

MONGOLIAN
CONSONANTS

53

ARMENIAN
Form

54

GEORGIAN.
The Georgian language
Mkhedruli
(or rather
is

written in two Alphabets.

is

The

ancient character, used in the

.

Bible and ecclesiastical works,

called

KhutSuri
printing.

(i. e

sacerdotal).

The

character

MkhedruU

kheli i.e. Soldier's hand) is used in ordinary writing

and

55

GREEK
Form

56

GEEEK LIGATURES
These contractions are peculiar

AifD

ABBREVIATIONS.
works.

to old editions of -Greek

They are no longer used

in

modern typography.

eivai

av a%

6/K,

el

V^

ell

>?
Cf4

av dno p
ag

It

e->^
cv

elatTOV
ev

oUi

ami
cum^
G

av avrov
avrvj
ft

71 EV

*v

f ya

7 ya
ya()

J=
-ye

rr rr
ys
ysi

yi

%
yr,

ysX

yeU. ytv
yf()

rv
yi^

yt

^
<yv

yiverai

yv
yo
y(j

y>

ryU

yv
yco

yd)

f^^

m
(J^

dsv
(Jfl Jior

dif
SI
1

57

ROMAIC
The Alphabet
(J

OR

MODERN GREEK.
which are the same
as in ancient Greek. S,

consists of the following 24 letters,

Aa, Bp, ry, A5, Es, ZS, Ht], 0^, It, Kx, AX,-M(jl, Nv, O 0, n TT, P p, 2 (final ?), T t, Y u, $ 9, X x, ^ 4^, 2
The Towels
are a, &,
r],

k,

i,

u, u

and

lu.

PRONUNCIATION.
A B
a (Alpha) short or long as in papa. P (Vita) is represented by 6A or o. In sound it differs slightly from the English v the mouth being somewhat rounded in the articulation of the Bomaic letter.
,

of ecu, Eu, ir)u sounds like before a vowel, or the soft and liquid letters p, y ^ '^j ^> [^ '^j Pf:t

01 is like ee

and

o'j

like 00 in pooeZ.

The diaeresis over the second vowel of diphthongs restores to each vowel its original sound; at, Qiu, si, sO are pronounced separately a-i, cc-u &c.
,

Y (Gamma) is an aspirate of g in go. In yy the nret gamma becomes naaal; oeyysXq?, for instance, is pronounced aiig-ye-los. It receives the same sound before the palatals x ^ and y^ as ocva-piT] (a-nang-ki). Before e i and u it is like y in yes. To produce the sound of our g in yrey^ the Modem Greeks use I'x as I'xpiixctp. ((xra/tam).
5 (Delta) is aspirated as ^A in e (Epsilon) as the e in pet.
^/te.

BREATHINGS and PUNCTUATION.

Z C e a
I

(Zita) like

3.

Ziot) (zo-I).

C2%;7a; llke (A in thick. t Ciota^ like i in machine when t is placed under the vowels as in a iq ip or by the side of capital

The Bomaic or Modern Greek admits like the ancient language two marks over initial vowels, namely the Smooth breathing Spirilus lenis ('), which is not noticed in reading, and the Rough breathing Spiritus asper ('), which in classical Greek takes the sound of our A, but is not audible in the modern language. The p, as an initial, is invariably marked with the rough breathing. In double p the first has the smooth and the second the rough
breathing.

The names of the

[AitJOffTiY(Ji.'n

stops are,
*

TEXetct, full

stop (),

vowels (Ai, Hi, il\) it is not sounded and only lengthens the principal vowel. This i is known
as the Iota subacriptum.

colon

uTioaTiYp^T)

or

{)7co8iffToX7)

comma

(,)

and

UTipi^Iov

spuiTi^asiu^

sign of inter-

K A

X (Kappa) like our k. It is softened after the nasal 7 hence ctYxXid is pronounced anglid. X (Lamvda) like I in long. sound of Hi in William.
|JL

Before

it

has the

(Mi) like m. Placed before*:, these two letters acquire the sound of b (jLTtnpoOtt (barooH). This combination of pm takes the sound of b in words received from foreign languages, but in compound Bomaic words, each letter retains its original pronunciation. Example [jL7k'Jp>j(i.ct (empee -rev -ma).

The mark of exclamation (I) is rogation (;) rarely used. To these signs must be added the apostrophe and the diaeresis. The former (') denotes the elision of one or more vowels. E. g. diC Epieva, d' Tjfic instead of aico etc. This elision of vowels' occurs even before consonants as 'an' ih instead of ccjCo to. In xav (instead of xal ccv) and xdvdvcci; (instead the mark (') denotes the coof kal av %y(i<i) etc alescence of vowels (xpdaiO and is called coronis. This mark is often used in contractions as [jlo-)xo,

'|iav

-0

y_i^i-

Placed before t, the two letters coalesce in the sound of d, which is articulated somewhat harder than the 5. For example UTi('/Ctut (diwani). vtC hAve conjointly the sound
V (Ni) is n.

E.

of j; as v-^c((jLi (Jami), When the letters v and form part of two syllables in a compound word, they retain their natural sound of nt. For example Before the vowel the v is evTifjLOc (en-timos).
i

prevents the union of diphthongs. sounds bo-ij-an-jis. Another mark of separation is the diastole (,), which resembles the comma, and is used to distinguish the pronoun ?, ti and the adverb to, it Irom the conjunction Sti and the adverb t6~s.
diaeresis
g.
\j.Tzrjictyx^riz

The

articulated like ni in opinion as

vititiu (n^ipto).

ACCENTS.
,

5 (^i) is

X.
in dot.

(Omikron) like

n
P
1

(Pi) like p. (Ho) like r in rod. If doublad, ithasasharper sound. a (Sigma) like in so. Before B, F, A, Z, A, M, N, V and in the proclitics (such as Toyi; to?) before the same consonants, the Sigma is sounded
Tz

hke z, as ^iJLupvTj (Zmimi). T T (Taph) is t. tC sounds sometimes

like ts, but

generally like c/j, as TCsXeTri)? (chelepis). with tC are mostly of foreign origin.

Words
TpuffXiov

indicated by three accents namely the circumfiex (icspitJiutoftivT)) ' or long accent, the acute (oYsia)' ox sharp accent, and the grave (popsTa)' or heavy accent in final syllables. Some monosyllabic words, being unaccented, are called atona. The circumflex can only be placed on the ultimate and penultimate syllable. When the vowel of a final syllable is long, tbe penultimate vowel cannot take the circumflex. A. word is termed perispom.enon, when it has the circumflex on its last syllable or if it is a monosyllable and is marked with this accent. When the circumflex occurs over the penult, the word is properispomenon.

The tone

is

T
<b

'J

(Ypsilon) lik y in Egypt.

For example

(trielion).

o (Phi) like / or ph.

y (Khi or Chi) like the

German

or Scotch ch.

The Acute takes its place in the penultimate and ante -penultimate syllable. Also on the final syllable at the end of a period, or when an enclitic follows (i, e, a word like uoO, [loi, (jle which throws its accent on the antecedent).

Before the vowels before e and i.

a, 0, Uj it is

more harsh than

W
Q
01

'^

(Psi) like

ps in

^ipsy.
0.

(u

(Omega)
(a).

is

the long

The following
and ou

are diphthongs ai, ao, st, eu, t/j, Ai sounds like c in ethics. The y

When the final syllable is long, the acute cannot revert to the ante -penultimate. When the acute occurs in a monosyllable or in a final syllable, the word is called oxytononj the penultimate, thus accented, is cailed paroxytonon; and the ante -penultimate with the acute is proparoxytonon.

58

OLD-SLAVONIC

(CYRILLIC).

Based on the most ancient MSS, and cut under the direction of the I. B. Aulic Councillor Dr. Paul Jos. Schafahik t the type- factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohme in Prague.

59

GLAGOLITIC.
According
to ancient

JISS

(sec.

XI XII)

of Gottlieb

designed by Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarjk, cut at the type-factory Haase Sohke in Prague.

Form

60

CROATO GLAGOLITIC.
Designed from Croatian

MSS and

printed works by Dr.

Paul

Jos. Schafaieik; cut at the type-

factory of

GOTTMEB Haasb Sohhe

in Prague.

Form
iTi

Name

Num:
Value
value

61

RUSSIAN
Form
Straight
Italic

Name

Value

Observations

A
B
B r

E
at

e
5K

62

RUSSIAN
Observations
attended by i, .1 final, sounds very hard. accented, sounds like the oinjTo. When unaccented it is pronounced like the a in
far.

CURRENT HAND

t^ jt

oc Ob

mm y
1/

Y y

a stronger guttural than ch in the Scotch loctt.

is
II
.

like tz in Fritz.

T &^
S &

n e
J' t

B
r

B
r

X X XX
4
"r

-a.

ordinarily like ch in church. In 4to (what) and before n it takes the sound oish. cousists of the sounds oish-ch. notion of its pronunciation may be formed by a connected articulation of the letters sh-chi in the

A ^ ^^
e e
aic

e
H{

da iMy r

%
3

words English children.

consonant produces a hard and ringing
after a final

3 3

/ .% 7i M U

H
I

H
i

sound.

is

placed at the end of

it

J ^
Jb
ZJL

words where

m Ma
^ 6
3

in m tu mm III m Of mm
fi(

bl

softens the
,

preceding consonant and adds to it the sound of ye, such as is heard in theFrench pronunciation of Charlemagne. In the middle of a word, mostly between two consonants, it is uttered with a slight sound of ee. Bi is identical with the Polish ^, and somewhat like the English we, when rapidly
articulated.
b

Tb
fJL

n
Ji
tA,

K 1

n a

^
cr

j(k

%M
n
H,

M
H

M
H

WW
9L
Jlo

a
10

/o
ji

K)k)

o o

e e e e 31 n as an initial like yai. of this diphthong is also sounded in the middle \ 1) P P .ft' of a syllable after n, but is scarcely audible after the e c C c other consonants. 3 This reversed e is the initial of words in Latin words as AHHHCaa'B, Hannibal. 2) c commencing with the sound ai. It occurs in before e, i, y, sounding like the German z or foreign words in which, it replaces oe. tz, is expressed by b, as I^HqepoB'B, and before

The y

J,

c r

sounds like etc. In foreign words it is similar to the French . H when accented, sounds like ja in yard. In

a, u, uhy k, as Ko.l.ieria. 3) x is expressed by KC, as AjeKClH (Alexius). 4) / and the German v are changed into <&, as j'pnApiix'B

sounds ye. After pronounced like e in met. As a final letter it takes the sound of ya in yard. e represents the same Greek letter but is pronounced like F. In modern derivations from the Greek it is replaced by F. Y only occurs in Greek words. At the beginning of a word or after a consonant it sounds like ee, and after a vowel like v. The letters h, e, x,f, do not occur in the Russian alphabet. They are represented as follows: 1) h is replaced by r, as in TaMSypri.
initial syllables it
it is

unaccented consonants

Frederick.

DIPHTHONGS.
Proper diphthongs are only formed .by the h following a vowel; This letter receives in such a casS a
characteristic sign at the top
(fi).

aii efi

in

oft yfi utft

tH

The diphthongs aft loft an.

are

ACCENTS.
The stress of an accented vowel is indicated by the acute (') and the grave (\). The former denotes the raising, the latter the depression of the tone. The accents are only then marked iu writing, when corresponding forms are to be distinguished from one another. They are placed over the following vowels

/fojniMz-jr,

or

it is

omitted altogether, especially

aenioyu'BaAv.

63
.

SERVIAN.
in Iieipzio.)

ILLYHIAN.
Nr. I represents the "organic" orthography now and used in Boman-Catholic publications Nrs. in are to some extent current in Slavonia,
;

(Modern form, cut by r. Bosch

This language is divided into the dialects of the Herzegovina, of Bessava and Syimia. The Servians use the
Slavonic (Cyrillic), the Croats and Wends the characters.

Boman
11.

Croatia and Dalmatia.

Cyrillic

Latin

Pronunciation
a

ni.
a

Pronunciation

A
B B
r

a 6 B
r

A
B V G D E

b
V

b
c

b
c

b
cz

The Vowels
Italian.

a, o, u,

i,

e sound as in German or

ch
CS

cb
es

A
^
E
3

d
dy, Hungarian gy

d
dj

d
dj

d
dy
e
i

all

e as a medial, follows the consonants except

It

gutturals.
final letter
initial.
I

rarely

is a

%
e
e

m
H
I

e
j

e
in

e e
f

Its

and never an general sound

(in yes). In

m
3

Z
Z
I

z
z
i

French

e
f

e
f

is lilie

ye
it

the dialect of the Herze-

Z
i

govina

has the same

H
i

g
gj

g
gj

g gy

pronunciation

when

not
it

lengthened, otherwise

y y

h
i

h
i

h
i

sounds
with

like

ee combined

K
L
Lj

k
1

k
1

A M H
H>

k
I

k
1

k
I

A M
H
H.

ye, as is heard in see yet. Before i, like y In the Syrmian in ye. dialect it varies between

ayandee.
dialect
it

In

theRessava
(in

Ji> Jb

Ij

ly, iti- gl. gli

lj

lj

ly

almost invariably

M m
N
Nj

m
n

m
n
Ital.

m
n
nj

m
n

sounds
This e
ie.

like
is

ay

nay).

now often spelled

n
nj

andFr.

ng

nj

ny
c
is like

ts in lots.

c and

tj

almost

like ts.

n
P
C

P
r
s

P
r

n
p
c

The

difference

between
is,

p
r
s
t

p
r
s

r
s s
I

these spellings

that

R
S

ss sz

can be used indiscHminately,

sh
t

sc
t

and

tj

only in derived

words.

I
lj

b
X n

ch
u V
z

t\

c
dj

like j in jar.

"ly.

'j

u
V
z

u
V
z

and gj are
jar.

nearly

y y
X n

U
F

u
f

like j in
lj

like like

Hi

in

William.

H
C

h
Is

nj

ni in opinion.

dz
z

dx ex

ds

s like sh.

mm

C
s
S6
1
1(5

like s in

measure.
jar.

ch sh
shell
hardening suffix

dz

like j in

mm
bl
bi

r has the power both of a consonant and a vowel. As a consonant it sounds as in other languages. As
a vowel
it

forms a separate syllable and

is

pronounced

with a very slight sound of e.

i

ee, French

this syllable varies.

Some

spell

The orthography of it er, the Ragusans

r,

softening suffix

ar.

Others omit a and e and simply write

r.

others

% e
K)

again write

u
e
H)

Je je e Je
je

ie

ye, ie
ye
yfl

Accents used
Icnglh
(')
;

in Servian

acute

(>);

sign of

Ju ju
Ja
,ja

or '^ sign of brevity.

H e

a
e

ya
j

Dz dz Th th

th

64

WALLACHIAN
Form

Name

65

POLISH
a
like

66

SORBIAN
TliB vowels are:
in e.

OR
i.

WENDISH OF LUSATIA.
The union of a
.mil

3)

h with e; w with a O u. The consonants are divided 1) into Labials w, f, V, b, p, m. 2) Palatals and Linguals n, 1, r. Dentals d, t, (5. 4) Sibilants z Z, s , c c. 5) Gutturals h ch (g) k. With regard to tlieir articulation these consonants are divided into broad and slender sounds, accordThe semi-consonant
j
is

a, o, u, y, e,

o makes 6; O an J u form 6; e and

coalesce

connected with i;

ing as they are hardened or softened in their utterance.

Broad sounds: w, w, b,
Slender sounds:
Between these
letters nine

b, z, z, d, dz, dz, h, g.
s, s, t, c,
(5,

f,

v, p, p,

c, ds, ts, oh, k.

intermediates

talte their

place:

m,
,

ii'i,

n, n,

1', 1, i,

r,

r.

The whole Alphabet thus consists of

e> i; J)

the following 8 vowels

iii,

and 32 consonants.
i',z,

w, w

(f,

v) b,

b',

p,p, m,

n,

ii, }, 1, (l'), i

z,s,

s,

(6) o, 6, u, y , d, dz, dz, t, c, c*^,

e,

o,

ts,h, ch, g,
In

k.
\Yith a \o\vel to for.m

combining one consonant or several consonants

a syllable, a distinction

is

made

between

hard soft

and neutral consonants.

is to

At the same time the following rule

derivation,

be observed.

In the grammatical comhination.s of structure,

declension, comparison

and conjugation the vowel

cannot follow a soft consonant, nor can

e and

follow a

hard
j vv

consonant, whilst the neutral consonants

may he succeeded by

either

or

i.

In

conformily with this rule are reckoned as

Soft,

b'

ji

in

r z s c

d^

c.

Hard,

r z

d dz

t c

(h ch g k).
ts.

Neutral,
The
letters

b p

n ds

qu

and x,

in

words of foreign

origin, are spelled

kw

kwas. Also g occurs

only in foreign words.

and f are found

in hut

and ks, as kwadrat, Aleksander, few vernacular terms.

PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS.

(acute)

The accented characters e and i this accent

w
is

b p

lit

differ

from the unaccented

'

in softness of sound.
to soften the

Before e

unnecessary, because these vowels are sufficient

preceding

consonants.
I sounds like V.

In the north-eastern part of the country

it

is

pror.ounced like a harsh

1,

For instance

colo.

dz dz
z

as

in

English, but without a break between the two letters.

in

E.xaniple

na

iidzy.

like in

z as

gentle, as dzera, nadzya. English, f. i. zuby.

like the s in pleasure,

f.

i.

zolty.

s like

sh,

f.

i.

saty, sery.
in churn,
f.
i.

like

ts, as
like

cybac.

c nearly
ds, ts

ch
f.

cern.
in

c the sharpest
like ts,

sibilant like
i.

tch

wretch,

f.

i.

corny.
at

ch

is

tsiha6. frequently pronounced hard,

like

c before a, O, u, especially

the beginning of words, for

instance
j like

chory.
yes.

in

s like z.

w like

V.

PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS.

a
e
i is

as the vowels in
.

are

here true.
,

acute

grave

or long.

After

c z

it

is

often pronounced like y.

acute grave or lengthened.

6 deep nearly
e
like

like u.

ea

in

dear.

deep as ea in dearth.

67

CZECHIAN

OR

BOHEMIAN.
u

Boman.

abcdefghchijklmnoprstuvyz aeioiiy
C

D'

d'

Gs

r-

tit'

German.

abcbcf9l)^ijflmnoprftuoi)j
q
and

de'idup u
kv
as

only ocrur in foreign words,

qu

is

generally replaced by

kvitance

(rcccipl)-

Some

writer^ use

for

and

ou

for

au.

The accenied vowels a e

e

u y

and

fi

are long

like

y, as
i

jaro

(pr.

yaro)

springtime,
ii,

witliout accent iheir pronunciation is

i i

short.

n
o

before

i,*or

when marked

sounds

like

ni

in

are termed soft vowels.

Tlie others are hard.

opinion.
as in of. as in
is

h ch k
c c d'
j

r arc hard consonants.

f s t z are

soft

and
called inJednite

door.
o
(in

bdfglmnp
consonants.

stvzare

ou

a diphthong which blends the sound of

pole) with
as s (in t

(in

put). These vowels retain

their

separate pronunciation in verbs with prefi.ted

po,

THE FOLLOWING SOUNDS DIFFER FROM THE ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION.

a sounds
a
like

poubrati (po-u-bra-ti).
German type
i
ff,

and as a

final, g) like

sh

in fish.

like the first

in

papa,

before

i, or

when marked

t, sounds like a t with

in

father.
like ts, as

which the semi-vowel

coalesces, as tulipan (pron.

tyoo-le-pan)

luhp.

c even before k, sounds

Ijie

necky

(nets-kii)

tray.

u
ii

as in

put.
ft

like

ch
is

in
i i

church.
or

and
like

long as in blue.
in the

before

when marked with

its

the liquifying sign

French pure.

(d)

sounded dy.

This consonantal

is

softly

z as in English but.
7.

blended with

d, as div or

diw

(pronounced

like s in

measure.

dyiv).

e e

like like

in

den.
1)
It

ORTHOEPIC RULES.
The vowels with
the long accent (') should not

in late.
in

S as

ye

m,
a

can only occur after v, f, b, p, n, d, t with which it coalesces. As vek (vyek)

yet.

be lengthened
2)

to e.\cess.

century.
like

the affix sky, as

The consonants s, s, vessky.

j
,

z, z,

become mute before

cy

in

late followed by
This final
It

in

yet

as

woley

3)

The consonant
is

as an initial before another

(call thou).

forms a distinct sound.

consonant,
lable

not pronounced, as
in

jscm. When
the j

a syl-

g
h

as in

garnet.

only occurs in foreign words.

ending

vowel precedes,

becomes

audible.

aspirated at the beginning and in the middle of a

word
what

like

in

house. At

the

end of a syllable

it

4)
like

The compounds to ds and ts are pronounced

c; ds and ts,
like c.

partakes of the guttural sound of

softer than

ch and
loch.

is

some-

ch

in the Scotch

5) Prepositions

consisting of a simple consonant,

ch
i
i

like

ch

in

the Scotch

word loch,

as

chleb

' (bread).

such as k, s, V, z, although standing by themselves, do not form a syllable, hut are sounded together with
the first syllable of the nctt word, for instance

k tobe

as in grin.
like

ee

in

green.

These unconnected propositions cannot he placed by themselves at Ibe end of a line or a page.
B naini.

68

6)

The

auxiliary verb,
ilic

jsem,
ilie

jsi,

jest-jsme,

to ascertain the

component

syllables.

In this language

jste, jsou,

conjuncu'onal particles

bych, bys,
pronouns
blended

by,
se
,

bychom,
in

byste, by, and

reflcciive

most syllables end in vowels, The following circumstances must be noticed in applying this rule,
1)

si allacJiocl

an aclive

|iarticiple, are

A
a

consonant placed between ^wo vowels or be-

togeiher

the pronunciaUon and joined by a hyphen.

the case

tween

vowel and

or r, joins the next syllable.

The same

is

nouns or adjectives. 7) The soft consonants must bo carefully disting:uished in articulation from the indefinites, and the i
i

when si, se are postpositions of E. g. shledam-se, modllci-Se.

Example: stra-ka, ba-vl-na.

2)

Of several conson.ints, followed by

a vowel, only

the last consonant goes to the nq.tt syllable;

yet sk,

e must properly coalesce with the latter. 8) The sibilants o s z differ from each other as well as from c s z. 9) h is never mute. Example hrom (thunder) in which the h sounds as the h in the Scotch pronunciation of
10)

sk, st, ^t are not separated but join the next, syllable. In such mstances the preceding syllable is often without a vowef, while 1 or r forms the medial consonant.

Example, hrn-cif.
3) 1,

r, f, with a vowel after, are joined by the

which.

preceding consonant in forming

rule

The accent always rests on the first syllable, as be-zim, pri-nesu. The accented syllable may at the same lime be lengthened, as sna-zim, kra-sa.

forms an exception.

ofrc syllable. To this The consonants sk, sk,

Ive

st, st

must without separation

annexed

to the syl-

lable

which follows.

Example, kno-flik, zei-dlik,

DIVISION OF SYLLABLES.
In
to the

sve-tlo, han-li-vy.
4)

words which are

diflicult

to

pronounce, owing
it

Compound words
parts, as

are divided according to their

complication of consonants,

is

of importance

component

ou-voz, na-dvo-H.

HUNGARIAN.
bet.

The Hungarian language comprises 31 sonants which are expressed by Owing to the combinations of some letters the Alphabet is formed as

the

Roman

Alpha-

follows:

abcsczdefggyhijkllymnnyooprssz
t

ty

ii

V z

zs.

vowels d

The vowels a e i o 6 u ii, are sounded e I 6 u it are lengthened.

es cz

as in

German.

With

the accent at the top the

The combinations
in spelling.

gy

ly

ny

sz ty zs represent single articulations and are inseparable

*
cs sounds like ch as kocsi.
.

cz

a
1)

)i

ts as

czukor.
.
:

gy
ly

di in the French word Dieu, as gydr.

il in the

i
"

ny
:

ni in

French word email, as homdly. opinion, as any a.

"

sz ty

s as szag.
ti in

II

the French metier as tyuk.

zs

1)

in the

French word jour as zsdk.

be noticed that,

'

With regard
j

to the consonants is to

is

pronounced

like

in yes,

and

s like the English sh, as sas.

The

letters c

ch q

are only found In foreign words, for instance Cato, Achilles.

'

y does not represent an independent sound, but simply helps to soften the antecedent letter. Nevertheless in Old-Hungari^n words y and ch are employed as independent letters.

The former then sounds

lijfe i

in it,

and ch as

in church.

For example Pdlffy, Forga^h.,

rejects

The compounds
this

and cz are often denoted by tS and tz. Modern Orthography spelling except in words where the t is radical, as bardtsdg (not baracsag).
cs

69

LETTISH.
The Lets have adopted
the following 22 letters of the

German Alphabet,

abcbegnj.JIiinoprfStuwj.
The c and b are only used in combination with f to express the sounds of (c^ and fc^). moreover serves to lengthen the vowels. The German consonants ^ The b never f occur in Lettish. Nor are o and ii in use. The q y ^ are represented by flu, U, i. By means of the 22 characters the following 34 simple sounds of the I^ettish language
\) (?)

are formed.

obbibegs@ji!l^ttgmmiu3?op^3JrrSi
f

bf fc^

bf(^

(s) fdj

tfc^

ft)

iDJ

i.

PRONUNCIATION OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS.

e i

u are short.

When

lengthened they are marked thus,

A

A
t

a
The
accented
is
o(;

u
mark
to distinguish the

always long, nevertheless

it

receives the lengthening

and

from the lighter

o.

PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS.

There are six diphthongs in this language, oi au ct oi Ut ee. The first five are pronounced as in German. Although at and et are naturally long they occur with the circumflex The diphthong oi only appears in the word IBOi. When au and ui are to become ai ci. separate syllables the it and i are marked with the diaeresis aii, uV. Peculiar is the sound of ee; jt passes from the articulation of ce (such as is heard iu the German word @ee or in the
,

English word say) to an intermediate sound, such as

is

heard in the second a of advantage.

CONSONANTS.
The following
y;
letters

sounds as

U,

and

have the English sound, bblmnlJrt. The j is a consonant like our like t6. The labials 6 m ^ lU may be followed by the modifying j,

which
after
it.

like the Russian x, helps to soften the consonant

It

and causes a slight

i-

to ring
letter.

cannot be separated from the consonant nor uttered as an indepeudeut

t

tnx

are virgulated as

i=,

instead of being followed by

j.

Besides theseletters the follow-

ing four are virgulated.

g like the German { before e and t; g i hard like k iri Jcing, f as c in come,
f,
f

is

like

before a

U.

cut.
f.

sharp like our

soft like

s.
j.

is

the final of this sharp

is

our

bf
fd^

form an inseparable sound

like the soft Italian z.

sharp like the Russian in and the English sh.

j.

The

virgnla of

and

fd;

does not

indicate the sound of an inherent

It only helps to distingjiish the sharply pro\i),

nounced consonant from the

at or the
tfd^ is

soft

and

the latter

is

pronounced like the Russian

French^

in

jour.

like the English ch

and

bfd^ like

in gentle.

PRONUNCIATION. OF SUCCESSIVE CONSONANTS.

Two
what
or

more Consonants, joined together in one

its

syllable or in

two

syllables,

must be
is

so articulated that each should retain

ti\pdified

original and independent sound.

letters
,

The n
its

someis

by the g and t. It being assimilated with these that in the English words sing, sink (not as in tingle, tinkle).

sound
{

like

When

and

are

marked

with the cross -stroke the

with the foregoing rules.

It

is

likewise virgulated,' and

is

then pronounced in accordance

70

GERMAN
%
b
31
ci

^ ^

t
(3^

ii

ff

S^

'J

3 S

k
1

J-

3K

tn

71

DANISH
1
a

72

SWEDISH.
The Alphabet
consists of the following

28

letters,

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hli li Jj Kk LI Mm Nn Oo 6. Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Xx Yy Zz Aa Aa
PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS.
The vowels a o u d are hard and e i y & 6 German or Italian, a is like a in bare, a like o
,

are soft.
in tone.

The vowels a i u sound as in The e sounds as a in ale. 1) when

end of a

forming an independent syllable, Ex: e-vig

(spirit). 3)

like ai in

many monosyllabic words, air. 1) before/ Imnr, when

In
</

inflections, derivations

syllable, Ex: ande and compounds, e sounds the next syllable of the same word is a consonant,
(eternal). 2) at the

many monosyllables, as elg (elk). These rules when it constitutes a syllable by itself, or at the end of a word also before the radical m, in nouns and adjectives; in all derivatives of words ending in o; before x and in various other forms of words. 2) o Ijas
as efter (after). 2) before^' as nej (no). 3) in
1)

have many exceptions, o has two sounds,

;

nearly as in move,

a lengthened sound before a

final /,

and a sharp sound

(as in not) before

m np r
sound

t.

is

mostly lengthened (nearly like the French eu in lewr) as do

(to die), or the

is

sharper

and quicker, as for

(for).

There are no diphthongs

in this language.

CONSONANTS.
b retains
C before
its

'

ordinary sound.

like

2/

in yes. Aiter

fmnp the j
like the

is elea,Tly

k stands for Jck. Before h it ojlly occurs in the Swedish word Och (pronounced ock). Before the soft vowels it k
like

articulated and the preceding consonant

has a very slight pronunciation. As a

letter it is

final

somewhat

German
vowels

eh.

sounds likes, before the hard vowels like S.

1) as in English. It is subject to the

same
it

d sounds
silent.

our d.

Before
like n.

t like f.

As a
it is

rules as g.
is like

2) before the

soft

final after

n almost

Before J

our ch.
mute.

In kjortel the k sounds

like

t.

as in Englifib. -At-the end of a

word

like v.

before j

is

In the middle of a word before v of the same syllable, also after I and r, it is mute

m
'

as in English.

The

final

sounds like

two

m in those

radical

worHs which, on

Ex: kalfven (pron. kalven).

separate syllables retain

f and

v of

being inflected, are spelled with double m.

their

original

Ex: lam (pron. lamtm).

sounds. Ex: drifved

(=

driv-ved).

g
,

with V after, sounds like kv.

sk before soft vowels
likewise pro-

1) as in i

good before a hard vowel, before

unaccented syllable
sir

r and s as inlBnglish. stj, sj, skj like sh.

is

and

e in a sharp

the end, and before a consonant of the

nounced as
t

sh.

same
soft

syllable. 2) like
,

y
I

in yes, before the

r.

as in English, tj like ch in church. Hon,

vowels and after

and

Ex ge (like
:

with a hard vowel before

it,

like schone,

ya).
tions.

Of

this rule there are

3) like

ck

wheh a

some excepfollows. Ex:

and

after a

consonant like shone.

V as in English. The word vonis pronounced

sagt (=sackt). 4) like ng when a syllable ends gn as vagn (pronounced vangn).

fon as
is

in

German from which language

*

it

borrowed.
like ks.

5) before J it is

mute. Ex: gjort {pr.jort).

it is

X
Z

is

is

aspirated, before j and v

mute.

is

pronounced

like

s.

73

ANGLO-SAXON.
The Anglo-Saxon language developed
the
itself

from

Low-German (Old-Saxon)

idiom, which was infifih

troduced in England hy the Saxons in or hefore the

century.
tivated

In the ninth century this language

was

cul-

the

in writing, and obtained currency through agency of laws and translations. In the eleventh century, with the overthrow of the Saxon dynasty and the commencement of the Norman rule French became the language of the court and of judicial pro,

The knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language was confined to the dependent classes and to the residents of convents. In the thirteenth century, when this idiom once more became popular, it had received such an amount of foreign elements, and had lost so
ceedings.

many

native characteristics, that

it

could only he con-

sidered as a mixed dialect, out of which the

modern

English language was gradually formed.

Aa
a e
in

PRONUNCIATION.
i

o u have German or
the

the

same sound

as

Italian.

y
SB

has
lish.

same

force

as in

Eng-

sounds as a

in

that.

The Consonants have

c
is

the following

peculiarities of pronunciation,
in all instances hard like k.

cw

stands for

kw.
a final like v.

f between two vowels or as

letter is

pronounced
like-

is

always

the
5

modern g

in

go. Qccasionally
of g. of

occurs instead

This letter takes the sound

in

yes.

eg
Ij,

is

used instead of gg.

a strong aspirate.

is

As

a final

of a syllable and before a con-

sonant ch.

it

resembles the German

hw
is 1,

answers
also

to the

English

wh. h

found before the liquids

n, I.
1.

w
J>
<!r

sometimes precedes r and

(tha) hard, like (eth) soft, like
|)

th

in

thick.

is

the initial

th in this. Usually and <!r the tiual of

a syllable.

^
-j5

and

slands for and.

stands for pset.

for

i stands

oMe.
its

The accent

{')

over a vowel denples

length. In

words of equal spelling this accent points out the For instance ac difference of sound and meaning. The elision of m and n is indi(but, eke) ac (ooli).
cated by a short line
(-)

over the antecedent

letter.

74

GOTHIC
Form

75

RUNES
Form

Name

Value

76