England in the Prado

Amalia Gallego

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Contents
Articles
Mary I of England Charles I of England James I of England Endymion Porter Anthony van Dyck Thomas Gainsborough Joshua Reynolds Thomas Lawrence Pompeo Batoni Antonis Mor 1 16 42 62 64 73 78 86 94 97

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 104 107

Article Licenses
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Mary I of England

Mary I of England
Mary I

Queen Mary by Hans Eworth Queen of England and Ireland (more...) Reign Coronation Predecessor Successor 19 July 1553 17 November 1558 1 October 1553 Jane (disputed) or Edward VI Elizabeth I
[1]

Co-monarch Philip Queen consort of Spain Tenure Spouse House Father Mother Born Died Burial Signature 16 January 1556 17 November 1558 Philip II of Spain House of Tudor Henry VIII of England Catherine of Aragon 18 February 1516 Palace of Placentia, Greenwich 17 November 1558 (aged42) Saint James's Palace, London 14 December 1558
[2]

Westminster Abbey, London

Mary I (18 February 1516 17 November 1558) was Queen regnant of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. She was the eldest daughter of Henry VIII and only surviving child of Catherine of Aragon. As the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty, she is remembered for restoring England to Roman Catholicism after succeeding her short-lived Protestant half brother, Edward VI. In the process, she had almost 300 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian Persecutions, earning her the sobriquet of "Bloody Mary". Her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her successor and half-sister, ElizabethI.

Mary I of England

Birth and family

Mary was the only child of King Henry VIII of England and Ireland and his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive infancy. Her mother had many miscarriages,[3] and Mary had been preceded by a stillborn sister and three short-lived brothers, including Henry, Duke of Cornwall.[4] Through her mother, she was a granddaughter of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. She was born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, and was baptised three days later at the Church of the Observant Friars.[5] Her godparents included her great-aunt the Countess of Devon, Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey, and the Duchess of Norfolk.[6] The King's cousin once removed Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury, stood sponsor for Mary's confirmation, which was held immediately after the baptism.[7] The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon.[8] In 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed as Mary's governess.[9] Sir John Hussey, later Lord Hussey, was her chamberlain, and his wife, Lady Anne, daughter of George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent, was one of Mary's attendants.[10]

Education and marriage plans

Mary was a precocious child.[11] It was said that the princess was very beautiful in her youth, as a child and young woman. A great part of her early education came from her mother, who consulted the Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives for advice.[12] By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin.[13] She studied Greek, music, and dance. In July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals (a type of harpsichord).[14] Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, "This girl never cries";[15] he would sometimes show delight in her developing musical skills.[16] Despite this obvious affection, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years, it was apparent that her mother would have no more children, and it looked likely that Henry would have no legitimate male heir. In 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Council of Wales and the Marches.[17] She was given her own court based at Ludlow Castle and many of the Royal Prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales. Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title.[18]
Queen Catherine of Aragon

Mary I of England

Throughout Mary's childhood, Henry negotiated potential future marriages for her. When she was only two years old she was promised to the Dauphin, the infant son of King Francis I of France, but after three years the contract was repudiated.[20] In 1522, at the age of six, she was instead contracted to marry her 22-year-old first cousin, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.[21] However, within a few years, the engagement was broken off by Charles with Henry's agreement.[22] Cardinal Wolsey, Henry's chief adviser, then resumed marriage negotiations with the French, and Henry suggested that Mary marry the Dauphin's father, King Francis I himself, who was eager for an alliance with England.[23] A marriage treaty was signed which provided that Mary marry either Francis I or his second son Henry, Duke of Orleans,[24] but Wolsey secured an alliance with France without the marriage.

Portrait miniature of Mary at the time of her engagement to Charles V. She is wearing a square brooch inscribed with "The [19] Emperour".

Adolescence
Meanwhile, the marriage of Mary's parents was in jeopardy. Disappointed at the lack of a male heir, and eager to re-marry, Henry attempted to have his marriage to Catherine annulled, but Pope Clement VII refused his requests. Henry claimed, citing biblical passages (Leviticus 20:21), that his marriage to Catherine was unclean because she was previously married, at age 16 and briefly, to his late brother Arthur. Catherine claimed that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated, and so was not a valid marriage. Indeed, her first marriage had been annulled by a previous Pope, Julius II, on that basis. Clement may have been reluctant to act because he was influenced by Charles V, Catherine's nephew and Mary's former betrothed, whose troops had surrounded and occupied Rome in the War of the League of Cognac.[25] From 1531, Mary was often sick with irregular menstruation and depression, although it is not clear whether this was caused by stress, puberty or a more deep-seated disease.[26] She was not permitted to see her mother, who was sent by Henry to live away from court.[27] In 1533, Henry married Anne Boleyn, who was pregnant with his child. Shortly thereafter, Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury, formally declared the marriage with Catherine void, and the marriage to Anne valid. Henry broke with the Roman Catholic Church and declared himself head of the Church of England and the Church of Ireland. Catherine was demoted to Dowager Princess of Wales (a title she would have held as the widow of Arthur), and Mary was deemed illegitimate. She was styled "The Lady Mary" rather than Princess, and her place in the line of succession was transferred to her newborn half-sister, Elizabeth, Anne's daughter.[28] Mary's own household was dissolved;[29] she was expelled from Court; her servants (including the Countess of Salisbury and Mary's favourite maid Susan Clarencieux) were dismissed from her service, and in December 1533 she was sent to serve as a lady-in-waiting to Elizabeth.[30] Mary determinedly refused to acknowledge that Anne was the Queen or that Elizabeth was a princess, further enraging the King.[31] Under strain and with her movements restricted, Mary was frequently ill, which the royal physician attributed to her "ill treatment".[32] Circumstances between Mary and her father worsened; they did not speak to each other for three years.[33] Although both she and her mother were ill, Mary was refused permission to visit Catherine.[34] When Catherine died in 1536, Mary was "inconsolable".[35] Catherine was interred in Peterborough Cathedral while Mary grieved in semi-seclusion at Hunsdon in Hertfordshire.[36]

Mary I of England

Womanhood
In 1536, Anne Boleyn fell from the King's favour and was beheaded. Elizabeth, like Mary, was downgraded to the status of Lady and removed from the line of succession.[37] Within two weeks of Anne's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane urged her husband to make peace with Mary.[38] Henry insisted that Mary recognise him as head of the Church of England, repudiate papal authority, acknowledge that the marriage between her parents was unlawful, and accept her own illegitimacy. She attempted to reconcile with him by submitting to his authority as far as "God and my conscience" permitted, but she was eventually bullied into signing a document agreeing to all of Henry's demands.[39] Reconciled with her father, Mary resumed her place at court.[40] Rebels in the North of England, including Lord Hussey, Mary's former chamberlain, campaigned against Henry's religious reforms, and one of their demands was that Mary be made legitimate. The rebellion, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, was ruthlessly suppressed.[41] Along with other rebels, Hussey was executed. The following year, 1537, Queen Jane died after giving birth to a son, Edward. Mary was made godmother to her half-brother Edward and acted as chief mourner at the Queen's funeral.[42] Henry granted her a household (which included the reinstatement of Mary's favourite Susan Clarencieux), and Mary was permitted to reside in royal palaces. Her privy purse expenses for nearly the whole of this period have been published and show that Hatfield House, the Palace of Beaulieu (also called Newhall), Richmond and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence. Her expenses included fine clothes, and gambling, which was one of her favourite pastimes.[43] She was courted by Duke Philip of Bavaria, but Philip was Lutheran and his suit for her hand was unsuccessful.[44] Over 1539, the King's chief minister, Thomas Cromwell, negotiated a potential alliance with the Duchy of Cleves. Suggestions that Mary marry the Duke of Cleves, who was the same age as her, came to nothing, but a match between Henry and the Duke of Cleves' sister Anne was agreed.[45] When the King saw Anne for the first time in late December 1539, a week before the scheduled wedding, he did not find her attractive but was unable, for diplomatic reasons and in the absence of a suitable pretext, to cancel the marriage.[46] Cromwell fell from favour and was arrested for treason in June 1540; one of the unlikely charges against him was that he had plotted to marry Mary himself.[47] Anne consented to the annulment of the marriage, which had not been consummated, and Cromwell was beheaded.[48]

Henry VIII

Mary I of England

In 1541, Henry had Mary's old governess and godmother, Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury, executed on the pretext of a Catholic plot, in which Margaret's son (Reginald Pole) was implicated. Her executioner was "a wretched and blundering youth" who "literally hacked her head and shoulders to pieces".[49] In 1542, following the execution of Henry's fifth wife, Catherine Howard, the unmarried Henry invited Mary to oversee the royal Christmas festivities "in default of a Queen". At court, while her father was between marriages and without a consort, Mary acted as hostess.[50] In 1543, Henry married his sixth and last wife, Catherine Parr, who was able to bring the family closer together.[51] Henry returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession, through the Act of Succession 1544, placing them after Edward. However, both women remained legally illegitimate.[52] In 1547, Henry died and Edward succeeded as Edward VI. Mary Mary in 1544 inherited estates in Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex, and was granted Hunsdon and Beaulieu as her own.[53] Since Edward was still a child, rule passed to a regency council dominated by Protestants, who attempted to establish their faith throughout the country. For example, the Act of Uniformity 1549 prescribed Protestant rites for church services, such as the use of Thomas Cranmer's new Book of Common Prayer. Mary remained faithful to Roman Catholicism, and appealed to her cousin Charles V for protection so that she was able to practice her religion privately in her own chapel.[54] For most of Edward's reign, Mary remained on her own estates, and rarely attended court.[55] A plan between May and July 1550 to smuggle her out of England to the safety of the European mainland came to nothing.[56] Religious differences between Mary and Edward continued. When Mary was in her thirties, she attended a reunion with Edward and Elizabeth for Christmas 1550, where 13-year-old Edward embarrassed Mary, and reduced both her and himself to tears in front of the court, by publicly reproving her for ignoring his laws regarding worship.[57] Mary repeatedly refused Edward's demands that she abandon Catholicism, and Edward repeatedly refused to drop his demands.[58]

Accession
On 6 July 1553, at the age of 15, Edward VI died from a lung infection, possibly tuberculosis.[59] Edward did not want the crown to go to Mary, who he feared would restore Catholicism and undo his reforms, as well as those of Henry VIII. For this reason, he planned to exclude her from the line of succession. However, his advisors told him that he could not disinherit only one of his sisters, but that he would have to disinherit Elizabeth as well, even though she embraced the Church of England. Guided by John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, and perhaps others, Edward excluded both of his sisters from the line of succession in his will.[60]

Mary I of England

In contradiction of the Succession Act, which restored Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession, Edward VI and his advisors devised that he be succeeded by Dudley's daughter-in-law Lady Jane Grey, the granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France. Lady Jane's mother was Frances Brandon, who was Mary's cousin and goddaughter. Just before Edward VI's death, Mary was summoned to London to visit her dying brother. She was warned, however, that the summons was a pretext on which to capture her and thereby facilitate Lady Jane's accession to the throne.[61] Instead of heading to London from her residence at Hunsdon, Mary fled into East Anglia, where she owned extensive estates and Dudley had ruthlessly Queen Mary enters London with Lady Elizabeth put down Kett's Rebellion. Many adherents to the Catholic faith, opponents of Dudley, lived there.[62] On 9 July, from Kenninghall, Norfolk, she wrote to the privy council with orders for her proclamation as Edward's successor.[63] On 10 July 1553, Lady Jane was proclaimed Queen by Dudley and his supporters, and on the same day Mary's letter to the council arrived in London. By 12 July, Mary and her supporters had assembled a military force at Framlingham Castle, Suffolk.[64] Dudley's support collapsed, and Mary's grew.[65] Jane was deposed on 19 July.[66] She and Dudley were imprisoned in the Tower of London. Mary rode triumphantly into London on 3 August 1553 on a wave of popular support. She was accompanied by her half-sister Elizabeth, and a procession of over 800 other nobles and gentlemen.[67] One of Mary's first actions as Queen was to order the release of the Roman Catholic Duke of Norfolk and Stephen Gardiner from imprisonment in the Tower of London, as well as her kinsman Edward Courtenay.[68] Mary understood that the young Lady Jane was essentially a pawn in Dudley's scheme, and Dudley was the only conspirator of rank executed for high treason in the immediate Mary by Hans Eworth, 1554. She wears a aftermath of the coup. Lady Jane and her husband, Lord Guildford jewelled pendant bearing the pearl known as La Dudley, though found guilty, were kept under guard in the Tower Peregrina set beneath two diamonds. rather than executed, while Lady Jane's father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, was released.[69] Mary was left in a difficult position, as almost all the Privy Counsellors had been implicated in the plot to put Jane on the throne.[70] She appointed Gardiner to the council and made him both Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor, offices he held until his death in November 1555. Susan Clarencieux became Mistress of the Robes.[71] On 1 October 1553, Gardiner formally crowned Mary Queen of England at Westminster Abbey.[72]

Mary I of England

Reign

Coronation portrait of Queen Mary

Spanish marriage
At age 37, Mary turned her attention to finding a husband and producing an heir, thus preventing the Protestant Elizabeth (still her successor under the terms of Henry VIII's will and the Act of Succession of 1544), from succeeding to the throne. Edward Courtenay and Reginald Pole were both mentioned as prospective suitors, but her cousin Charles V suggested she marry his only son, Prince Philip of Spain.[73] Philip had a son from a previous marriage, and was heir apparent to vast territories in Continental Europe and the New World. It is said that upon viewing the full-length portrait of Philip by Titian, now in the Prado,[74] which was sent to her in September 1553,[75] Mary declared herself to be in love with him. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons unsuccessfully petitioned her to consider marrying an Englishman, fearing that England would be relegated to a dependency of the Habsburgs.[76] The marriage was as unpopular in England as it was in Spain. Philip's courtiers and servants had no desire to follow him to a chilly land of Philip and Mary barbarous heretics, whereas his other subjects did not desire to see him go. Those who were aware of the terms of the marriage thought that Philip's honour had been disparaged. It is probable that Philip himself felt so;[77] Gardiner and his allies opposed it on the basis of patriotism, while Protestants were motivated by a fear of Catholicism.[78] When Mary insisted on marrying Philip, insurrections broke out. Thomas Wyatt led a force from Kent to depose Mary in favour of Elizabeth, as part of a wider conspiracy now known as Wyatt's rebellion, which involved the Duke of Suffolk, the father of Lady Jane.[79] Mary declared publicly that she would summon Parliament to discuss the marriage, and if Parliament decided that the marriage was not to the advantage of the kingdom, she would refrain from pursuing it.[80] On reaching London, Wyatt was defeated and captured. Wyatt, the Duke of Suffolk, his daughter Lady Jane, and her husband, Guildford Dudley, were executed. Courtenay, who was implicated in the plot, was imprisoned, and then exiled. Elizabeth, though protesting her innocence in the Wyatt affair, was imprisoned in the Tower of London for two months, then was put under house arrest at Woodstock Palace.[81] Mary wasexcluding the brief, disputed reigns of Jane and Empress MatildaEngland and Ireland's first Queen regnant. Further, under the English common law doctrine of jure uxoris, the property and titles belonging to a woman became that of her husband upon marriage, and it was feared that any man she married would thereby

Mary I of England become King of England and Ireland in fact and in name.[82] While Mary's grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella, had retained sovereignty of their own realms during their marriage, there was no precedent to follow in England.[83] Under the terms of the marriage treaty, Philip was to be styled "King of England", all official documents (including Acts of Parliament) were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple, for Mary's lifetime only. Coins were to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war, and Philip could not act without his wife's consent or appoint foreigners to office in England.[84] Philip was unhappy at the conditions imposed, but his view of the affair was entirely political, and he was ready to agree for the sake of securing the marriage.[85] He had no amorous feelings toward Mary and sought the marriage for its political and strategic gains; he wrote to a correspondent in Brussels, "the marriage was concluded for no fleshly consideration, but to remedy the disorders of this kingdom and to preserve the Low Countries."[86] To elevate his son to Mary's rank, Emperor Charles V ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to Philip. Therefore, Mary became Queen of Naples and titular Queen of Jerusalem upon marriage.[87] Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting.[88] Philip could not speak English, and so they spoke in a mixture of Spanish, French, and Latin.[89]

Pregnancy
In September 1554, Mary stopped menstruating. She gained weight, and felt nauseated in the mornings. Virtually the whole court, including her doctors, thought she was pregnant.[90] In the last week of April 1555, Elizabeth was released from house arrest, and called to court as a witness to the birth, which was expected imminently.[91] According to Giovanni Michiel, the Venetian ambassador, Philip may have planned to marry Elizabeth in the event of Mary's death in childbirth,[92] but in a letter to his brother-in-law, Maximilian of Austria, Philip expressed uncertainty as to whether his wife was pregnant.[93] Thanksgiving services in the diocese of London were held at the end of April after false rumours that Mary had given birth to a son spread across Europe.[94] Through May and June, the apparent delay in delivery fed gossip that Mary was not pregnant.[95] Susan Clarencieux revealed her doubts to the French ambassador, Antoine de Noailles.[96] Mary continued to exhibit signs of pregnancy until July 1555, when her abdomen receded. There was no baby. Michiel dismissively ridiculed the pregnancy as more likely to "end in wind rather than anything else".[97] It was most likely a phantom pregnancy, perhaps induced by Mary's overwhelming desire to have a child.[98] In August, soon after the disgrace of the false pregnancy, Philip left England to command his armies against France in Flanders.[99] Mary was heartbroken and fell into a deep depression. Michiel was touched by the Queen's grief; he wrote she was "extraordinarily in love" with her husband, and was disconsolate at his departure.[100]

Mary and Philip on a medal by Jacopo da Trezzo, circa 1555

Elizabeth remained at court until October, apparently restored to favour.[101] In the absence of any children, Philip was concerned that after Mary and Elizabeth, one of the next claimants to the English throne was the Queen of Scotland, who was betrothed to the Dauphin of France. Philip persuaded Mary that Elizabeth should marry his cousin, Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, to secure the Catholic succession and preserve the Habsburg interest in England, but Elizabeth refused to comply and parliamentary consent was unlikely.[102]

Mary I of England

Religious policy
In the month following her accession, Mary issued a proclamation that she would not compel any of her subjects to follow her religion, but by the end of September leading reforming churchmen, such as John Bradford, John Rogers, John Hooper, Hugh Latimer and Thomas Cranmer were imprisoned.[103] Mary's first Parliament, which assembled in early October 1553, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine valid, and abolished Edward's religious laws.[104] Church doctrine was restored to the form it had taken in the 1539 Six Articles, which, for example, re-affirmed clerical celibacy. Married priests were deprived of their benefices.[105] Mary had always rejected the break with Rome instituted by her father and the establishment of Protestantism by Edward VI. She and her husband wanted England to reconcile with Rome. Philip persuaded Parliament to repeal the Protestant religious laws passed by Mary's father, thus returning the English church to Roman jurisdiction. Getting agreement took many months, and Mary had to make a major concession: the monastery lands confiscated under Henry were not returned to the church but remained in the hands of the new landowners, who were very influential.[106] Pope Julius III approved the deal in 1554; the same year the Heresy Acts were revived. Under the Heresy Acts, numerous Protestants were executed in the Marian Persecutions. Many rich Protestants, including John Foxe, chose exile, and around 800 left the country.[107] The first executions occurred over a period of five days in early February 1555: John Rogers on 4 February, Laurence Saunders on 8 February, and Rowland Taylor and John Hooper on 9 February.[108] The imprisoned Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer was forced to watch Bishops Ridley and Latimer being burned at the stake. Cranmer recanted, repudiated Protestant theology, and rejoined the Catholic faith.[109] Under the normal process of the law, he should have been absolved as a repentant. Mary, however, refused to reprieve him. On the day of his burning, he dramatically withdrew his recantation.[110] All told 283 were executed, most by burning.[111] The burnings proved so unpopular, that even one of Philip's own ecclesiastical staff condemned them,[112] and Philip's advisor, Simon Renard, warned him that such "cruel enforcement" could "cause a revolt".[113] Mary persevered with the policy, which continued until her death and exacerbated anti-Catholic and anti-Spanish feeling among the English people.[114] The victims of the persecutions became lauded as martyrs.[115] Reginald Pole, the son of Mary's executed governess, Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury, and once considered a suitor, arrived as papal legate in November 1554.[116] He was ordained a priest and appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury immediately after Cranmer's death in March 1556.[117] [118] Mary came to rely on him for advice.

Foreign policy
Henry VIII's creation of the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542 was not recognised by Europe's Catholic powers. In 1555 Mary obtained a papal bull confirming that she and Philip were the monarchs of Ireland, and thereby the Church accepted the personal link between the kingdoms of Ireland and England. Furthering the Tudor conquest of Ireland, the midlands counties of Laois and Offaly were shired and named after the new monarchs respectively as "Queen's County" and "King's County". Their principal towns were respectively named Maryborough (now Portlaoise) and Philipstown (now Daingean). Under Mary's reign, English colonists were settled in the Irish Midlands to reduce the attacks on the Pale (the colony around Dublin).
Mary, circa 1555, unknown artist

In January 1556, Mary's father-in-law abdicated and Philip became King of Spain, with Mary as his consort. They were still apart; Philip was declared King in Brussels, but Mary stayed in England. Philip negotiated an unsteady truce with

the French in February 1556. The following month, the French ambassador in England, Antoine de Noailles, was implicated in a plot against Mary when Sir Henry Dudley, a second cousin of the executed Duke of Northumberland,

Mary I of England attempted to assemble an invasion force in France. The plot, known as the Dudley conspiracy, was betrayed, and the conspirators in England were rounded up. Dudley remained in exile in France, and Noailles prudently left Britain.[119] Philip returned to England from March to July 1557 to persuade Mary to support Spain in a renewed war against France. Mary was in favour of declaring war, but her councillors opposed it because French trade would be jeopardised, it contravened the marriage treaty, and a bad economic legacy from Edward VI's reign and a series of poor harvests meant England lacked supplies and finances.[120] War was only declared after Reginald Pole's nephew, Thomas Stafford, invaded England with French help in an attempt to depose Mary.[121] As a result of the war, relations between England and the Papacy became strained, since Pope Paul IV was allied with Henry II of France.[122] In January 1558, French forces took Calais, England's sole remaining possession on the European mainland. Although the territory was financially burdensome, it was an ideological loss that damaged Mary's prestige.[123] Mary later lamented that when she died the words "Philip" and "Calais" would be found inscribed on her heart. England became full of factions and seditious pamphlets of Protestant origin inflaming the country against the Spaniards.

10

Commerce and revenue

The years of Mary's reign were consistently wet. The persistent rain and subsequent flooding led to famine.[124] Another problem was the decline of the Antwerp cloth trade. Despite Mary's marriage to Philip, England did not benefit from their enormously lucrative trade with the New World. The Spanish guarded their trading revenue jealously, and Mary could not condone illegitimate trade (in the form of piracy) because she was married to a Spaniard. In an attempt to increase trade and rescue the English economy, Mary continued Northumberland's policy of seeking out new commercial opportunities. She granted a royal charter to the Muscovy Company, whose first governor was Sebastian Cabot,[125] and commissioned a world atlas from Diogo Homem.[126] Adventurers like John Lok and William Towerson sailed south in an attempt to develop links with the coast of Africa.[127] Financially, Mary tried to reconcile a modern form of governmentwith correspondingly higher spendingwith a medieval Mary by Antonis Mor, 1554 system of collecting taxation and dues.[128] A failure to apply new tariffs to new forms of imports meant that a key source of revenue was neglected. To solve this problem, Mary's government published the "Book of Rates" (1558), which listed the tariffs and duties for every import. This publication was not extensively reviewed until 1604.[129] Mary appointed William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester, as Surveyor of Customs and assigned him to oversee the revenue collection system. Mary continued the currency reform overseen by Thomas Gresham, started in 1551, to counteract the dramatic devaluation that had characterised the 1540s and early 1550s. However, these measures were largely unsuccessful.

Mary I of England

11

Death
After Philip's visit in 1557, Mary thought herself pregnant again with a baby due in March 1558.[130] She decreed in her will that her husband be the regent during the minority of her child.[131] However, no child was born, and Mary was forced to accept that Elizabeth was her lawful successor.[132] Mary was weak and ill from May 1558,[133] and died aged 42 at St. James's Palace during an influenza epidemic that claimed the life of Reginald Pole later the same day, 17 November 1558. She was in pain, possibly from ovarian cysts or uterine cancer.[134] She was succeeded by her half-sister, who became Elizabeth I. Philip, who was in Brussels, wrote in a letter, "I felt a reasonable regret for her death."[135] Although her will stated that she wished to be buried next to her mother, Mary was interred in Westminster Abbey on 14 December in a tomb she eventually shared with Elizabeth. The Latin inscription on their tomb, Regno consortes & urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis (affixed there by James VI of Scotland when he succeeded Elizabeth as King James I of England) translates to "Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection". The Latin plays on the multiple meanings of consorts, which can mean either sibling or sharer in common.

Legacy
At her funeral service John White, Bishop of Winchester, praised Mary: "She was a King's daughter; she was a King's sister; she was a King's wife. She was a Queen, and by the same title a King also."[136] She was the first woman to successfully claim the throne of England, despite competing claims and determined opposition, and enjoyed popular support and sympathy during the earliest parts of her reign, especially from the Roman Catholic population. However, her marriage to Philip was unpopular among her subjects, and her religious policies resulted in deep-seated resentment.[137] The failed harvests, poor weather and military losses of her reign increased public discontent. Philip spent most of his time abroad, while his wife remained in England, leaving her depressed at his absence and undermined by their inability to have children. After Mary's death, he sought to marry Elizabeth, but she refused him.[138] Thirty years later, Philip later sent the Spanish Armada to overthrow Elizabeth, without success. By the seventeenth century, Mary's persecution of Protestants had led them to call her Bloody Mary.[139] John Knox attacked her in The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regimen of Women, published in 1558, and she was prominently featured and vilified in Foxe's Book of Martyrs, published by John Foxe in 1563, six years after Mary's death. Subsequent editions of the book remained popular with Protestants throughout the following centuries, and helped shape perceptions of her as a bloodthirsty tyrant.[140]

Mary I of England

12

Titles, style and arms

Like Henry VIII and Edward VI, Mary used the style "Majesty", as well as "Highness" and "Grace". "Majesty", which Henry VIII first used consistently, did not become exclusive until the reign of Elizabeth I's successor, James I. When Mary ascended the throne, she was proclaimed under the same official style as Henry VIII and Edward VI: "Mary, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" (Latin: Maria Dei Gracia Anglie, Francie et Hibernie Regina, Fidei Defensor, et in terra ecclesie Anglicane et Hibernice supremum caput). The "supremacy phrase" at the end of the style was repugnant to Mary's Catholicism; from 1554 onwards, she omitted the phrase without statutory authority, which was not retroactively granted by Parliament until 1555.[141]

Arms of Mary I, impaled with those of her husband, Philip II

Under Mary's marriage treaty with Philip, the couple were jointly styled Queen and King. The official joint style reflected not only Mary's but Philip's dominions and claims; it was "Philip and Mary, by the grace of God, King and Queen of England, France, Naples, Jerusalem, and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Spain and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".[87] This style, which had been in use since 1554, was replaced when Philip inherited the Spanish Crown in 1556 with "Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, both the Sicilies, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".[142] Mary I's arms were the same as those used by all her predecessors since Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or [for France] and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]. Sometimes, her arms were impaled (depicted side-by-side) with those of her husband. She adopted "Truth, the Daughter of Time" (Latin: Veritas Temporis Filia) as her personal motto.[143] Mary's marital title Queen of Spain carried with it, the title "Queen of the Spanish East and West Indies and of the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea". This titulary held by Philip came from his father, her cousin, Charles, under the original form "Rex Hispaniarum et Indiarum" (i.e., King of the Spaniards and the Indians). The shorthand for this is usually rendered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain.

Ancestry
Both Mary and Philip were descended from John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, a relationship which was used to portray Philip as an English king.[144] John had once claimed lands in Spain jure uxoris by the Infanta Constance of Castile. John's Lancastrian descendents in Spain and Portugal honoured the English Royal Family by naming several children Eduardo or Duarte (Edward) after John's father, Edward III of England. Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, from which the Yorkist party derived (as well as her father Henry VIII's maternal line), married Infanta Isabella of Castile, so the Anglo-Castilian connection in right of Portugal had certainly influenced not only Mary's parental background, but her own marriage to Philip, whose own heritage was not simply Habsburg (which at that time was novel), but Burgundian and important for the Yorkist factor, as well as the Anglo-French wars in general.

Mary I of England

13

Notes
[1] Her half-brother died on 6 July; she was proclaimed his successor in London on 19 July; her regnal years were dated from 24 July (Weir, p. 160). [2] The Gentleman's magazine. F. Jefferies. 1886. p.233. [3] Waller, p. 16; Whitelock, p. 8 [4] Weir, pp. 152153 [5] Porter, p. 13; Waller, p. 16; Whitelock, p. 7 [6] Porter, pp. 13, 37; Waller, p. 17 [7] Porter, p. 13; Waller, p. 17; Whitelock, p. 7 [8] Porter, p. 15 [9] Porter, p. 16; Waller, p. 20; Whitelock, p. 21 [10] Hoyle, p. 407 [11] Whitelock, p. 27 [12] Porter, p. 30 [13] Porter, p. 28; Whitelock, p. 27 [14] Porter, p. 21 [15] Domine Orator, per Deum immortalem, ista puella nunquam plorat, quoted in Whitelock, p. 17 [16] Farquhar, Michael, 'A Treasure of Royal Scandals (Penguin Books, New York, 2001, ISBN 0739420259) p. 101 [17] Porter, pp. 3839; Whitelock, pp. 3233 [18] Waller, p. 23 [19] Whitelock, p. 23 [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] Porter, pp. 2021; Waller, pp. 2021; Whitelock, pp. 1823 Porter, pp. 2124; Waller, p. 21; Whitelock, p. 23 Whitelock, pp. 3031 Whitelock, pp. 3637 Whitelock, pp. 3738 Porter, pp. 56, 78; Whitelock, p. 40 Waller, p. 27 Porter, p. 76; Whitelock, p. 48 Porter, p. 92; Whitelock, pp. 5556 Porter, p. 92; Whitelock, p. 57 Whitelock, p. 57 Porter, pp. 97101; Whitelock, pp. 5569 Dr William Butts, quoted in Waller, p. 31 Porter, p. 100 Porter, pp. 103104; Whitelock, pp. 6769, 72 Letter from Emperor Charles V to Empress Isabella, quoted in Whitelock, p. 75 Porter, p. 107; Whitelock, p. 7677 Whitelock, p. 91 Porter, p. 121; Waller, p. 33; Whitelock, p. 81 Porter, pp. 119123; Waller, pp. 3436; Whitelock, pp. 8389 Porter, pp. 119123; Waller, pp. 3436; Whitelock, pp. 9091 Porter, pp. 124125 Porter, pp. 126127; Whitelock, pp. 9596 Porter, pp. 129132; Whitelock, p. 28 Porter, pp. 135136; Waller, p. 39; Whitelock, p. 101 Whitelock, p. 101 Whitelock, pp. 103104 Whitelock, p. 105 Whitelock, pp. 105106 Contemporary Spanish and English reports, quoted in Whitelock, p. 108 Waller, p. 37 Porter, pp. 143144; Whitelock, p. 110 Waller, p. 39; Whitelock, p. 112 Whitelock, p. 130

[54] Porter, pp. 160162; Whitelock, pp. 133134 [55] Porter, p. 154; Waller, p. 40 [56] Porter, pp. 169176; Waller, pp. 4142; Whitelock, pp. 144147

Mary I of England
[57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] Porter, p. 178; Whitelock, p. 149 Porter, pp. 179182; Whitelock, pp. 148160 Porter, p. 187 Porter, pp. 188189 Waller, pp. 4849; Whitelock, p. 165 Waller, pp. 5153; Whitelock, p. 165, 138 Porter, p. 195; Whitelock, p. 168 Porter, p. 203; Waller, p. 52 Porter, pp. 213214; Waller, p. 54; Whitelock, pp. 170174 Porter, p. 210; Weir, pp. 159160 Waller, pp. 5759 Waller, p. 59; Whitelock, p. 181 Waller, pp. 5960; Whitelock, pp. 185186 Whitelock, p. 182 Whitelock, p. 183 Porter, pp. 257261; Whitelock, pp. 195197 Porter, pp. 265267 Museo del Prado, Catlogo de las pinturas, 1996, pp. 398399 (#411), Ministerio de Educacin y Cultura, Madrid, ISBN 8487317537 Porter, p. 310 Porter, pp. 279284; Waller, p. 72; Whitelock, pp. 202209 Loades, p. 75 Waller, p. 73

14

[79] Porter, pp. 288299; Whitelock, pp. 212213 [80] Porter, p. 300; Waller, pp. 7475; Whitelock, p. 216 [81] Porter, pp. 311313; Whitelock, pp. 217225 [82] Waller, pp. 8485; Whitelock, pp. 202, 227 [83] Porter, p. 269; Waller, p. 85 [84] Porter, pp. 291292; Waller, p. 85; Whitelock, pp. 226227 [85] Porter, pp. 308309; Whitelock, p. 229 [86] Letter of 29 July 1554, quoted in Porter, p. 320 [87] Porter, pp. 321, 324; Waller, p. 90; Whitelock, p. 238 [88] Porter, pp. 318, 321; Waller, pp. 8687; Whitelock, p. 237 [89] Porter, p. 319; Waller, pp. 87, 91 [90] Porter, p. 333; Waller, pp. 9293 [91] Porter, p. 338; Waller, p. 95; Whitelock, p. 255 [92] Waller, p. 96 [93] "The queen's pregnancy turns out not to have been as certain as we thought": Letter of 25 April 1554, quoted in Porter, p. 337 and Whitelock, p. 257 [94] Waller, p. 95; Whitelock, p. 256 [95] Whitelock, pp. 257259 [96] Whitelock, p. 258 [97] Waller, p. 97; Whitelock, p. 259 [98] Porter, pp. 337338; Waller, pp. 9798 [99] Porter, p. 342 [100] Waller, pp. 9899; Whitelock, p. 268 [101] Antoine de Noailles quoted in Whitelock, p. 269 [102] Whitelock, p. 284 [103] Whitelock, p. 187 [104] Waller, p. 65; Whitelock, p. 198 [105] Porter, p. 241; Whitelock, pp. 200201 [106] Porter, p. 331 [107] Waller, p. 113 [108] Whitelock, p. 262 [109] Porter, pp. 355356; Waller, pp. 104105 [110] Waller, pp. 104105; Whitelock, p. 274 [111] Duffy, p. 79; Waller, p. 104 [112] Porter, pp. 358359; Waller, p. 103; Whitelock, p. 266 [113] Waller, p. 102 [114] Waller, pp. 101, 103, 105; Whitelock, p. 266

Mary I of England
[115] [116] [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] [126] [127] [128] [129] [130] [131] [132] [133] [134] [135] [136] [137] [138] [139] [140] [141] [142] [143] [144] See for example, the Oxford Martyrs Waller, p. 94 Porter, p. 357 Although he had been a cardinal since 22 December 1536, Pole was not ordained until the day of his appointment. Porter, pp. 381387 Whitelock, p. 288 Porter, p. 389; Waller, p. 111; Whitelock, p. 289 Whitelock, pp. 293295 Porter, pp. 392395; Whitelock, pp. 291292 Porter, pp. 229, 375; Whitelock, p. 277 Porter, p. 371 Porter, p. 373 Porter, p. 372 Porter, p. 375 Porter, p. 376 Porter, p.398; Waller, pp. 106, 112; Whitelock, p. 299 Whitelock, pp. 299300 Whitelock, p. 301 Whitelock, p. 300 Waller, p. 108 Quoted in Waller, p. 109 and Whitelock, p. 303 Whitelock, p. 305 Waller, p. 116 Porter, p. 400 Waller, p. 115 Porter, pp. 361362, 418; Waller, pp. 113115 England: Kings and Queens: 10661649 (http:/ / www. archontology. org/ nations/ england/ king_england/ ). Retrieved 11-03-2010. e.g. Waller, p. 106 Waller, p. 60; Whitelock, p. 310 Whitelock, p. 242

15

References
Duffy, Eamon (2009) Fires of Faith: Catholic England Under Mary Tudor. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300152167 Hoyle, R. W. (2001) The Pilgrimage of Grace and the Politics of the 1530s. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199259062 Porter, Linda (2007) Mary Tudor: The First Queen. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 0749909826 Waller, Maureen (2006) Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312338015 Weir, Alison (1996) Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. London: Pimlico. ISBN 0712674489 Whitelock, Anna (2009) Mary Tudor: England's First Queen. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 0747590187

Further reading
Deary, Terry. "The Terrible Tudors". ISBN 0-590-55290-2 Deary, Terry. "Even More Terrible Tudors". ISBN 0-590-11254-6 Erickson, Carolly. Bloody Mary: The Life of Mary Tudor. (June 1993) ISBN 0-688-11641-8 Hugo, Victor. Mary Tudor: A Drama. ISBN 1-58963-478-0 Loades, David M. Mary Tudor: A Life. (March 1992) ISBN 0-631-18449-X Loades, David M. The Reign of Mary Tudor: Politics, Government & Religion in England, 155358. (May 1991) ISBN 0-582-05759-0

McHarque, Georgess. Queen in Waiting: A Life of "Bloody Mary" Tudor. (June 2004) ISBN 0-595-31254-3 Prescott, H. F. M. Mary Tudor: The Spanish Tudor. (October 2003) ISBN 1-84212-625-3

Mary I of England Ridley, Jasper. Bloody Mary's Martyrs: The Story of England's Terror. (July 2002) ISBN 0-7867-0986-3 Simpson, Helen. The Spanish Marriage, at Project Gutenberg Australia (http://gutenberg.net.au/plusfifty-n-z. html#simpsonh) Slavicek, Louise Chipley. Bloody Mary (History's Villains). (July 2005) ISBN 1-4103-0581-3 Tytler, Patrick Fraser (1839). England Under the Reigns of Edward VI and Mary (http://books.google.com/ ?id=414JAAAAIAAJ). I. London: Richard Bentley. Retrieved 2008-08-17 Tytler, Patrick Fraser (1839). England Under the Reigns of Edward VI and Mary (http://books.google.com/ ?id=tl4JAAAAIAAJ). II. London: Richard Bentley. Retrieved 2008-08-17 Waldman, Milton. The Lady Mary: a biography of Mary Tudor, 15161558. (1972) ISBN 0-00-211486-0

16

External links
"The Tudors: Mary I" (http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/ TheTudors/MaryI.aspx). The Royal Household. Retrieved 31 October 2006. Eakins, Lara E. (19952009). "Mary I Queen of England" (http://tudorhistory.org/mary/). Tudor History Web Ring. Retrieved 19 November 2009. "Queen Mary I" (http://www.hrp.org.uk/learninganddiscovery/Discoverthehistoricroyalpalaces/monarchs/ maryI.aspx). Historic Royal Palaces. 20042009. Retrieved 19 November 2009.

Charles I of England
Charles I

Portrait by Anthony van Dyck, 1636 King of England and Ireland (more...) Reign Coronation 27 March 1625 30 January 1649 2 February 1626

Predecessor James I Successor Charles II (de jure) Council of State (de facto) King of Scots (more...) Reign Coronation 27 March 1625 30 January 1649 2 February 1626

Predecessor James VI Successor Consort Charles II Henrietta Maria of France

Charles I of England

17
Issue Charles II Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange James II & VII Princess Elizabeth Princess Anne Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester Henrietta, Duchess of Orlans House Father Mother Born Died Burial House of Stuart James VI of Scotland and I of England Anne of Denmark 19 November 1600 (N.S.: 29 November 1600) Dunfermline Palace, Dunfermline, Scotland 30 January 1649 (aged48) (N.S.: 9 February 1649) Whitehall, England 7 February 1649 Windsor, England

Charles I (19 November 1600 30 January 1649) was the second son of James VI of Scots and I of England. He was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649.[1] Charles engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England, attempting to obtain royal revenue whilst Parliament sought to curb his Royal prerogative which Charles believed was divinely ordained. Many of his English subjects opposed his actions, in particular his interference in the English and Scottish Churches and the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent which grew to be seen as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch.[2] Religious conflicts permeated Charles's reign. His failure to successfully aid Protestant forces during the Thirty Years' War, coupled with such actions as marrying a Catholic princess,[3] [4] generated deep mistrust concerning the king's dogma. Charles further allied himself with controversial religious figures, such as the ecclesiastic Richard Montagu, and William Laud, whom Charles appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Many of Charles' subjects felt this brought the Church of England too close to the Catholic Church. Charles' later attempts to force religious reforms upon Scotland led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish Parliaments and helped precipitate the king's downfall. Charles' last years were marked by the English Civil War, in which he fought the forces of the English and Scottish Parliaments, which challenged the king's attempts to overrule and negate Parliamentary authority, whilst simultaneously using his position as head of the English Church to pursue religious policies which generated the antipathy of reformed groups such as the Puritans. Charles was defeated in the First Civil War (164245), after which Parliament expected him to accept its demands for a constitutional monarchy. He instead remained defiant by attempting to forge an alliance with Scotland and escaping to the Isle of Wight. This provoked the Second Civil War (164849) and a second defeat for Charles, who was subsequently captured, tried, convicted, and executed for high treason. The monarchy was then abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England, also referred to as the Cromwellian Interregnum, was declared. Charles' son, Charles II, though he became king at the death of his father, did not take up the reins of government until the restoration of the monarchy in 1660.[2] In that same year, Charles I was canonised as Saint Charles Stuart and King Charles the Martyr by the Church of England and is venerated throughout the Anglican Communion.[5]

Charles I of England

18

Early life
The second son of James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife on 19 November 1600.[2] [6] His paternal grandmother was Mary, Queen of Scots. Charles was baptised on 2 December 1600 by the Bishop of Ross, in a ceremony held in Holyrood Abbey and was created Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch.[7] Charles was a weak and sickly infant. When Elizabeth I of England died in March 1603 and James VI of Scotland became King of England as James I, Charles was not considered strong enough to survive the journey to London due to his fragile health. While his parents and older siblings left for England in April and May that year, Charles remained in Scotland, with his father's friend and the Lord President of the Court of Session, Alexander Seton, Lord Fyvie, appointed as his guardian.[7] By the spring of 1604, Charles was three and a half and was by then able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace unaided. It was decided that he was now strong enough to make the journey to England to be reunited with his family, and on 13 July 1604 Charles left Dunfermline for England, where he was to spend most of the rest of his life.[8] In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Alletta (Hogenhove) Carey, the Dutch-born wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who taught him how to walk and talk, and insisted that he wear boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles.[9] However, Charles apparently eventually conquered his physical infirmity,[10] which may be attributable to rickets[9] and grew to an about average height of 5feet 4inches (162.56cm). Charles was not as valued as his physically stronger, elder brother, Henry, Prince of Wales; whom Charles personally adored and attempted to emulate.[11] In 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, which is customary in the case of the sovereign's second son. However, when Henry died of suspected typhoid (or possibly porphyria)[12] at the age of 18 in 1612, two weeks before Charles' 12th birthday, Charles became heir apparent. As the eldest living son of the sovereign Charles automatically gained several titles (including Duke of Cornwall[13] and Duke of Rothesay), and subsequently was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in November 1616.[14]

Charles as Duke of York and Albany, c. 1611

Charles I of England

19 In 1613, his sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine and moved to Heidelberg.[15] In 1617 the Catholic Ferdinand II was elected king of Bohemia. The following year, the people of Bohemia rebelled against their monarch, choosing to crown Frederick V of the Palatinate, and leader of the Protestant Union in his stead. Frederick's acceptance of the crown in November 1619 thus marked the beginning of turmoil which would develop into the Thirty Years' War. This conflict made a great impression upon the English Parliament and public, who quickly grew to see it as a polarised continental struggle between Catholic and Protestant.[16] James, who was supportive of Frederick, and had been seeking marriage between the new Prince of Wales and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna of Spain, since Prince Henry's death,[15] began to see the Spanish Match as a possible means of achieving peace in Europe.

Charles as Prince of Wales by Isaac Oliver, 1615.

Unfortunately for James, this diplomatic negotiation with Spain proved generally unpopular, both with the public and James' court,[17] with 'Arminian' divines providing a unique source of support for the proposed union.[18] Parliament was actively hostile towards the Spanish throne, and thus, when called by James, hoped for a crusade under the leadership of the king[19] to rescue Protestants on the continent from Habsburg rule.[20] Attacks upon the monopolists by Parliament for the abuse of prices led to the scapegoating of Francis Bacon by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham,[21] leading to Bacon's impeachment before the Lords; the first of its kind which was not officially sanctioned by the King in the form of a Bill of attainder since 1459. The incident set an important precedent in terms of the apparent authority of Parliament to safeguard the nation's interests and its capacity to launch legal campaigns, as it later did against Buckingham, Archbishop Laud, the Earl of Strafford and Charles I. However, parliament and James came to blows when the issue of foreign policy was discussed, with James insisting that the Commons be exclusively concerned with domestic affairs. The members of the Commons, meanwhile, protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls.[22] In January 1622 James dissolved the Parliament.[23] Charles, and the Duke of Buckingham, James' favourite[24] and a man who had great influence over the prince, together travelled incognito to Spain in 1623 in an attempt to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish Match.[25] The trip ended as an embarrassing failure however as the Spanish demanded that Charles must convert to Roman Catholicism and remain in Spain for a year after the wedding as hostage to ensure England's compliance with all the terms of the treaty. Moreover, a personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and the Spanish nation between whom was mutual misunderstanding and ill temper.[26] Charles was outraged, and upon their return in October, he and Buckingham demanded that King James declare war on Spain.[25] With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned Parliament in 1624 so that he could request subsidies for a war.[27] At the behest of Charles and Buckingham, James assented to the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex by the House of Commons, who quickly fell in much the same manner as Bacon had.[27] James also requested that Parliament sanction the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Princess Henrietta Maria of France,[28] whom Charles had met in Paris while en route to Spain.[29] It was a good match since she was a sister of Louis XIII[30] (their father, Henry IV, had died during her childhood). Parliament reluctantly agreed to the marriage,[30] with the promise from both James and Charles that the marriage would not entail a liberty of religion being accorded to any Roman Catholic not of the Princess' own household.[30] By 1624, James was growing sick, and as a result was finding it extremely difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death, February 1625, Charles and the Duke of Buckingham had already achieved de facto control of the kingdom.[31] Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings, but whilst James' lofty ambitions concerning absolute prerogative[32] were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles I believed that he had no need of Parliamentary approval, that his foreign ambitions (which were greatly expensive

Charles I of England and fluctuated wildly) should have no legal impediment, and that he was himself above reproach. Charles believed he had no need to compromise or even explain his actions and that he was answerable only to God, famously stating: "Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone".[33] [34]

20

Early reign
Charles's reign began on 27 March 1625, with the death of James I. Charles had, however, been taking an active role in ruling before that, due to his father's failing health. On 11 May 1625, Charles was married by proxy to Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of the Notre Dame de Paris,[35] before his first Parliament could meet to forbid the banns.[35] Many members were opposed to the king marrying a Roman Catholic, fearing that Charles would lift restrictions on Roman Catholics and undermine the official establishment of Protestantism. Although he stated to Parliament that he would not relax restrictions relating to recusants, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Louis XIII of France.[36] Moreover, the price of marriage with the French princess was a promise of English aid for the French crown in the suppressing of the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle, thereby reversing England's long held position in the French Wars of Religion. The couple were married in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury. Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side due to the controversy. Charles and Henrietta had seven children, with three sons and three daughters surviving infancy.[37] Distrust of Charles' religious policies increased with his support of a controversial ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu. In his pamphlets A New Gag for an Old Goose, a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the new Gospel, and also his Immediate Addresse unto God alone, Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination, thereby bringing himself into disrepute amongst the Puritans.[38] After a Puritan member of the House of Commons, John Pym, attacked Montagu's pamphlet during debate, Montagu requested the king's aid in another pamphlet entitled "Appello Caesarem"(1625), (a reference to an appeal against Jewish persecution made by Saint Paul the Apostle).[39] Charles made the cleric one of his royal chaplains, increasing many Puritans' suspicions as to where Charles would lead the Church, fearing that his favouring of Arminianism was a clandestine attempt on Charles' part to aid the resurgence of Catholicism within the English Church.[40]

Sir Anthony Van Dyck: Charles I painted in April 1634

Charles' primary concern during his early reign was foreign policy. The Thirty Years' War, originally confined to Bohemia, was spiralling into a wider European war. In 1620 Frederick V was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain[41] and by 1622, despite the aid of English volunteers, had lost his hereditary lands in the Palatinate to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II.[42] Having agreed to help his brother-in-law regain the Palatinate, Charles declared war on Spain, which under the Catholic King Philip IV had sent forces to help occupy the Palatinate.[43] Parliament preferred an inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping that the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets could finance the war. Charles, however, preferred more aggressive (and more expensive) action on the Continent.[44] Parliament only voted to grant a subsidy of 140,000; an insufficient sum for Charles.[45] Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a period of one year, although previous sovereigns since 1414 had been granted the right for life.[45] In this manner, Parliament could keep a check on expenditures by forcing Charles to seek the renewal of the grant each year. Charles' allies in the House of Lords, led by the Duke of Buckingham, refused to pass the bill. Although no Parliamentary Act for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties.[46]

Charles I of England The war with Spain under the leadership of Buckingham went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the duke.[47] Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in response[48] and on 12 June 1626, the House of Commons launched a direct protestation, stating, 'We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and we do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of your kingdom.'[48] Despite Parliament's protests, however, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead. Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without Parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the King's bench, the 'Five Knights' Case' which hinged on the king's prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced load was on a general basis, upheld.[49] Summoned again in 1628, Parliament adopted a Petition of Right on 26 May, calling upon the king to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, impose martial law on civilians, imprison them without due process, or quarter troops in their homes.[50] Charles assented to the petition,[51] though he continued to claim the right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament. Despite Charles' agreement to suppress La Rochelle as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, Charles reneged upon his earlier promise and instead launched a poorly conceived and executed defence of the fortress under the leadership of Buckingham in 1628[52] thereby driving a wedge between the English and French Crowns that was not surmounted for the duration of the Thirty Years' War.[53] Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenots indeed, his attempt to capture Saint-Martin-de-R then spurred Louis XIII's attack on the Huguenot fortress of La Rochelle[54] furthered Parliament's detestation of the Duke and the king's close proximity to this eminence grise. On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated.[55] The public rejoicing at his death accentuated the gulf between the court and the nation, and between the crown and the Commons.[56] Although the death of Buckingham effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament over taxation and religious matters.[57] [58]

21

Personal rule
In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue. Members of the House of Commons began to voice their opposition in light of the Rolle case, in which the eponymous MP had had his goods confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage. Many MPs viewed the confiscation as a breach of the Petition of Right,[59] arguing that the petition's freedom-from-arrest privilege extended to goods. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 10 March, members held the Speaker, Sir John Finch, down in his chair so that the dissolving of Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles, Parliament could be delayed long enough for resolutions against the Triple Portrait by Anthony van Dyck. Catholicism, Arminianism and poundage and tonnage to be read out.[60] The lattermost resolution declared that anyone who paid tonnage or poundage not authorised by Parliament would "be reputed a betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same", and, although the resolution was not formally passed, many members declared their approval. Nevertheless, the provocation was too much for Charles, who dissolved parliament the same day.[61] Moreover, eight parliamentary leaders, including John Eliot, were imprisoned on the foot of the matter,[62] thereby turning these men into martyrs, and giving popular cause to a protest that had hitherto been losing its bearings.

Charles I of England Shortly after the proroguing of Parliament, without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds for a European War from Parliament,[63] or the influence of Buckingham, Charles made peace with France and Spain.[64] The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled without a Parliament, are referred to as the Personal Rule or the Eleven Years' Tyranny.[65] (Ruling without Parliament, though an exceptional exercise of the royal prerogative, was supported by precedent. By the middle of the 17th century, opinion shifted, and many held the Personal Rule to be an illegitimate exercise of arbitrary, absolute power.)

22

Economic problems
The reigns of Elizabeth I and James I had generated a large fiscal deficit for the kingdom.[66] Notwithstanding the failure of Buckingham in the short lived campaigns against both Spain and France, there was in reality little economic capacity for Charles to wage wars overseas. England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation.[67] Without the consent of Parliament, Charles' capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was theoretically hamstrung, legally at least. To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles first resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", promulgated in 1279, which required anyone who earned 40 or more each year to present himself at the King's coronation to join the royal army as a knight.[68] Relying on this old statute, Charles fined all individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626. Later, Charles reintroduced obsolete feudal taxes such as purveyance, wardship, and forest laws.[69] Chief among these taxes was one known as Ship Money,[69] which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than poundage and tonnage before it. Under statutes of Edward I and Edward III, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. Charles, however, argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom. Ship Money provided between 150,000 to 200,000 annually between 16341638, after which yields declined steeply.[70] This was paid directly to Treasury of the Navy, thus making Northumberland the most direct beneficiary of the tax.[71] Opposition to Ship Money steadily grew, with John Hampden's legal challenge in 1637 providing a platform of popular protest.[70] However, the royal courts declared that the tax was within the King's prerogative. The king also derived money through the granting of monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action (The Monopolies Act, 1624), which, though inefficient, raised an estimated 100,000 a year in the late 1630s in royal revenue.[72] Charles also gained funds through the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent.[73]

Religious conflicts
Throughout Charles's reign, the issue of how far the English Reformation should progress was constantly brought to the forefront of political debate. Arminian theology contained an emphasis on clerical authority and the individual's capacity to reject salvation, and was consequently viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism by its opponents. Charles's sympathy to the teachings of Arminianism, and specifically his wish to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a more traditional and sacramental direction,[74] consistently affirmed Puritans' suspicions concerning the perceived irreligious tendencies of the crown. A long history of opposition to tyrants who oppressed Protestants had developed since the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, most notably during the French Wars of Religion (articulated in the Vindiciae contra tyrannos),[75] [76] and more recently in the Second Defenestration of Prague and eruption of the Thirty Years' War.[77] Such cultural identifications resonated with Charles's subjects. These allegations would haunt Charles because of the continued exacerbating actions of both king and council, particularly in the form of Archbishop William Laud. William Laud was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633,[78] [79] and began a series of unpopular reforms such as attempting to ensure religious uniformity by dismissing non-conformist clergymen, and closing Puritan

Charles I of England organisations.[80] His policy was opposed to Calvinist theology, and he insisted that the Church of England's liturgy be celebrated using the form prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer, and that the internal architecture of English churches be reorganised so as to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, thereby attacking predestination.[81] To punish those who refused to accept his reforms, Laud used the two most feared and most arbitrary courts in the land, the Court of High Commission and the Court of Star Chamber.[80] The former could compel individuals to provide self-incriminating testimony, whilst the latter, essentially an extension of the Privy Council, could inflict any punishment whatsoever (including torture), with the sole exception of death. The first years of the Personal Rule were marked by peace in England, partly because of tighter central control. Several individuals opposed Charles's taxes and Laud's policies, and some left as a result, such as the Puritan minister Thomas Hooker, who set sail for America along with other religious dissidents in the Griffin (1634). By 1633 Star Chamber had, in effect, taken the place of High Commission as the supreme tribunal for religious offences as well as dealing with Crown cases of a secular nature.[82] Under Charles's reign, defendants were regularly brought before the Court without indictment, due process of the law, or right to confront witnesses, and their testimonies were routinely extracted by the Court through torture. However, when Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from his kingdom; not even paying visit until his Scottish coronation in 1633.[83] In 1637 the king ordered the use of a new Prayer Book to be used within Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer, without consultation with either the Scottish Parliament or Kirk.[83] Although this move was supported by the Scottish Bishops,[84] it was resisted by many Presbyterian Scots, who saw the new Prayer Book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland.[85] In 1637, spontaneous unrest erupted throughout the Kirk upon the first Sunday of its usage, and the public began to mobilise around rebellious nobles in the form of the National Covenant.[84] When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland abolished Episcopalian government (that is, governance of the Church by bishops) in 1638, replacing it with Presbyterian government (that is, governance by elders and deacons),[86] Charles sought to put down what he saw as a rebellion against his authority.
William Laud shared Charles's views on Calvinism

23

In 1639, when the First Bishops' War broke out, Charles did not seek subsidies to wage war, but instead raised an army without Parliamentary aid.[71] However, Charles's army did not engage the Covenanters as the king was afraid of the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots.[87] In the Pacification of Berwick, Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses, and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession whereby both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called.[88] Charles's military failure in the First Bishops' War in turn caused a financial and military crisis for Charles, which ultimately ended the period of Personal Rule.[89] Charles's peace negotiations with the Scots were merely a bid by the king to gain time before launching a new military campaign. However, because of his financial weakness, Charles was forced to call Parliament into session by 1640 in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture. The risk for the king lay in the forum that Parliament would provide to his opponents, whilst the intransigence of the 1628 Parliament augured badly for the prospects of obtaining the necessary subsidy for war.

Charles I of England

24

The Second Bishops' War

Charles collectively summoned both English and Irish parliaments in the early months of 1640.[90] In March, 1640 the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of 180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May.[90] However, in the English General Election in March, court candidates fared badly,[91] and Charles' dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate. Northumberland and Strafford together attempted to reach a compromise whereby the king would agree to forfeit Ship Money in exchange for 650,000 (although the coming war was estimated at around 1million).[92] Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons.[93] The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still maintained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of Northumberland,[94] Parliament was dissolved less than a month after it assembled, in May 1640; thus causing it to be known as the "Short Parliament".[95] By this stage Thomas Wentworth, created Earl of Strafford and elevated to Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in January 1640,[96] had emerged as Charles' right hand man and together with Laud, pursued a policy of 'Thorough' in support of absolute monarchy.[97] Although originally a major critic of the king, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628 (due in part to Buckingham's persuasion),[98] and had since emerged as the most capable of Charles' ministers. Having trained up a large army in Ireland in support of the king and seriously weakened the authority of the Irish Parliament, particularly those members of parliament belonging to the Old English,[99] Strafford had been instrumental in obtaining an independent source of both royal revenue and forces within the three kingdoms.[71] As the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the king's consent and, in September 1640, moved into Northumberland Portrait of Charles I with Seignior de under the leadership of Montrose,[100] Strafford was sent north to command the St Antoine English forces following Northumberland's illness.[101] The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War,[102] had far greater morale and training compared to their English counterparts, and met virtually no resistance until reaching Newcastle where, at the Battle of Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and hence England's coal supply fell into the hands of the Covenanter forces.[103] At this critical juncture, the English host based at York was unable to mount a counterattack because Strafford was incapacitated by a combination of gout and dysentery.[101] On 24 September Charles took the unusual step of summoning the magnum concilium, the ancient council of all the Peers of the Realm, who were considered the King's hereditary counsellors, who recommended making peace with the Scots and the recalling of Parliament.[104] A cessation of arms, although not a final settlement, was agreed in the humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed October 1640.[105] The treaty stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid 850 per day, until peace was restored and the English Parliament recalled (which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces).[104] Consequently, in November Charles summoned what was later to become known as the Long Parliament. Of the 493 MPs of the Commons, 399 were opposed to the king, and only 94 could be counted on, by Charles, for support.

The "Long Parliament"

The Long Parliament assembled in November 1640 and proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. The Parliament quickly began proceedings to impeach Laud of High Treason, which it succeeded in doing on 18 December.[106] Lord Keeper Finch was impeached the following day, and he consequently fled to the Hague with Charles' permission on 21 December. To prevent the king from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, to which the Royal Assent was granted in February 1641.[107] The Act required that Parliament was to be summoned at least once every three years, and that when the King failed to issue proper summons, the

Charles I of England members could assemble on their own. On 22 March 1641, Strafford, who had become the immediate target of the Parliamentarians, particularly that of John Pym, went on trial for high treason.[108] The incident provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby Old English, Gaelic Irish and New English settlers joined together in a legal body to present evidence against Strafford.[109] However, the evidence supplied by Sir Henry Vane in relation to Strafford's alleged improper use and threat to England via the Irish army was not corroborated and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed.[110] Pym immediately launched a Bill of Attainder, simply stating Strafford's guilt and that the Earl be put to death.[111] Charles, however guaranteed Strafford that he would not sign the attainder, without which the bill could not be passed.[112] Furthermore, the Lords were opposed to the severity of the sentence of death imposed upon Strafford. Yet, increased tensions and an attempted coup by the army in support of Strafford began to sway the issue.[112] On 21 April, in the Commons the Bill went virtually unopposed (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 250 abstained),[113] the Lords acquiesced, and Charles, fearing for the safety of his family, signed on 10 May.[113] The Earl of Strafford was beheaded two days later.[114] In May 1641, Charles assented to an unprecedented act, which forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without Parliament's consent.[115] Ship money, fines in destraint of knighthood and forced loans were declared unlawful, monopolies were cut back severely, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished.[116] All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act.[117] On 3 May, Parliament decreed The Protestation, attacking the 'wicked counsels' of Charles' government, whereby those who signed the petition undertook to defend 'the true reformed religion', parliament, and the king's person, honour and estate. Throughout May, the House of Commons launched several bills attacking bishops and episcopalianism in general, each time defeated in the Lords.[118] Although he made several important concessions, Charles improved his own military position by securing the favour of the Scots that summer by promising the official establishment of Presbyterianism. In return, he was able to enlist considerable anti-parliamentary support.[119] However, following the attempted coup of 'The Incident' in Scotland, Charles' credibility was significantly undermined.[120]

25

The Irish Rebellion

In a similar manner as pursued by the English Parliament in their opposition to Buckingham, albeit from a far less disingenuous stance, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that their opposition to Strafford had not negated their loyalty to Charles. They argued that Charles had been led astray by the malign influence of the Earl,[121] and that, moreover, the ambiguity surrounding Poynings' Law meant that, instead of ensuring that the king was directly involved in the governance of Ireland, that a viceroy such as Strafford, the Earl of Wentworth, could emerge as a despotic figure.[122] However, unlike their Old English counterparts who were Catholic,[123] the New English settlers in Ireland were Protestant and could loosely be defined as aligned with the English Parliament and the Puritans; thereby fundamentally opposed to the crown due to unfolding events within England herself. Various disputes between native and coloniser concerning a transference of land ownership from Catholic to Protestant,[123] particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster,[124] coupled with the gradual overshadowing of the Irish Parliament by the English Parliament[125] would sow the seeds of conflagration in Ireland that, despite its initial chaos, provide the catalyst for direct armed combat within England between royalists and parliamentarians. The success of the trial against Strafford weakened Charles' influence in Ireland, whilst also providing a natural conduit for cooperation between the Gaelic Irish and Old English,[126] who had hitherto been antagonistic towards one another.[127] Thus, in the conflict between the Gaelic Irish, and New English settlers, in the Irish Rebellion of 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish whilst simultaneously professing their loyalty to the king.[128] Though in November 1641 the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles' ministers committed since the beginning of his reign that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy which the king was an unwitting member,[129] it was in many ways a step too far by Pym

Charles I of England (passed by 6 votes, 200 abstained).[130] Furthermore the Remonstrance attacked the members of the House of Lords as being guilty of blocking reform, who duly defeated the Remonstrance when brought before them.[131] The tension was heightened when news of the Irish rebellion reached Parliament, coupled with rumours of Charles' complicity.[132] The Irish Catholic army, established by Strafford, whose dissolution had been demanded thrice by the House of Commons, professed their loyalty to the king.[115] This was combined with the massacres of Protestant New English in Ireland by Gaelic Irish who could not be controlled by their lords, and proved to be the final antinomy between the English Parliament and the king in relation to Charles' authority to govern.[133] Throughout November a storm of publicity concerning the Irish depositions, coupled with stories concerning 'Papist conspiracies' alive within England herself circulated the kingdom, and were published in the form of a series of alarmist pamphlets.[134] The English Parliament did not trust Charles' motivations when he called for funds to put down the rebellion, many members of the House of Commons fearing that forces raised by Charles might later be used against Parliament itself. The Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone the king.[135] Indeed, the Militia Ordinance appears to have been the single most decisive moment in prompting an exodus from the Upper House to support Charles.[136] In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into anarchy, when he placed the Tower of London under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford, an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer.[137] When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria,[138] the king decided to take drastic action which would not only end the diplomatic stalemate between himself and Parliament, but signal the beginning of the civil war.

26

Henrietta Maria (c. 1633) by Sir Anthony van Dyck

Charles suspected, correctly, that there were members of the English Parliament who had colluded with the invading Scots.[129] On 3 January, Charles directed Parliament to give up six members on the grounds of High Treason. When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which Charles intended to carry out personally.[129] However, news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig slipped away shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January 1642.[139] Having displaced the Speaker, William Lenthall from his chair, the king asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here."[140] Charles abjectly declared 'all my birds have flown', and was forced to retire, empty-handed.[139] The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles. In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' arguments that the king was the only bulwark against a rising tide of innovation and disorder.[141] No English sovereign ever had (or has since that time) entered the House of Commons by force.[142] Parliament quickly seized London, and on 10 January 1642, Charles was forced to leave the capital, where he began travelling north to raise an army against his Parliament.[143]

Charles I of England

27

English Civil War

The English Civil War had not yet started, but both sides began to arm as the summer of 1642 progressed. Following futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642.[144] He then set up his court at Oxford, when his government controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and north of England. Parliament remained in control of London and the south-east as well as East Anglia.[145] Charles raised an army using the archaic method of the Commission of Array. The First Civil War started on 26 October 1642 with the inconclusive Battle of Edgehill and continued indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the Battle of Naseby tipped the military balance decisively in favour of Parliament. There followed a great number of defeats for the Royalists, and then the Siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped in April 1646.[146] He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army at Newark, and was taken to nearby Southwell while his "hosts" decided what to do with him. The Presbyterians finally arrived at an agreement with Parliament and delivered Charles to them in 1647. He was imprisoned at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire, until cornet George Joyce took him by force to Newmarket in the name of the New Model Army. At this time mutual suspicion had developed between the New Model Army and Parliament, and Charles was eager to exploit it. He was then transferred first to Oatlands and then Hampton Court, where more involved but fruitless negotiations took place. He was persuaded that it would be in his best interests to escapeperhaps abroad, to France, or to the custody of Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight.[147] He decided on the last course, believing Hammond to be sympathetic, and fled on 11 November.[148] Hammond, however, was opposed to Charles, whom he confined in Carisbrooke Castle.[149] From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, Charles on 26 Dec. 1647 signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles' behalf and restore him to the throne on condition of the establishment of Presbyterianism for three years.[142] The Royalists rose in July 1648, igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Most of the uprisings in England were put down by forces loyal to Parliament after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings in Kent, Essex, and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales, and the Scottish invasion involved the fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges. But with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston, the Royalists lost any chance of winning the war.

Charles I of England

28

Trial
Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle. In January 1649, in response to Charles' defiance of Parliament even after defeat, and his encouraging the second Civil War while in captivity, the House of Commons passed an Act of Parliament creating a court for Charles' trial. After the first Civil War, the parliamentarians accepted the premise that the king, although wrong, had been able to justify his fight, and that he would still be entitled to limited powers as King under a new constitutional settlement. It was now felt that by provoking the second Civil War even while defeated and in captivity, Charles showed himself responsible for unjustifiable bloodshed. The secret treaty with the Scots was considered particularly unpardonable; "a more prodigious treason", said Cromwell, "than any that had been perfected before; because the former quarrel was that Englishmen might rule over one another; this to vassalise us to a foreign nation."[142] Cromwell had up to this point supported negotiations with the king, but now rejected further diplomacy.[142]

The idea of trying a king was a novel one; previous monarchs (Edward II, Richard II and Henry VI) had been overthrown and murdered by their successors, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of England.[150] The charge against Charles I stated that the king, "for accomplishment of such his designs, and for the protecting of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices, to the same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented...", that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation."[150] Estimated deaths from the first two English civil wars has been reported as 84,830 killed with estimates of another 100,000 dying from war-related disease,"[151] this was in 1650 out of a population of only 5.1million, (or 3.6% of the population).[152] The indictment against the king therefore held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby."[150] The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 Commissioners but only 68 ever sat in judgement (all firm Parliamentarians); the prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cooke. Charles' trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" began on 20 January 1649, but Charles refused to enter a plea, claiming that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch.[153] He believed that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditions and laws of England when he was crowned and anointed, and that the power wielded by those trying him was simply that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining, "Then for the law of this land, I am no less confident, that no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King, they all going in his name: and one of their maxims is, that the King can do no wrong."[154] When urged to enter a plea, he stated his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?"[153] The court, by contrast, proposed an interpretation of the law that legitimised the trial, which was founded on "...the fundamental proposition that the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'."[155] Over a period of a week, when Charles was asked to plead three times, he refused. It was then normal practice to take a refusal to plead as pro confesso: an admission of guilt, which meant that the prosecution could not call

A plate depicting the Trial of Charles I on 4 January 1649.

Charles I of England witnesses to its case. However, the trial did hear witnesses. The King was declared guilty at a public session on Saturday 27 January 1649 and sentenced to death. Fifty-nine of the Commissioners signed Charles' death warrant. After the ruling, he was led from St. James's Palace, where he was confined, to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House.

29

Execution
Charles Stuart, as his death warrant states, was beheaded on Tuesday, 30 January 1649. Before the execution it was reported that he wore two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear or weakness.[2] The execution took place at Whitehall on a scaffold in front of the Banqueting House. Charles was separated from the people by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold. He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government.... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things."[142]

This contemporary German print depicts Charles I's decapitation.

Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready; he was then beheaded with one clean stroke. His last words were, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be."[2] Philip Henry records that moments after the execution, a moan was heard from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, thus starting the cult of the Martyr King; however, no other eyewitness source, including Samuel Pepys, records this. Henry's account was written during the Restoration, some 12 years after the event though Henry was 19 when the King was executed and he and his family were Royalist propaganda writers.[1] The executioner was masked, and there is some debate over his identity. It is known that the Commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common Hangman of London, but that he refused, and contemporary sources do not generally identify him as the King's headsman. Ellis's Historical Inquiries, however, names him as the executioner, contending that he stated so before dying. It is possible he relented and agreed to undertake the commission, but there are others who have been identified. An Irishman named Gunning is widely believed to have beheaded Charles, and a plaque naming him as the executioner is on show in the Kings Head pub in Galway, Ireland. William Hewlett was convicted of regicide after the Restoration.[156] In 1661, two people identified as "Dayborne and Bickerstaffe" were arrested but then discharged. Henry Walker, a revolutionary journalist, or his brother William, were suspected but never charged. Various local legends around England name local worthies. An examination performed in 1813 at Windsor suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman. It was common practice for the head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!" Although Charles' head was exhibited, the words were not used. In an unprecedented gesture, one of the revolutionary leaders, Oliver Cromwell, allowed the King's head to be sewn back onto his body so the family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private on the night of 7 February 1649, inside the Henry VIII vault in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The royal retainers Sir Thomas Herbert, Capt. Anthony Mildmay, Sir Henry Firebrace, William Levett Esq. and Abraham Dowcett (sometimes spelled Dowsett) conveyed the King's body to Windsor.[157] [158] The King's son, King Charles II, later planned an elaborate royal mausoleum, but it was never

Charles I of England built. Ten days after Charles' execution, a memoir purporting to be written by the king appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek: the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and it proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. William Levett, Charles' groom of the bedchamber, who accompanied Charles on the day of his execution, swore that he had personally witnessed the King writing the Eikon Basilike.[159] John Cooke published the speech he would have delivered if Charles had entered a plea, while Parliament commissioned John Milton to write a rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book.[160] Following the death of the king, several works were written expressing the outrage of the people at such an act. The ability to execute a king, believed to be the spokesman of God, was a shock to the country. Several poems, such as Katherine Phillips' Upon the Double Murder of King Charles, express the depth of their outrage. In her poem, Phillips describes the "double murder" of the king; the execution of his life as well as the execution of his dignity. By killing a king, Phillips questioned the human race as a wholewhat they were capable of, and how low they would sink.[161]

30

Legacy
With the monarchy overthrown, and the Commonwealth of England declared, power was assumed by a Council of State, which included Lord Fairfax, then Lord General of the Parliamentary Army, and Oliver Cromwell. The final conflicts between Parliamentary forces and Royalists were decided in the Third English Civil War and Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, whereby all significant military opposition to the Parliament and New Model Army was extinguished. The image of Charles being mocked by The Long Parliament (known by then as the Rump Parliament) which Cromwell's soldiers was used by French artist had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist (with varying Hippolyte Delaroche in his 1836 painting, Charles I Insulted by Cromwell's Soldiers, influence) until Cromwell forcibly disbanded it completely in 1653, rediscovered in 2009, as an allegory to the more thereby establishing The Protectorate. Cromwell then became Lord recent similar events in France, felt to be still too Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: recent to paint he was even 'invested' on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and the first elections in twenty years led to the election of a Convention Parliament which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as Charles II. Following the Restoration, Oliver Cromwell was exhumed and posthumously beheaded. Republicanism thus had a brief tenure in British governance, but nevertheless, the monarchy never regained the heights of power it had experienced under the Tudors and early Stuarts. Moreover, continued fears concerning the accession of a Catholic heir, and consequent persecution of the Protestant Church (as under Mary I), or foreign intervention by the Habsburgs or French, meant that the right of succession was closely guarded. Ultimately, in the conflict between William III, and James II, it was William, the foreign usurper, who became the popular defender of Protestantism. Throughout the 19th century Parliament gradually assumed greater effective control of British government, whereby the king's prime minister became the de facto leader of the United Kingdom. The Colony of Carolina in North America, which later separated into North Carolina and South Carolina was named after Charles I, as was the major city of Charleston. To the north in the Virginia Colony, Cape Charles, Charles River Shire and the Charles City Shire were all likewise named after him, although the king personally named the Charles River.[162] Charles City Shire survives almost 400 years later as Charles City County, Virginia. The Virginia Colony

Charles I of England is now the Commonwealth of Virginia and retains its official nickname of "The Old Dominion" bestowed by Charles II because it had remained loyal to Charles I during the English Civil War. English furniture produced during the reign of Charles I is distinctive and is commonly characterised as Charles I period.

31

Memorial to Charles I at Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight

Sainthood

Saint Charles Stuart

King Charles the Martyr Born 19 November 1600(1600-11-19)Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland

Venerated in Anglican Communion Canonized 1660

Major shrine Church of King Charles the Martyr Feast Patronage 30 January Society of King Charles the Martyr, artists

During the reign of his son Charles II, Charles I was officially canonised by the Church of England as King Charles the Martyr and Saint Charles Stuart, the only saint to be officially canonised within the Anglican Communion. His feast day varies depending on local Anglican liturgical calendars. He is considered a martyr who died for the preservation of Apostolic Succession in the Anglican Church. There are many societies dedicated to his devotion.

Assessments
Archbishop William Laud described Charles as "A mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great."[163] Ralph Dutton says - "In spite of his intelligence and cultivation, Charles was curiously inept in his contacts with human beings. Socially, he was tactless and diffident, and his manner was not helped by his stutter and thick Scottish accent, while in public he was seldom able to make a happy impression."[164]

Charles I of England

32

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles
Royal styles of

Charles I of England
Reference style Spoken style His Majesty Your Majesty

Alternative style Sire

Royal styles of

Charles I, King of Scots

Reference style Spoken style His Grace Your Grace

Alternative style Sire

19 November 1600 27 March 1625: Prince (or Lord) Charles 23 December 1603 27 March 1625: The Duke of Albany 6 January 1605 27 March 1625: The Duke of York 6 November 1612 27 March 1625: The Duke of Cornwall 4 November 1616 27 March 1625: The Prince of Wales 27 March 1625 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King

During his time as heir apparent, Charles held the titles of Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Duke of York, Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Carrick, Earl of Ross, Baron Renfrew, Lord Ardmannoch, Lord of the Isles, Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. The official style of Charles I was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, King of Scots, Defender of the Faith, etc." (The claim to France was only nominal, and was asserted by every English King from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) The authors of his death warrant, however, did not wish to use the religious portions of his title. It referred to him only as "Charles Stuart, King of England".

Honours
KG: Knight of the Garter, 24 April 1611 27 March 1625

Arms
As Duke of York, Charles bore the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux gules. As Prince of Wales he bore the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points.[165] Whilst he was King, Charles I's arms were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland).

Charles I of England

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Coat of arms as Prince of Wales

Charles I of England

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Coat of arms of Charles I

Coat of arms of Charles I in Scotland

Marriage and issue

Charles was father to a total of nine legitimate children, two of whom would eventually succeed him as king. His wife also had two stillbirths.[166] Charles is also believed to have had a daughter, prior to his marriage with Henrietta Maria. Her name was Joanna Brydges, born 1619-20, the daughter of a Miss Brydges ("a member of a younger branch of the ancient Kentish family of that name"), possibly from the line of Brydges of Chandos and Sudeley. Joanna Brydges, who was provided for by the estate of Mandinam, Carmarthenshire, was brought up in

Painting of Charles I's children. The future Charles II is depicted at centre, stroking the dog

Charles I of England secrecy at Glamorgan, Wales. She went on to become second wife to Bishop Jeremy Taylor, author of Holy Living and Holy Dying and chaplain to both Archbishop Laud and Charles I. The Bishop and his wife Joanna Brydges left for Ireland, where Jeremy Taylor became Bishop of Down, Connor and Dromore in 1660. Joanna Brydges and Jeremy Taylor had several children, including two daughters, Joanna Taylor (Harrison) and Mary Taylor (Marsh).[167] [168]
Name Charles II, King of England, Scotland and Ireland Mary, Princess Royal Birth Death Notes Married Catherine of Braganza (16381705) in 1663. No legitimate issue. Charles II is believed to have fathered such illegitimate children as James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, who later rose against James VII and II.

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29 May 1630 6 February 1685

4 November 1631 14 October 1633

24 December Married William II, Prince of Orange (16261650) in 1641. She had one child: William 1660 III of England 16 September Married (1) Anne Hyde (16371671) in 1659. Had issue including Mary II of England 1701 and Anne of England; Married (2) Mary of Modena (16581718) in 1673. Had issue. No issue.

James VII and II, King of England, Scotland and Ireland Elizabeth, Princess of England Anne, Princess of England

29 December 8 September 1635 1650 17 March 1637 8 December 1640

Died young.

Henry, Duke of Gloucester 8 July 1640

18 September No issue. 1660

Henrietta Anne, Princess of England

16 June 1644 30 June 1670 Married Philip I, Duke of Orlans (16401701) in 1661. Had legitimate issue. Among her descendants were the kings of Sardinia and Italy.

Notes
[1] "HistoryCharles I (16001649)" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ charles_i_king. shtml). British Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [2] "Charles I (r. 162549)" (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ HistoryoftheMonarchy/ KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/ TheStuarts/ CharlesI. aspx). Royal.gov.uk. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [3] "Queen Henrietta Maria, 160969" (http:/ / www. british-civil-wars. co. uk/ biog/ henrietta-maria. htm). British-civil-wars.co.uk. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [4] "Queen Henrietta Maria, 160969" (http:/ / www. british-civil-wars. co. uk/ glossary/ parliament-1625-29. htm). British-civil-wars.co.uk. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [5] "Charles, King and Martyr" (http:/ / www. skcm. org/ SCharles/ scharles_main. html). SKCM. . Retrieved 16 October 2008. [6] "Memorable Christians" (http:/ / justus. anglican. org/ resources/ bio/ 92. html). justus.anglican.org. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [7] Carlton, 2 [8] Carlton, 3 [9] Gregg, 11 [10] Gregg, 22 [11] Gregg, 19 [12] Gregg, 29 [13] Gregg, 38 [14] Gregg, 47 [15] Loades, 352 [16] Loades, 356 [17] Coward, 152 [18] Coward, 153 [19] Trevelyan, 107 [20] Trevelyan, 110 [21] Trevelyan, 108 [22] Trevelyan, 111 [23] Amith, 385 [24] The Western Heritage, Eighth Edition, chapter 13, page 420

Charles I of England
[25] Amith, 156 [26] Trevelyan, 112 [27] Loades 367 [28] Gregg, 106 [29] Gregg, 80 [30] Gardiner, 577 [31] Trevelyan, 113 [32] Loades, 359 [33] "Lecture 7: The English Civil War" (http:/ / www. historyguide. org/ earlymod/ lecture7c. html). History Guide. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [34] "Timeline - English Civil War" (http:/ / www. historyonthenet. com/ Chronology/ timelinecivilwar. htm). History on the Net. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [35] Trevelyan,117 [36] Trevelyan, 119 [37] "Info Please: Charle I's Early Life" (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ce6/ people/ A0920728. html). Infoplease.com. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [38] Gregg, 130,131 [39] See Acts 25:10-12 (NRSV translation): "Paul said, 'I am appealing to the emperor's tribunal; this is where I should be tried. I have done no wrong to the Jews, as you very well know. 11Now if I am in the wrong and have committed something for which I deserve to die, I am not trying to escape death; but if there is nothing to their charges against me, no one can turn me over to them. I appeal to the emperor.' 12Then Festus, after he had conferred with his council, replied, 'You have appealed to the emperor; to the emperor you will go.'" [40] Gregg, 131 [41] Sturdy, 38 [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] Reddaway, 129 Sturdy, 108 Loades, 368 Gregg, 129 Gregg, 138 Gregg, 149 Gregg, 150 Coward, 162 Smith, 116 Coward, 163 Sturdy, 128 Trevelyan 119 Quintrell, 32 Coward, 518 Carlton, 111 Kenyon, 96-97, 101-05 Schama, 69-74 "Info Please: Charles I's Reign" (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ce6/ people/ A0920729. html). Infoplease.com. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. Adamson, 16 Kenyon, 105-06 Loades, 375 Carlton, 170 Carlton, 172 Carlton, 154 Gregg, 40 Gregg,220 Quintrell, 460 Quintrell, 62 Adamson, 8 Adamson, 9 Loades, 385 Gregg, 286 "Charles I of England" (http:/ / www. spiritus-temporis. com/ charles-i-of-england/ ). Spiritus-temporis.com. . Retrieved 24 April 2008. Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos, edited by George Garnett, Cambridge, 1994.

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[76] Judson, 10 [77] Sturdy, 35

Charles I of England
[78] "Archbishop William Laud, 1573-1645" (http:/ / www. british-civil-wars. co. uk/ biog/ laud. htm). British-civil-wars.co.uk. . Retrieved 24 April 2008. [79] "William Laud" (http:/ / www. nndb. com/ people/ 435/ 000107114/ ). Nndb.com. . Retrieved 24 April 2008. [80] Coward, 175 [81] Coward, 174 [82] Loades, 393 [83] MacCulloch, 521 [84] MacCulloch, 522 [85] Trevelyan, 166 [86] Coward, 180 [87] Cust, 246-7 [88] Adamson, 10 [89] Murphy, 211-235 [90] Adamson, 11 [91] Loades, 401 [92] Adamson, 14 [93] Adamson, 15 [94] Adamson, 17 [95] "CHARLES I (r. 1625-49)" (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ output/ Page76. asp). Royal.gov.uk. . Retrieved 27 October 2008. [96] Gillespie, 124 [97] Smith, Alan G.R. 278 [98] Quintrell, 46 [99] Gillespie, 125 [100] Glover, 171 [101] Gregg, 313 [102] Stevenson, 101 [103] Carlton, 216 [104] Loades, 404 [105] Stevenson, 212 [106] Gregg, 325 [107] Carlton, 222 [108] Hibbert, 151 [109] Gillespie, 130. [110] Hibbert, 154 [111] Carlton, 224 [112] Carlton, 225 [113] Smith, 123 [114] Coward, 191 [115] Kenyon, 127 [116] Gregg, 335 [117] Kenyon, 129 [118] Kenyon, 130 [119] Starky, 112 [120] Kenyon, 133 [121] Gillespie, 131 [122] Gillespie, 137 [123] Gillespie, 3 [124] Loades, 413 [125] Siochr, 108 [126] Moody, Martin, 197 [127] Lennon, 322 [128] Moody, Martin, 200 [129] Starky, 113 [130] Loades, 415 [131] Kenyon, 135 [132] Loades, 414 [133] Gillespie, 144 [134] Loades, 416 [135] Kenyon, 136

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Charles I of England
[136] Smith, 129 [137] Kenyon, 137 [138] Loades, 417 [139] Starky, 114 [140] Sparrow, Andrew (28 October 2000). "Some predecessors kept their nerve, others lost their heads" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ uknews/ 4790900/ Some-predecessors-kept-their-nerve-others-lost-their-heads. html). London: The Daily Telegraph. . Retrieved 3 June 2009. [141] Loades, 418 [142] "King Charles I" (http:/ / www. luminarium. org/ encyclopedia/ kingcharles. htm). Luminarium Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 8 April 2010. [143] Kenyon, 139 [144] Loades, 422 [145] Loades, 423 [146] "Info Please: Charles I's Civil War" (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ce6/ people/ A0920730. html). Infoplease.com. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [147] [List "of Persons Desired by His Majesty to Attend Him the Isle of Wight, The Parliamentary or Constitutional History of England, 1763"]. List. [148] "Message from the King; on His Escape from Hampton Court, that He will appear again if He can be heard, and will give Satisfaction." (http:/ / www. british-history. ac. uk/ report. asp?compid=37160#s15), Journal of the House of Lords (http:/ / www. british-history. ac. uk/ source. asp?pubid=191), 9, London, South East, South West, East, Midlands, North, Scotland, Wales: (History of Parliament Trust), 12 November 1647, pp.519522, [149] "Letter from Colonel Hammond, that he has ordered, no Persons shall come in or go out of the Isle of Wight without his Pass;and desiring the King's former Allowance may be continued to Him." (http:/ / www. british-history. ac. uk/ report. asp?compid=37165#s16), Journal of the House of Lords (http:/ / www. british-history. ac. uk/ source. asp?pubid=191), 9, London, South East, South West, East, Midlands, North, Scotland, Wales: (History of Parliament Trust), 18 November 1647, pp.531533, [150] Samuel Rawson Gardiner (ed.) (1906). "The Charge against the King" (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ eng/ conpur082. htm). The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revoltion 1625-1660. Oxford University Press. . Retrieved 8 April 2010. [151] Samuel Charles Carlton (1992). "Going to the Wars: the experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638-1651" (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/ warstat0. htm#EnglCW). Oxford University Press. . Retrieved 8 April 2010. [152] David B. Grigg (1980), Population growth and agrarian change: an historical perspective (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vxo7AAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=grigg& cd=1#v=onepage& q), Cambridge University Press, p.84, ISBN9780521296359, , retrieved 8 April 2010 [153] Robertson, Crimes, 5 [154] Samuel Rawson Gardiner (ed.) (1906). "The King's reasons for declining the jurisdiction of the High Court of Justice" (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ eng/ conpur083. htm). The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revoltion 1625-1660. Oxford University Press. . Retrieved 8 April 2010. [155] Robertson, Tyrannicide [156] "Selections from the Trial and Execution of Col. Daniel Axtell in October 1660" (http:/ / www. axtellfamily. org/ axfamous/ regicide/ DanielAxtellTrial1660. htm). Axtell Family. . Retrieved 27 October 2008. [157] A Narrative by John Ashburnham of His Attendance on King Charles I, 1830 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jMMBAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA410& lpg=PA410& dq=levet+ mildmay), Google Books, 1830, , retrieved 27 October 2008 [158] Memoirs of the two last years of the Reign of King Charles I, Thomas Herbert, 1815 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=czoIAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA213& lpg=PA213& dq="thomas+ herbert"+ levet), Google Books, 1815, , retrieved 27 October 2008 [159] The Life of Charles the First, the Royal Martyr, Charles Wheeler Coit, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1926 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Hv__9MKX1aMC& pg=PA299& lpg=PA299& dq="william+ levett"+ king+ charles), Google Books, 2006-07, ISBN9781428656673, , retrieved 27 October 2008 [160] Almack, Edward (1896), The Life of Charles the First, the Royal Martyr, Charles Wheeler Coit, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1926 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2H6gpNM-yFcC& pg=PA91& lpg=PA91& dq="william+ levet"+ marlborough), Google Books, , retrieved 27 October 2008 [161] Broadview Anthology of British Literature, Vol. 2 [162] Stewart, George R. (1967) [1945], Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States (Sentry edition (3rd) ed.), Houghton Mifflin, pp.38, ISBN1590172736 [163] Archbishop Laud, quoted by his chaplain Peter Heylin in Cyprianus Angelicus, 1688 [164] Dutton,232 [165] "Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family" (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ cadency. htm). Heraldica.org. . Retrieved 27 October 2008. [166] "Britannia: Monarchs of Britain" (http:/ / www. britannia. com/ history/ monarchs/ mon47. html). Britannia. . Retrieved 20 April 2008. [167] "A Sketch of the Life and Times of Bishop Taylor" (http:/ / biblestudy. churches. net/ CCEL/ T/ TAYLOR/ HOLY_LIV/ HOLY_LI1. HTM). Bible Study. . Retrieved 27 October 2008. [168] "Jeremy Taylor, Bishop and Theologian (13 August 1667)" (http:/ / www. satucket. com/ lectionary/ Jeremy_Taylor. htm). Satucket.com. . Retrieved 27 October 2008.

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References
Adamson, John (2009), The Noble Revolt, London: Phoenix, ISBN9780297842620 0297842625 Amith, Alan (1984), The Emergence of a Nation State, London: Longman, ISBN0582489741 9780582489745 0582489733 9780582489738 Ashley, Maurice (1987), Charles I and Cromwell (http://www.amazon.com/ Charles-I-Cromwell-Maurice-Ashley/dp/0413162702/ref=sr_1_2ie=UTF8&s=books&qisbn=1208807323& sr=1-2), Methuen, ISBN978-0413162700 Carlton, Charles (1995), Charles I: The Personal Monarch, Great Britain: Routledge, ISBN0415121418 Coward, Barry (1994), The Stuart Age, London: Longman, ISBN0582482798 9780582482791 0582488338 9780582488335 Cust, Richard (2005), Charles I: A Political Life, London: Longman, ISBN978-1405859035 Dutton, Ralph (1963), English Court Life: From Henry VII to George II, London: B.T. Batsford, ISBN978-1405859035 Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1962), The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 16251660 (Third ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press Gillespie, Raymond (2006), Seventeenth Century Ireland (Third ed.), Dublin: Gill and McMillon, ISBN9780717139460 0717139468 Glover, Janet R. (1964), The Story of Scotland, London: Faber and Faber, ISBN0571049311 9780571049318 0571049354 9780571049356 Gregg, Pauline (1981), King Charles I, London: Dent Hibbert, Christopher (1968), Charles I, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Hill, C. (1991), The Century of Revolution, 16031714 (http://books.google.com/?id=k1P9UCxwmUkC), Great Britain: Routledge, ISBN0415051789 Holmes, Clive (2006), Why was Charles I Executed?, Continuum International, ISBN1852852828 Kenyon, J.P. (1978), Stuart England, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Lennon, Colm (1995), Sixteenth Century IrelandThe Incomplete Conquest, Dublin: St. Martin's Press, ISBN0312124627 Loades, D.M. (1974), Politics and the Nation, London: Fontana Moody, T.W.; Martin, F.X. (1967), The Course of Irish History, Cork Murphy, Derrick (2002), Britain 1558-1689, London: HarperCollins Publishers, ISBN0-00-713850-4 Quintrell, Brian (1993), Charles I 1625-1640, Harlow: Pearson Education, ISBN0582003547 9780582003545 Reeve, L. J. (1989), Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule (http://books.google.com/?id=kszoNS3KM4oC), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN0521521335 Robertson, Geoffrey, Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (Second ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, ISBN978-0141010144 Robertson, Geoffrey (2005), The Tyrannicide Brief: The Man Who Sent Charles I to the Scaffold, Chatto & Windus, ISBN0-7011-7602-4 Reddaway, W.F. (1948), A History of Europe - Volume VI, London: Methuen Rushworth, J. (1959), The Trial of King Charles I, Lockyer O Siochr, Micheal (2001), Kingdoms in Crisis, Dublin Schama, Simon (2001), A History of England, Vol. II, New York: Simon and Schuster Smith, Alan G. R. (1984), The Emergence of a Nation State, London: Longman, ISBN0582489741 9780582489745 0582489733 9780582489738 Smith, David L. (1999), The Stuart Parliaments 1603-1689, London: Arnold Starky, David (2006), Monarchy, London: Harper Perennial Stevenson, David (1973), The Scottish Revolution 1637-44, Newton Aboot: David & Charles

Charles I of England Sturdy, David J (2002), Fractured Europe 1600-1721, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN0631205128 9780631205128 0631205136 9780631205135 Trevelyan, G.M (1996), A History of England England under the Stuarts, London: The Folio Society

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Further reading
Abbott, Jacob (1901), Charles I, Great Britain: Harper & brothers, ISBN1409909840 Abbott, Jacob (1900), History of King Charles the First of England, Great Britain: Henry Altemus company Kishlansky, Mark A. (2005), "Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity" no.189, Past and Present,4180 Mackintosh, James; Wallace, William & Bell, Robert (1835), London: Longman Turnbull, Mark (2009), Historical Fiction - Decision Most Deadly, Toro Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1955), The Great Rebellion: The King's Peace, 16371641, Colins Wedgwood, Cicely Veronica (1958), The Great Rebellion: The King's War, 1641-1647, London: Collins Wedgewood, Cicely Veronica (1964), A Coffin for King Charles: The Trial and Execution of Charles I, London: Macmillan, ISBN978-0026255004 Williamson, D. (1998), The Kings and Queens of England, London: National Portrait Gallery, ISBN1-85514-228-7, OCLC153799778

External links
Chronology Charles I World History Database (http://www.malc.eu/history/Charles-I-England.biog.html) English Civil War World History Database (http://www.malc.eu/history/Civil-War-England.general.chron. html) The Royal Household. (2004). "Charles I." Official Web Site of the British Monarchy (http://www.royal.gov. uk/output/Page76.asp) Archival material relating to Charles I of England (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/nra/searches/ subjectView.asp?ID=P5401) listed at the UK National Register of Archives "Decision Most Deadly" historical novel set in 1641, featuring King Charles I (http://www.decisionmostdeadly. com/) The Parliamentary Archives holds the original of Charles I's death warrant (http://www.parliament.uk/ archives) The Society of King Charles the Martyr (http://www.skcm.org) The Society of King Charles the Martyr (United States) (http://www.skcm-usa.org) Biography of King Charles I, 1600-1649 (http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/charles1.htm) Rediscovered painting of Charles I to be shown at National Gallery (http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/ tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article6930426.ece) Works by or about Charles I of England (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-132433) in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Books about Charles I available online

History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England: Begun in the Year 1641 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon (1717): Volume I, Part 1 (http://www.archive.org/stream/historyrebellio05clargoog), Volume I, Part 2 (http://www.archive.org/stream/historyrebellio09clargoog), Volume II, Part 1 (http://www.archive. org/stream/historyrebellio02clargoog), Volume II, Part 2 (http://www.archive.org/stream/ historyrebellio07clargoog), Volume III, Part 1 (http://www.archive.org/stream/historyrebellio00clargoog), Volume III, Part 2 (http://www.archive.org/stream/historyrebellio03clargoog) The History of Great Britain Under the House of Stuart by David Hume (1759): Volume I (http://www.archive. org/details/historyofgreatbr01humeiala), Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/

Charles I of England historyofgreatbr02humeiala) An Historical and Critical Account of the Lives and Writings of James I and Charles I, and the Lives of Oliver Cromwell and Charles II by William Harris (1814): Volume I (http://www.archive.org/details/ anhistoricaland02harrgoog), Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/anhistoricaland00harrgoog), Volume III (http://www.archive.org/stream/anhistoricaland03harrgoog), Volume IV (http://www.archive.org/ stream/anhistoricaland05harrgoog), Volume V (http://www.archive.org/details/anhistoricaland01harrgoog) The Trials of Charles the First, and of Some Regicides (http://www.archive.org/stream/ trialscharlesfi00petegoog) (published by John Murray, 1820) The High Court of Justice; Comprising Memoirs of the Principal Persons Who Sat in Judgment on King Charles the First (http://www.archive.org/stream/highcourtofjusti00caul), by James Caulfield (1820) A History of the British Empire, From the Accession of Charles I to the Restoration by George Brodie (1822): Volume I (http://www.archive.org/details/ahistorybritish00brodgoog), Volume II (http://www.archive.org/ stream/ahistorybritish03brodgoog), Volume III (http://www.archive.org/stream/ahistorybritish02brodgoog), Volume IV (http://www.archive.org/details/ahistorybritish01brodgoog) Memoirs of the Court of King Charles the First by Lucy Aikin (1833): Volume I (http://www.archive.org/ stream/memoirscourtkin05aikigoog), Volume II (http://www.archive.org/stream/memoirsofcourtof02aikiiala)

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The Great Civil War of Charles I and the Parliament (http://www.archive.org/details/ greatcivilwarofc00cattiala) by Richard Cattermole, with illustrations by George Cattermole (1845) History of Charles the First and the English Revolution, from the Accession of Charles the First to His Execution by Franois Guizot, trans. Sir Andrew Scoble (1854): Volume I (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofcharles01guiz), Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/historyofcharles02guiz) Charles I in 1646: Letters to Queen Henrietta Maria (http://www.archive.org/details/ charlesiinlette00chargoog), ed. John Bruce (1856) Arrest of the Five Members by Charles the First: A Chapter of English History Rewritten (http://www.archive. org/details/arrestoffivememb00forsiala) by John Forster (1860) The Spanish Match; or, Charles Stuart at Madrid by William Harrison Ainsworth (1865): Volume I (http:// www.archive.org/details/spanishmatchorch01ains), Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/ spanishmatchorch02ains), Volume III (http://www.archive.org/details/spanishmatchorch03ains) Notes of the Treaty Carried on at Ripon between Charles I and the Covenanters of Scotland (http://www. archive.org/stream/notestreatycarr00borogoog) by John Borough, ed. John Bruce (1869) Charles I (http://www.archive.org/stream/charlesi00abboiala) by Jacob Abbott (1876, 1904) Eikon Basilike (http://www.archive.org/stream/portraiturehism00gaudgoog), ed. Catherine Mary Phillimore (1879) The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, 1637-1649 by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1882): Volume I (1637-1640) (http://www.archive.org/details/fallmonarchycha02gardgoog), Volume II (1640-1642) (http://www.archive. org/details/fallmonarchycha00gardgoog) A Secret Negotiation with Charles the First, 1643-1644 (http://www.archive.org/details/ secretnegociatio00gardrich), ed. Bertha Meriton Gardiner (1883) History of England from the Accession of James I to the Outbreak of the Civil War, 1603-1642 by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (18831891): Volume I (1603-1607) (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofengland01gard), Volume II (1607-1616) (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofengland02gardiala), Volume III (1616-1621) (http://www.archive.org/stream/ historyofengland03gardiala), Volume IV (1621-1623) (http://www.archive.org/stream/ historyofengland04gardiala), Volume V (1623-1625) (http://www.archive.org/stream/ historyofenglan05gardiala), Volume VI (1625-1629) (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofenglan06gardiala), Volume VII (1629-1635) (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofengland07gardiala), Volume VIII (1635-1639) (http://www.archive.org/details/

Charles I of England historyofengland08gardiala), Volume IX (1639-1641) (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofengland06gardiala), Volume X (1641-1642) (http://www.archive.org/stream/ historyenglandf21gardgoog) History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649 by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (18861901): Volume I (1642-1644) (http://www.archive.org/stream/historygreatciv07gardgoog), Volume II (1644-1647) (http://www.archive. org/stream/historygreatciv04gardgoog), Volume III (1645-1647) (http://www.archive.org/stream/ historygreatciv00gardgoog), Volume IV (1647-1649) (http://www.archive.org/stream/ historygreatciv06gardgoog) The Picture Gallery of Charles I (http://www.archive.org/stream/picturegalleryof00philrich) by Sir Claude Phillips (1896) Historical Sketches of Notable Persons and Events in the Reigns of James I and Charles I (http://www.archive. org/details/historicalsketc00carlgoog) by Thomas Carlyle (1898) A History of the George Worn on the Scaffold by Charles I (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyofgeorgew00payniala) by Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey King Charles I: A Study (http://www.archive.org/stream/kingcharlesistud00dodgiala) by Walter Phelps Dodge (1912)

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Commons Debates for 1629 (http://www.archive.org/details/commonsdebatesfo00noterich), ed. Wallace Notestein & Frances Helen Relf (1921)

James I of England
James VI and I

Portrait by Daniel Mytens, 1621 King of Scots (more...) Reign Coronation 24 July 1567 27 March 1625 29 July 1567

Predecessor Mary, Queen of Scots Successor Regents Charles I James Stewart, Earl of Moray Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox John Erskine, Earl of Mar James Douglas, Earl of Morton King of England and Ireland (more...) Reign Coronation 24 March 1603 27 March 1625 25 July 1603

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Predecessor Elizabeth I Successor Consort Charles I Anne of Denmark

among others... Issue Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland House Father Mother Born Died Burial House of Stuart Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley Mary, Queen of Scots 19 June 1566 Edinburgh Castle, Scotland 27 March 1625 (aged58) (N.S.: 6 April 1625) Theobalds House, England 7 May 1625 Westminster Abbey

James VI & I (19 June 1566 27 March 1625) was King of Scots as JamesVI from 24 July 1567. On 24 March 1603, he also became King of England and Ireland as JamesI when he inherited the English crown and thereby united the Crowns of the Kingdoms of Scotland and England (each country remained legally separate, with their own Parliaments, judiciary, coinage etc., though both ruled by James). James VI & I continued to hold both crowns until his death in 1625, but based himself in England (the larger of the two realms) from 1603. He became King of Scotland when he was just thirteen months old, succeeding his mother Mary, Queen of Scots, who had been compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his government until 1581.[1] In 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue.[2] He then ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland for 22 years, often using the title King of Great Britain, until his death at the age of 58.[3] James, in line with other monarchs of England of the time, also claimed the title King of France, although he did not actually rule France. Under James, the "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued, with writers such as William Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson, and Sir Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture.[4] James himself was a talented scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie (1597), True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599).[5] Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed "the wisest fool in Christendom", an epithet associated with his character ever since.[6]

Childhood
Birth
James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, the older sister of Henry VIII. James was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I. Mary's rule over Scotland was insecure, for both she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. During Mary's and Darnley's difficult marriage,[7] Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the Queen's private secretary, David Rizzio, just three months before James was born.[8]

James I of England

44 James was born on 19June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. He was baptised "Charles James" on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France (represented by John, Count of Brienne), Elizabeth I of England (represented by James's aunt, Jean, Countess of Argyll), and Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (represented by Philibert du Croc, the French ambassador). Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as "a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was then the custom.[9]

James's father, Darnley, was murdered on 10February 1567 during an unexplained explosion at Kirk o' Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzio's death. James inherited his father's titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross. Mary was already an unpopular queen, and her marriage on 15May 1567 Portrait of James as a boy, after to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Arnold Bronckorst, 1574 Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her.[10] In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle; she never saw her son again. She was forced to abdicate on 24July in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent.[11]

Regencies
The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, "to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought"[12] in the security of Stirling Castle.[13] James was crowned King of Scots at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude, Stirling, by Adam Bothwell, Bishop of Orkney, on 29 July 1567.[14] The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox. In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class, James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland. The Privy Council selected George Buchanan, Peter Young, Adam Erskine, and David Erskine as James's preceptors or tutors. As the young king's senior tutor, Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning.[15] Buchanan sought to turn James into a God-fearing, Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy, as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos.[16] In 1568 Mary escaped from prison, leading to a brief period of violence. The Earl of Moray defeated Mary's troops at the Battle of Langside, forcing her to flee to England, where she was subsequently imprisoned by Elizabeth. On 23 January 1570, Moray was assassinated by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh.[17] The next regent was James's paternal grandfather, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, who a year later was carried fatally wounded into Stirling Castle after a raid by Mary's supporters.[18] His successor, John Erskine, 1st Earl of Mar, died soon after banqueting at the estate of James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, where he "took a vehement sickness", dying on 28 October 1572 at Stirling. Morton, who now took Mar's office, proved in many ways the most effective of James's regents,[19] but he made enemies by his rapacity.[20] He fell from favour when the Frenchman Esm Stewart, Sieur d'Aubigny, first cousin of James's father Lord Darnley, and future Earl of Lennox, arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James's powerful male favourites.[21] Morton was executed on 2 June 1581, belatedly charged with complicity in Lord Darnley's murder.[22] On 8 August, James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland.[23] Then fifteen years old, the king was to remain under the influence of Lennox for about one more year.[24]

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Rule in Scotland
Although a Protestant convert, Lennox was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists, who noticed the physical displays of affection between favourite and king and alleged that Lennox "went about to draw the King to carnal lust".[20] In August 1582, in what became known as the Ruthven Raid, the Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle, imprisoned him,[25] and forced Lennox to leave Scotland. After James was freed in June 1583, he assumed increasing control of his kingdom. He pushed through the Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk and between 1584 and 1603 established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords, ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane, who led the government until 1592.[26] One last Scottish attempt against the king's person occurred in August 1600, when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven, the Earl of Gowrie's younger brother, at Gowrie House, the seat of the Ruthvens.[27] Since Ruthven was run through by James's James in 1586, age 20 page John Ramsay and the Earl of Gowrie was himself killed in the ensuing fracas, James's account of the circumstances, given the lack of witnesses and his history with the Ruthvens, was not universally believed.[28] In 1586, James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England. That and the execution of his mother in 1587, which he denounced as a "preposterous and strange procedure", helped clear the way for his succession south of the border.[29] During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588, he assured Elizabeth of his support as "your natural son and compatriot of your country",[30] and as time passed and Elizabeth remained unmarried, securing the English succession became a cornerstone of James's policy.

Marriage
Throughout his youth, James was praised for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women; after the loss of Lennox, he continued to prefer male company.[31] A suitable marriage, however, was necessary to reinforce his monarchy, and the choice fell on the fourteen-year-old Anne of Denmark, younger daughter of the Protestant Frederick II. Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589, Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway. On hearing the crossing had been abandoned, James, in what Willson calls "the one romantic episode of his life",[32] sailed from Leith with a three-hundred-strong retinue to fetch Anne personally.[33] The couple were married formally at the Bishop's Palace in Oslo on 23 November and, after stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen, returned to Scotland in May 1590. By all accounts, James was at first infatuated with Anne, and in the early years of their marriage seems always to have showed her patience and affection.[34] Anne of Denmark, by John de Critz, c. 1605. The royal couple produced three surviving children: Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died of typhoid fever in 1612, aged 18; Elizabeth, later Queen of Bohemia; and Charles, the future King. Anne died before her husband in March 1619.

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Witch hunts
James's visit to Denmark, a country familiar with witch hunts, may have encouraged an interest in the study of witchcraft, which he considered a branch of theology.[35] He was delayed from leaving Denmark by bad weather, and was stranded in Norway for some weeks. After his return to Scotland, he attended the North Berwick witch trials, the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563. Several people, most notably Agnes Sampson, were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James's ship. James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches and, inspired by his personal involvement, in 1597 wrote the Daemonologie, a tract which opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare's Tragedy of Macbeth.[36] [37] James is known to have personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches.[37] After 1599, his views became more sceptical.[38] In a later letter written in England to his son Prince Henry, James congratulates the Prince on "the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench. I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries... most miracles now-a-days prove but illusions, and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations."[39]

Highlands and Islands

The forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard. Although the king had the power to subdue the organised military might of the Hebrides, he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance. As a result the 16th century became known as linn nan creach the time of raids.[40] Furthermore, the effects of the Reformation were slow to impact the Gidhealtachd, driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the Central Belt.[41] In 1540 James V had conducted a royal tour of the Hebrides, forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him. There followed a period of peace, but all too soon the clans were at loggerheads with one another again.[42] During James VI's reign the transformation of the 15th century image of the Hebrides as the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood into one in which its citizens were regarded as lawless barbarians was complete. Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as "void of the knawledge and feir of God" who were prone to " all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis".[43] The Gaelic language, spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V, became known in the time of James VI as "Erse" or Irish, implying that it was foreign in nature. The Scottish Parliament decided it had become a principal cause of the Highlanders' shortcomings and sought to abolish it.[42] [43] It was against this background that in 1598 James VI authorised the "Gentleman Adventurers of Fife" to civilise the "most barbarous Isle of Lewis". James wrote that the colonists were to act "not by agreement" with the local inhabitants, but "by extirpation of thame". Landing at Stornoway and initially successful, the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful.[43] [44] The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609, which required that clan chiefs: send their heirs to Lowland Scotland to be educated in English-speaking Protestant schools; provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland Parishes; outlaw bards; and regularly report to Edinburgh to answer for their actions.[45] So began a process "specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language, the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers."[46] James was not averse to making light of his relationship with the Gaels. He visited the town of Nairn in 1589 and is said to have later remarked that the High Street was so long that the people at either end of the High Street spoke different languages to one another English and Gaelic.[47]

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Theory of monarchy
In 159798, James wrote two works, The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift), in which he established an ideological base for monarchy. In the True Law, he sets out the divine right of kings, explaining that for Biblical reasons kings are higher beings than other men, though "the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon".[48] The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy, by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God, who would "stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him, for punishment of wicked kings".[49] Basilikon Doron, written as a book of instruction for the four-year-old Prince Henry, provides a more practical guide to kingship.[50] Despite banalities and sanctimonious advice,[51] the work is well written, perhaps the best example of James's prose.[52] James's advice concerning parliaments, which he understood as merely the king's "head court", foreshadows his difficulties with the English Commons: "Hold no Parliaments," he tells Henry, "but for the necesitie of new Lawes, which would be but seldome".[53] In the True Law James maintains that the king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief, because kings arose "before any estates or ranks of men, before any parliaments were holden, or laws made, and by them was the land distributed, which at first was wholly theirs. And so it follows of necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws, and not the laws of the kings."[54]

Literary patronage
James was concerned in the 1580s and 1590s to promote the literature of the country of his birth. His treatise, Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody, published in 1584 at the age of 19, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, Scots, applying Renaissance principles.[55] He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music, seeing the two in connection.[56] In furtherance of these aims he was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians, the Castalian Band, which included among others William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie, the latter being a favourite of the King.[57] James, himself a poet, was happy to be seen as a practising member in the group.[58] By the late 1590s his championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the increasingly expected prospect of inheritance of the English throne,[59] and some courtier poets who followed the king to London after 1603, such as William Alexander, were starting to anglicise their written language.[60] James's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the Scottish court made him in many respects a defining figure for English Jacobean poetry and drama, which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign,[61] but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition, a tradition which includes his ancestor James I of Scotland, largely became sidelined.[62]

Proclaimed King of England

From 1601, in the last years of Elizabeth I's life, certain English politicians, notably her chief minister Sir Robert Cecil,[63] maintained a secret correspondence with James in order to prepare in advance for a smooth succession.[64] In March 1603, with the Queen clearly dying, Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to the English throne. Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March, and James was proclaimed king in London later the same day.[65] On 5 April, James left Edinburgh for London, promising to return every three years (a promise he did not keep), and progressed slowly southwards, to arrive in the capital after Elizabeth's funeral.[66] Local lords received him with lavish hospitality along the route, and his new subjects flocked to see him, relieved that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion.[67] When he entered London on 7 May, he was mobbed by a crowd of spectators.[68] His English coronation took place on 25 July, with elaborate allegories provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson. Even though an outbreak of plague restricted festivities,[69] "the streets seemed paved with men," wrote Dekker. "Stalls instead of rich wares were set out with children, open casements filled up with women".[70]

James I of England The kingdom to which James succeeded was, however, not without its problems. Monopolies and taxation had engendered a widespread sense of grievance, and the costs of war in Ireland had become a heavy burden on the government.[71]

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Early reign in England

Despite the smoothness of the succession and the warmth of his welcome, James survived two conspiracies in the first year of his reign, the Bye Plot and Main Plot, which led to the arrest, among others, of Lord Cobham and Sir Walter Raleigh.[72] Those hoping for governmental change from James were at first disappointed when he maintained Elizabeth's Privy Councillors in office, as secretly planned with Cecil,[72] but James shortly added long-time supporter Henry Howard and his nephew Thomas Howard to the Privy Council, as well as five Scottish nobles.[73] In the early years of James's reign, the day-to-day running of the government was tightly managed by the shrewd Robert Cecil, later Earl of Salisbury, ably assisted by the experienced Thomas Egerton, whom James made Baron Ellesmere and Lord Chancellor, and by Thomas Sackville, Portrait of James by Nicholas soon Earl of Dorset, who continued as Lord Treasurer.[72] As a consequence, Hilliard, from the period 160309 James was free to concentrate on bigger issues, such as a scheme for a closer union between England and Scotland and matters of foreign policy, as well as to enjoy his leisure pursuits, particularly hunting.[72] James was ambitious to build on the personal union of the Crowns of Scotland and England to establish a single country under one monarch, one parliament and one law, a plan which met opposition in both realms.[74] "Hath He not made us all in one island," James told the English parliament, "compassed with one sea and of itself by nature indivisible?" In April 1604, however, the Commons refused on legal grounds his request to be titled "King of Great Britain".[75] In October 1604, he assumed the title "King of Great Britain" by proclamation rather than statute, though Sir Francis Bacon told him he could not use the style in "any legal proceeding, instrument or assurance".[76] In foreign policy, James achieved more success. Never having been at war with Spain, he devoted his efforts to bringing the long AngloSpanish War to an end, and in August 1604, thanks to skilled diplomacy on the part of Robert Cecil and Henry Howard, now Earl of Northampton, a peace treaty was signed between the two countries, which James celebrated by hosting a great banquet.[77] Freedom of worship for Catholics in England continued, however, to be a major objective of Spanish policy, causing constant dilemmas for James, distrusted abroad for repression of Catholics while at home being encouraged by the Privy Council to show even less tolerance towards them.[78] Under James, expansion of English international trade and influence was actively pursued through the East India Company. An English settlement was already established in Bantam, on the island of Java, and in 1613, following an invitation from the English adventurer William Adams in Japan, the English captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in the ship Clove with the intent of establishing a trading factory. Adams and Saris travelled to Shizuoka where they met with Tokugawa Ieyasu at his principal residence in September before moving on to Edo where they met Ieyasu's son Hidetada. During that meeting, Hidetada gave Saris two varnished suits of armour for James, today housed in the Tower of London.[79] On their way back, they

The 1613 letter of King James I remitted to Tokugawa Ieyasu (Preserved in the Tokyo University archives).

James I of England visited Tokugawa once more, who conferred trading privileges on the English through a Red Seal permit giving them "free license to abide, buy, sell and barter" in Japan.[80] The English party headed back to Hirado on 9 October 1613. However, during the ten year activity of the company between 1613 and 1623, apart from the first ship (Clove in 1613), only three other English ships brought cargoes directly from London to Japan.

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Gunpowder plot
On 5 November 1605, the eve of the state opening of the second session of James's first English Parliament, a soldier named Guy Fawkes was discovered in the cellars of the parliament buildings. He was guarding a pile of wood not far from 36 barrels of gunpowder with which Fawkes intended to blow up Parliament House the following day and cause the destruction, as James put it, "not only... of my person, nor of my wife and posterity also, but of the whole body of the State in general".[81] The sensational discovery of the Catholic Gunpowder Plot, as it quickly became known, aroused a mood of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons which Salisbury exploited to extract higher subsidies from the ensuing Parliament than any but one granted to Elizabeth.[82] The attempt to blow up the Houses of Parliament and kill James was unsuccessful, and Fawkes was executed.

King and Parliament

The co-operation between monarch and Parliament following the Gunpowder plot was atypical. Instead, it was the previous session of 1604 that shaped the attitudes of both sides for the rest of the reign, though the initial difficulties owed more to mutual incomprehension than conscious enmity.[83] On 7 July 1604, James had angrily prorogued Parliament after failing to win its support either for full union or financial subsidies. "I will not thank where I feel no thanks due," he had remarked in his closing speech. "...I am not of such a stock as to praise fools... You see how many things you did not well... I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty in time to come".[84] As James's reign progressed, his government faced growing financial pressures, due partly to creeping inflation[85] but also to the profligacy and financial incompetence of James's court. In February 1610 Salisbury, a believer in parliamentary participation in government,[86] proposed a scheme, known as the Great Contract, whereby Parliament, in return for ten royal concessions, would grant a lump sum of 600,000 to pay off the king's debts plus an annual grant of 200,000.[87] The ensuing prickly negotiations became so protracted that James eventually lost patience and dismissed Parliament on 31 December 1610. "Your greatest error," he told Salisbury, "hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall".[88] The same pattern was repeated with the so-called "Addled Parliament" of 1614, which James dissolved after a mere eight weeks when Commons hesitated to grant him the money he required.[89] James then ruled without parliament until 1621, employing officials such as the businessman Lionel Cranfield, who were astute at raising and saving money for the crown, and sold earldoms and other dignities, many created for the purpose, as an alternative source of income.[90]

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Spanish match
Another potential source of income was the prospect of a Spanish dowry from a marriage between Charles, Prince of Wales, and the Spanish Infanta, Maria.[91] The policy of the Spanish Match, as it was called, was also attractive to James as a way to maintain peace with Spain and avoid the additional costs of a war.[92] Peace could be maintained as effectively by keeping the negotiations alive as by consummating the matchwhich may explain why James protracted the negotiations for almost a decade.[93] The policy was supported by the Howards and other Catholic-leaning ministers and diplomatstogether known as the Spanish Partybut deeply distrusted in Protestant England. James's policy was further jeopardised by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, especially after his Protestant son-in-law, Frederick V, Elector Palatine, was ousted from Bohemia by the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II in 1620, and Spanish troops simultaneously invaded Frederick's Rhineland home Portrait of James by John de Critz, c. territory. Matters came to a head when James finally called a parliament in 1621 1606 to fund a military expedition in support of his son-in-law.[94] The Commons on the one hand granted subsidies inadequate to finance serious military operations in aid of Frederick,[95] and on the otherremembering the profits gained under Elizabeth by naval attacks on Spanish gold shipmentscalled for a war directly against Spain. In November 1621, led by Sir Edward Coke, they framed a petition asking not only for war with Spain but also for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant, and for enforcement of the anti-Catholic laws.[96] James flatly told them not to interfere in matters of royal prerogative or they would risk punishment,[97] which provoked them into issuing a statement protesting their rights, including freedom of speech.[98] Urged on by the Duke of Buckingham and the Spanish ambassador Gondomar, James ripped the protest out of the record book and dissolved Parliament.[99] In 1623, Prince Charles, now 23, and Buckingham decided to seize the initiative and travel to Spain incognito,[100] to win the Infanta directly, but the mission proved a desperate mistake.[101] The Infanta detested Charles, and the Spanish confronted them with terms that included his conversion to Catholicism and a one-year stay in Spain as, in essence, a diplomatic hostage. Though a treaty was signed, the prince and duke returned to England in October without the Infanta and immediately renounced the treaty, much to the delight of the British people.[102] Their eyes opened by the visit to Spain, Charles and Buckingham now turned James's Spanish policy upon its head and called for a French match and a war against the Habsburg empire.[103] To raise the necessary finance, they prevailed upon James to call another Parliament, which met in February 1624. For once, the outpouring of anti-Catholic sentiment in the Commons was echoed in court, where control of policy was shifting from James to Charles and Buckingham,[104] who pressured the king to declare war and engineered the impeachment of Lord Treasurer Lionel Cranfield, by now made Earl of Middlesex, when he opposed the plan on grounds of cost.[105] The outcome of the Parliament of 1624 was ambiguous: James still refused to declare war, but Charles believed the Commons had committed themselves to finance a war against Spain, a stance which was to contribute to his problems with Parliament in his own reign.[106]

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King and Church

After the Gunpowder Plot, James sanctioned harsh measures for controlling non-conforming English Catholics. In May 1606, Parliament passed the Popish Recusants Act which could require any citizen to take an Oath of Allegiance denying the Pope's authority over the king.[107] James was conciliatory towards Catholics who took the Oath of Allegiance,[108] and tolerated crypto-Catholicism even at court.[109] Towards the Puritan clergy, with whom he debated at the Hampton Court Conference of 1604,[110] James was at first strict in enforcing conformity, inducing a sense of persecution amongst many Puritans;[111] but ejections and suspensions from livings became fewer as the reign wore on. As a result of the Hampton Court Conference a new translation and compilation of approved books of the Bible was commissioned to resolve issues with translations then being used. The Authorised King James Version, as it came to be known, was completed in 1611 and is considered a masterpiece of Jacobean prose.[112] It is still in widespread use.

In Scotland, James attempted to bring the Scottish kirk "so neir as can be" to the English church and to reestablish episcopacy, a policy which met with strong opposition.[113] In 1618, James's bishops forced his Five Articles of Perth through a General Assembly; but the rulings were widely resisted.[114] James was to leave the church in Scotland divided at his death, a source of future problems for his son.[115]

Portrait of James by Paul van Somer, c. 1620. In the background is the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by architect Inigo Jones, commissioned by James.

Personal relationships
Throughout his life James had close relationships with male courtiers, which has caused debate among historians about their nature.[116] After his accession in England, his peaceful and scholarly attitude strikingly contrasted with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth,[116] as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth, nunc est regina Jacobus (Elizabeth was King, now James is Queen).[117] Some of James's biographers conclude that Esm Stewart (later Duke of Lennox), Robert Carr (later Earl of Somerset), and George Villiers (later Duke of Buckingham) were his lovers.[118] Restoration of Apethorpe Hall, undertaken in 20042008, revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers.[119] Others argue that the relationships were not sexual.[120] In Basilikon Doron James lists sodomy among crimes "ye are bound in conscience never to forgive", and James's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children, as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages.[121]

Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset (15871645), by John Hoskins

Favourites
When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612, he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum.[122] Until Salisbury's death, the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency; from this time forward, however, James's government entered a period of decline and disrepute.[123] Salisbury's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief

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Minister of State, with his young Scottish favourite, Robert Carr, Viscount Rochester, carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties, but James's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism.[124] The Howard party, consisting of Northampton, Suffolk, Suffolk's son-in-law Lord Knollys, and Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham, along with Sir Thomas Lake, soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Sir Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers,[125] fell into the Howard camp, after beginning an affair with the married Frances Howard, Countess George Villiers, 1st Duke of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk, whom James assisted in securing an annulment of Buckingham [126] of her marriage to free her to marry Carr. In summer 1615, however, it emerged that (15921628), by Peter Paul Overbury, who on 15 September 1613 had died in the Tower of London, where he had Rubens, 1625 been placed at the King's request,[127] had been poisoned.[128] Among those convicted of the murder were Frances Howard and Robert Carr, the latter having been replaced as the king's favourite in the meantime by Villiers. The implication of the King in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James's court with an image of corruption and depravity.[129] The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1618.[130]

Final year
During the last year of James's life, with Buckingham consolidating his control of Charles to ensure his own future, the king was often seriously ill, leaving him an increasingly peripheral figure, rarely able to visit London.[131] In early 1625, James was plagued by severe attacks of arthritis, gout and fainting fits, and in March fell seriously ill with tertian ague and then suffered a stroke. James finally died at Theobalds House on 27 March during a violent attack of dysentery, with Buckingham at his bedside.[132] James's funeral, a magnificent but disorderly affair, took place on 7 May. Bishop John Williams of Lincoln preached the sermon, observing, "King Solomon died in Peace, when he had lived about sixty years... and so you know did King James".[133]

Legacy
The king's death was widely mourned. For all his flaws, James had never completely lost the affection of his people, who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era. "As he lived in peace," remarked the Earl of Kellie, "so did he die in peace, and I pray God our king [Charles I] may follow him".[134] The earl prayed in vain: once in power, Charles and Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure.[135] James bequeathed Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings, combined with a disdain for Parliament, which culminated in the English Civil War and the execution of Charles. James had often neglected the business of The Tudor rose dimidiated with government for leisure pastimes, such as the hunt; and his later dependence on male the Scottish thistle, James's favourites at a scandal-ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so personal Heraldic badge after 1603. carefully constructed by Elizabeth.[136] The stability of James's government in Scotland, however, and in the early part of his English reign, as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war, have earned him a re-evaluation from many recent historians, who have rescued his reputation from a tradition of criticism stemming back to the anti-Stuart historians of the mid-seventeenth century.[137]

James I of England Under James the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began, and the English colonisation of North America started its course. In 1607, Jamestown was founded in Virginia, and in 1610 Cuper's Cove in Newfoundland. During the next 150 years, England would fight with Spain, the Netherlands, and France for control of the continent, while religious division in Ireland between Protestant and Catholic has lasted for 400 years.

53

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Royal styles of

James VI, King of Scots

Reference style Spoken style His Grace Your Grace

Alternative style Sire

Royal styles of

James I, King of England

Reference style Spoken style His Majesty Your Majesty

Alternative style Sire

Titles and styles

19 June 1566 24 July 1567: The Duke of Rothesay 10 February 24 July 1567: The Duke of Albany 24 July 1567 27 March 1625: His Grace The King of Scots 24 March 1603 27 March 1625: His Majesty The King of England

In Scotland, James was James the sixth, King of Scotland. He was proclaimed James the first, King of England, France and Ireland, defender of the faith in London on 24 March 1603.[138] On 20 October 1604, James issued a proclamation at Westminster changing his style to King of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.[139]

Arms
As King of Scots, James bore the ancient Royal arms of Scotland: Or, a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter-flory of the Gules. The arms were supported by two Unicorns Argent armed, crined and unguled Proper, gorged with a coronet Or composed of crosses pate and fleurs de lys a chain affixed thereto passing between the forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or. As a crest a lion sejant affronte Gules, imperially crowned Or, holding in the dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw a scepter both erect and Proper.[140] The Union of England and Scotland under James was symbolised heraldically by combining the arms, supporters and badge of his two realms. This led to some contention as to how the arms should be marshalled, and to which kingdom should take precedence. The solution reached was to have two different arms for both countries.[141] The arms used in England were: Quarterly, I and IV, quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or (for France), 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland, this was the first time that Ireland was included in the Royal arms).[142] The supporters became: dexter a lion rampant guardant Or imperially

James I of England crowned and sinister the Scottish unicorn. The unicorn replaced the red dragon of Cadwaladr, which was introduced by the Tudors, the unicorn has since remained in the Royal arms of the two united realms. The English crest and motto was retained. The compartment often contained a branch of the Tudor rose, with shamrock and thistle engrafted on the same stem. The arms were frequently shown with James's personal motto, Beati pacifici.[141] The arms used in Scotland were: I and IV Scotland, II England and France, III Ireland, with Scotland taking precedence over England. The supporters were; dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned, supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent (Cross of Saint Andrew) and sinister the crowned lion of England supporting a similar lance flying a banner Argent a cross Gules (Cross of Saint George). The Scottish crest and motto was retained, following the Scottish practice the motto In defens (which is short for In My Defens God Me Defend) was placed above the crest.[141] As Royal badges James used: the Tudor rose, the thistle (for Scotland; first used by James III of Scotland); the Tudor rose dimidated with the thistle ensigned with the royal crown, a harp (for Ireland) and a fleur de lys (for France).[142]

54

Coat of arms of James VI, King of Scots, from 1567 to 1603

James I of England

55

Coat of arms of James I of England, from 1603 to 1625

Coat of arms of James VI of Scotland, from 1603 to 1625

List of writings
The Essayes of a Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie, (also called Some Reulis and Cautelis), 1584 His Maiesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres,[143] 1591 Lepanto, poem Daemonologie, 1597[144] The True Law of Free Monarchies, 1598 Basilikon Doron, 1599 A Counterblaste to Tobacco, 1604[145] An Apologie for the Oath of Allegiance, 1608

A Premonition to All Most Mightie Monarches, 1609

James I of England

56

Issue
James's wife, Anne of Denmark, gave birth to seven children who survived beyond birth:[146] 1. Henry, Prince of Wales (19 February 1594 6 November 1612). Died, probably of typhoid fever, aged 18.[147] 2. Elizabeth of Bohemia (19 August 1596 13 February 1662). Married 1613, Frederick V, Elector Palatine. Died aged 65. 3. Margaret Stuart (24 December 1598 March 1600). Died aged 1. 4. Charles I (19 November 1600 30 January 1649). Married 1625, Henrietta Maria. Executed aged 48. 5. Robert Stuart, Duke of Kintyre (18 January 1602 27 May 1602). Died aged 4 months.[148] 6. Mary Stuart (8 April 1605 16 December 1607). Died aged 2. 7. Sophia Stuart. (Died in June 1607 within 48 hours of birth.)[149]
James I and his royal progeny, by Charles Turner, from a mezzotint by Samuel Woodburn (1814), after Willem de Passe

Notes
[1] Stewart, p 47; Croft, p 16; Willson, pp 2931. [2] By the normal rules of succession James had the best claim to the English throne, as the great-great-grandson of Henry VII. However, Henry VIII's will had passed over the Scottish line of his sister Margaret in favour of that of their younger sister Mary Tudor. In the event, Henry's will was disregarded. Stewart, pp 159161; Willson, pp 138141. [3] After the Union of the Crowns James was the first to style himself "King of Great Britain", but the title was opposed by both the English and Scots parliaments, and its legal basis was questionable. Croft, p 67; Willson, pp 24952. See also: the early history of the Union Flag. [4] Milling, p 155. [5] "James VI and I was the most writerly of British monarchs. He produced original poetry, as well as translation and a treatise on poetics; works on witchcraft and tobacco; meditations and commentaries on the Scriptures; a manual on kingship; works of political theory; and, of course, speeches to parliament... He was the patron of Shakespeare, Jonson, Donne, and the translators of the "Authorized version" of the Bible, surely the greatest concentration of literary talent ever to enjoy royal sponsorship in England." Rhodes et al., p 1. [6] "A very wise man was wont to say that he believed him the wisest fool in Christendom, meaning him wise in small things, but a fool in weighty affairs." Sir Anthony Weldon (1651), The Court and Character of King James I, quoted by Stroud, p 27; "The label 'the wisest fool in Christendom', often attributed to Henry IV of France but possibly coined by Anthony Weldon, catches James's paradoxical qualities very neatly." Smith, p 238. [7] Guy, pp 2367, pp 2412, p 270. [8] Guy, pp24850. [9] Donaldson, p 99. [10] Elizabeth I wrote to Mary: "My ears have been so astounded, my mind so disturbed and my heart so appalled at hearing the horrible report of the abominable murder of your late husband and my slaughtered cousin, that I can scarcely as yet summon the spirit to write about it... I will not conceal from you that people for the most part are saying that you will look through your fingers at this deed instead of avenging it and that you don't care to take action against those who have done you this pleasure." Historian John Guy nonetheless concludes: "Not a single piece of uncontaminated evidence has ever been found to show that Mary had foreknowledge of Darnley's murder." Guy, pp31213. In historian David Harris Willson's view, however: "That Bothwell was the murderer no one can doubt; and that Mary was his accomplice seems equally certain." Willson, p18. [11] Guy, pp36465. [12] Letter of Mary to Mar, 29 March 1567. "Suffer nor admit no noblemen of our realm or any others, of what condition soever they be of, to enter or come within our said Castle or to the presence of our said dearest son, with any more persons but two or three at the most." Quoted by Stewart, p 27. [13] Willson, p 18; Stewart, p 33. [14] Croft, p11. [15] Croft, pp 1213. [16] Croft; Fraser. [17] Spottiswoode, John, History of the Church in Scotland, vol. 2, Oliver & Boyd (1851), 120, (gives date in Old Style) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofchurcho02spot#page/ 120/ mode/ 2up) [18] Croft, p 13. [19] Stewart, p 45; Willson, pp 2829.

James I of England
[20] Croft, p 15. [21] Stewart, pp 5163. [22] David Calderwood wrote of Morton's death: "So ended this nobleman, one of the chief instruments of the reformation; a defender of the same, and of the King in his minority, for the which he is now unthankfully dealt with." Quoted by Stewart, p 63. [23] Stewart, p 63. [24] Willson, p 35. [25] James's captors forced from him a proclamation, dated 30 August, declaring that he was not being held prisoner "forced or constrained, for fear or terror, or against his will", and that no one should come to his aid as a result of "seditious or contrary reports". Stewart, p 66. [26] Croft, p 17, p 20. [27] Stewart, pp 150157. [28] "The two principal characters were dead, the evidence of eyewitnesses was destroyed and only King James version remained". Williams, p 61; George Nicolson reported: "It is begun to be noted that the reports coming from the King should differ". Stewart, p 154. Pauline Croft calls the Gowrie plot "the most obscure of all Scottish noble conspiracies". Croft, p 45. [29] James briefly broke off diplomatic relations with England over Mary's execution, but he wrote privately that Scotland "could never have been without factions if she had beene left alive". Croft, p 22. [30] Croft, p 23. [31] Croft, pp 2324. [32] Willson, p 85. [33] James heard on 7 October of the decision to postpone the crossing for winter. Stewart, pp 107110. [34] Willson, pp 8595. [35] Croft, p 26; Willson, p 103. [36] Willson pp 1035. [37] Keay and Keay (1994) p556; (2000) p579. [38] Croft, p 27. [39] Akrigg, G. P. V. (ed.) (1984) Letters of King James VI & I Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California, p. 220, ISBN 0-520-04707-9 [40] Hunter (2000) pp. 143, 166 [41] Hunter (2000) p. 174 [42] Thompson (1968) pp. 4041 [43] Hunter (2000) p. 175 [44] Rotary Club (1995) pp. 1213 [45] Hunter (2000) p. 176 [46] MacKinnon (1991) p. 46 [47] "Nairn" (http:/ / www. undiscoveredscotland. co. uk/ nairn/ nairn/ index. html) Undiscovered Scotland. Retrieved 18 July 2010. The landward farmers generally spoke Gaelic and the fishing families at the harbour end, English. See also Thomson, David (1998) Nairn in Darkness and Light (http:/ / www. lrbshop. co. uk/ nairn-in-darkness-and-light_4271. html). Vintage. ISBN 978-0-09-959990-6 [48] "Kings are called gods by the prophetical King David because they sit upon God His throne in earth and have the count of their administration to give unto Him." Quoted by Willson, p131. [49] Croft, pp13133. [50] Willson, p133. [51] A king, James advised, should not look like "a deboshed waster" (Croft, p135) and should avoid the company of women, "which are no other thing else but irritamenta libidinis" (Willson, p135). [52] "The Basilikon Doron is the best prose James ever wrote." Willson, p132; "James wrote well, scattering engaging asides throughout the text." Croft, pp13435. [53] Croft, p133. [54] Quoted by Willson, p132. [55] RDS Jack. "Poetry under King James VI", essay in, Cairns Craig (general editor) The History of Scottish Literature, (Volume 1), Aberdeen University Press, 1988. pp. 1267 [56] One act of his reign urges the Scottish burghs to reform and support the teaching of music in Sang Sculis. See: Scottish Literature: 1603 and all that (http:/ / www. arts. gla. ac. uk/ ScotLit/ ASLS/ RDSJack. html), Association of Scottish Literary Studies, 2000. [57] RDS Jack Alexander Montgomerie. Scottish Academic Press. Edinburgh. 1985. pp.12 [58] RDS Jack. "Poetry under King James VI", essay in, Cairns Craig (general editor) The History of Scottish Literature, (Volume 1), Aberdeen University Press, 1988. p. 125 [59] RDS Jack. "Poetry under King James VI", essay in, Cairns Craig (general editor) The History of Scottish Literature, (Volume 1), Aberdeen University Press, 1988. pp. 137 [60] Michael Spiller. "Poetry after the Union 16031660", essay in, Cairns Craig (general editor) The History of Scottish Literature, (Volume 1), Aberdeen University Press, 1988. pp. 14152. Spiller points out that the trend, although unambiguous, was generally more mixed. [61] See for example Neil Rhodes, "Wrapped in the Strong Arm of the Union: Shakespeare and King James" in Maley and Murphy (eds) Shakespeare and Scotland. Manchester University Press, 2004. pp. 389.

57

James I of England
[62] RDS Jack. "Poetry under King James VI", essay in, Cairns Craig (general editor) The History of Scottish Literature, (Volume 1), Aberdeen University Press, 1988. pp. 1378 [63] James described Cecil as "king there in effect". Croft, p48. [64] Willson, pp154155. [65] Croft, p49; Willson, p158. [66] Croft, p49. [67] Croft, p50. [68] Stewart, p 169. [69] Stewart, p172. [70] Stewart, p173. [71] Croft, pp5051. [72] Croft, p 51. [73] Croft, p 51; The introduction of Henry Howard, soon to be Earl of Northampton, and of Thomas Howard, soon to be Earl of Suffolk, marked the beginning of the rise of the Howard family to power in England, which was to culminate in their dominance of James's government after the death of Cecil in 1612. Henry Howard, son of poet Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, had been a diligent correspondent with James in advance of the succession (James referred to him as "long approved and trusted Howard"). His connection with James may have owed something to the attempt by his brother Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, to free and marry Mary, Queen of Scots, leading to his execution in 1572. Willson, p 156; Guy, pp 461468. For details on the Howards, see The Trials of Frances Howard by David Lindley. On Henry Howard, a traditionally reviled figure (Willson [1956] called him "A man of dark counsels and creeping schemes, learned but bombastic, and a most fulsome flatterer". p 156) whose reputation has been upgraded in recent years (Croft, p 6), see Northampton, by Linda Levy Peck. [74] Croft, pp 5254. [75] English and Scot, James insisted, should "join and coalesce together in a sincere and perfect union, as two twins bred in one belly, to love one another as no more two but one estate". Willson, p 250. [76] Willson, pp 24952. [77] Croft, pp 5253. [78] Croft, p 118. [79] Notice at the Tower of London [80] The Red Seal permit was re-discovered in 1985 by Professor Hayashi Nozomu, in the Bodleian Library. Massarella, Derek; Tytler Izumi K. (1990) " The Japonian Charters (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2384848)" Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp 189205. [81] Stewart, p 219. [82] Croft, p 64. [83] Croft, p 63. [84] Quoted by Croft, p 62. [85] Croft, p 69. [86] "All wise princes, whensoever there was cause to withstand present evils or future perils... have always addressed themselves to their Parliaments." Quoted by Croft, p 76. [87] Croft, pp 7581. [88] Croft, p 80. [89] Willson, p 348. [90] Willson, p 409. [91] Willson, p 357. [92] Schama, Simon (2001) A History of Britain, Vol. II, p 59 (New York: Hyperion). [93] Kenyon, J. P. (1978) Stuart England, pp 8889 (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books). [94] Willson, pp 408416. [95] Willson, p 417. [96] Willson, p 421. [97] Willson, p 442. [98] James wrote: "We cannot with patience endure our subjects to use such anti-monarchical words to us concerning their liberties, except they had subjoined that they were granted unto them by the grace and favour of our predecessors." Quoted by Willson, p 423. [99] Willson, p 243. [100] They traveled under the names Thomas and John Smith. Croft, p 118. [101] Croft, pp 118119. [102] Schama, p. 64. "There was an immense outbreak of popular joy, with fireworks, bell ringing and street parties." Croft, p 120. [103] Croft, pp 120121. [104] "The aging monarch was no match for the two men closest to him. By the end of the year, the prince and the royal favourite spoke openly against the Spanish marriage and pressured James to call a parliament to consider their now repugnant treaties... with hindsight... the prince's return from Madrid marked the end of the king's reign. The prince and the favourite encouraged popular anti-Spanish sentiments to commandeer control of foreign and domestic policy." Krugler, pp 634.

58

James I of England
[105] "The lord treasurer fell not on largely unproven grounds of corruption, but as the victim of an alliance between warmongering elements at court and in Parliament." Croft, p 125. [106] "On that divergence of interpretation, relations between the future king and the Parliaments of the years 16259 were to founder." Croft, p 126. [107] Stewart, p 225. [108] Willson, p 228. [109] A crypto-Catholic was someone who outwardly conformed to Protestantism but remained a Catholic in private. Henry Howard, for example, was a crypto-Catholic, received back into the Church in his final months. Before ascending the English throne, James, suspecting he might need the support of Catholics in succeeding to the throne, had assured Northumberland he would not persecute "any that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the law". Croft, p 162. [110] Croft, p 156; In the Millenary Petition of 1603, the Puritan clergy demanded, among other things, the abolition of confirmation, wedding rings, and the term "priest", and that the wearing of cap and surplice, "outward badges of Popish errours", become optional. Willson, p 201. [111] "In things indifferent," James wrote in a new edition of Basilikon Doron, "they are seditious which obey not the magistrates". Willson, p 201, p 209; Croft, p 156; "In seeking conformity, James gave a name and a purpose to nonconformity." Stewart, p 205. [112] Willson, pp 213215; Croft, p 157. [113] In March 1605, Archbishop Spottiswood wrote to James warning him that sermons against bishops were being preached daily in Edinburgh. Croft, p 164. [114] Croft, p 166; Willson, p 320. [115] Historians have differed in their assessments of the kirk at James's death: some consider that the Scots might have accepted James's policies eventually; others that James left the kirk in crisis. Croft, p 167. [116] "...his sexuality has long been a matter of debate. He clearly preferred the company of handsome young men. The evidence of his correspondence and contemporary accounts have led some historians to conclude that the king was homosexual or bisexual. In fact, the issue is murky." Bucholz and Key, p 208 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN0631213937& id=1D9VrPfU7msC& pg=PA208& lpg=PA208& ots=e4Eh6hdzcw& dq="James+ I"+ Lennox+ homosexual& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html& sig=BCnX78l4CF7SiHdmZpzHjl4_W0w) [117] Hyde, H. Montgomery (1970) The Love That Dared Not Speak its Name. London: Heinemann. pp 4344 [118] e.g. Young, Michael B. (2000) King James and the History of Homosexuality. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9693-1; Bergeron, David M. (1991) Royal Family, Royal Lovers: King James of England and Scotland. Columbia; London: University of Missouri Press [119] To the manor bought (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ magazine/ 7436409. stm), BBC News Online, 5 June 2008 [120] e.g. Lee, Maurice, Jr. (1990) Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I on His Three Kingdoms. Urbana: University of Illinois Press [121] Weir, Alison (1996) Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. London; Sydney; Auckland: Random House. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9, pp 24951 [122] Northampton, who assumed the day-to-day running of government business, spoke of "the death of the little man for which so many rejoice and few do as much as seem to be sorry." Willson, p 269. [123] "Finances fell into chaos, foreign affairs became more difficult. James exalted a worthless favourite and increased the power of the Howards. As government relaxed and honour cheapened, we enter a period of decline and weakness, of intrigue, scandal, confusion, and treachery." Willson, p 333. [124] Willson, pp 3345. [125] Willson, p 349; "Packets were sent, sometimes opened by my lord, sometimes unbroken unto Overbury, who perused them, registered them, made table-talk of them, as they thought good. So I will undertake the time was, when Overbury knew more of the secrets of state, than the council-table did." Sir Francis Bacon, speaking at Carr's trial. Quoted by Perry, p 105. [126] The commissioners judging the case reached a 55 verdict, so James quickly appointed two extra judges guaranteed to vote in favour, an intervention which aroused public censure. When, after the annulment, the son of Bishop Bilson, one of the added commissioners, was knighted, he was given the nickname "Sir Nullity Bilson". Lindley, p 120. [127] It is very likely that he was the victim of a 'set-up' contrived by the earls of Northampton and Suffolk, with Carr's complicity, to keep him out of the way during the annulment proceedings. Overbury knew too much of Carr's dealings with Frances and, motivated by a deep political hostility to the Howards, he opposed the match with a fervour that made him dangerous. It cannot have been difficult to secure James's compliance, because he disliked Overbury and his influence over Carr. Lindley, p 145; John Chamberlain (15531628) reported at the time that the King "hath long had a desire to remove him from about the lord of Rochester, as thinking it a dishonour to him that the world should have an opinion that Rochester ruled him and Overbury ruled Rochester". Willson, p 342. [128] Lindley, p 146; "Rumours of foul play involving Rochester and his wife with Overbury had, however, been circulating since his death. Indeed, almost two years later, in September 1615, and as James was in the process of replacing Rochester with a new favourite, George Villiers, the Governor of the Tower of London sent a letter to the king informing him that one of the warders in the days before Overbury had been found dead had been bringing the prisoner poisoned food and medicine." Barroll, Anna of Denmark, p 136. [129] "Probably no single event, prior to the attempt to arrest the five members in 1642, did more to lessen the general reverence with which royalty was regarded in England than this unsavoury episode." Davies, p 20. [130] Willson, p 397.

59

James I of England
[131] Some historians (for example Willson, p 425) consider James, who was 58 in 1624, to have lapsed into premature senility; but he suffered from, among other ailments, an agonising species of arthritis which constantly left him indisposed; and Pauline Croft suggests that in summer 1624, afforded relief by the warm weather, James regained some control over his affairs, his continuing refusal to sanction war against Spain a deliberate stand against the aggressive policies of Charles and Buckingham (Croft, pp 126127); "James never became a cypher." Croft, p 101. [132] A medicine recommended by Buckingham had only served to make the king worse. "The disparity between the foreign policy of the monarch and the favourite was so obvious that there was a widespread rumour that the duke had poisoned him." Croft, pp 127128. [133] John Williams's sermon was later printed as "Great Britain's Salomon" (sic). Croft, pp 129130. [134] Croft, p 130. [135] "A 1627 mission to save the Huguenots of La Rochelle ended in an ignominious siege on the Isle of R, leaving the Duke as the object of widespread ridicule." Stewart, p 348. [136] Croft, p 129. [137] Croft, pp 68. [138] Proclamation by the King, 24 March 1603 (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ brit-proclamations. htm#James1) [139] Proclamation by the King, 20 October 1604 (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ britstyles. htm#1604) [140] Pinces, John Harvey; Pinces, Rosemary (1974), The Royal Heraldry of England, Heraldry Today, Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press, pp.159160, ISBN0-900455-25-X [141] Pinces, John Harvey; Pinces, Rosemary (1974), The Royal Heraldry of England, Heraldry Today, Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press, pp.168169, ISBN0-900455-25-X [142] Brooke-Little, J.P., FSA (1978) [1950], Boutell's Heraldry (Revised ed.), London: Frederick Warne LTD, p.213 & 215, ISBN0-7232-2096-4 [143] Jones, Emrys. Othello, Lepanto, and the Cyprus wars, 1968, from The Cambridge Shakespeare Library, Vol. 1, Catherine M. S. Alexander ed., University of Cambridge, 2003. [144] Text (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 25929) at Project Gutenberg; Facsimile (http:/ / www. folger. edu/ eduPrimSrcDtl. cfm?psid=83) at Folger Shakespeare Library [145] Text (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 17008) at Project Gutenberg [146] Stewart, p 140, p 142. [147] John Chamberlain (15531628) recorded: "It was verily thought that the disease was no other than the ordinary ague that had reigned and raged all over England". Alan Stewart writes: "Latter day experts have suggested enteric fever, typhoid fever, or porphyria, but at the time poison was the most popular explanation." Stewart, p 248. [148] Willson, p 452; Barroll, Anna of Denmark, p 27. [149] Croft, p 55; Stewart, p 142; Sophia was buried at King Henry's Chapel in a tiny tomb shaped like a cradle. Willson, p 456.

60

References
Barroll, J. Leeds (2001). Anna of Denmark, Queen of England: A Cultural Biography. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. ISBN 0-8122-3574-6. Bucholz, Robert; Key, Newton (2004). Early Modern England, 14851714: A Narrative History. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21393-7. Croft, Pauline (2003). King James. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-61395-3. Davies, Godfrey ([1937] 1959). The Early Stuarts. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-821704-8. Donaldson, Gordon (1974). Mary, Queen of Scots. London: English Universities Press. ISBN 0-340-12383-4. Fraser, Antonia (1974). King James VI of Scotland, I of England. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-76775-5. Guy, John (2004). My Heart is My Own: The Life of Mary Queen of Scots. London and New York: Fourth Estate. ISBN 1-84115-752-X. Hunter, James (2000) Last of the Free: A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. Edinburgh: Mainstream. ISBN 1-84018-376-4 Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland. London. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-255082-2 Krugler, John D. (2004). English and Catholic: the Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7963-9. Lee, Maurice (1990). Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I in his Three Kingdoms. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-01686-6.

James I of England Lindley, David (1993). The Trials of Frances Howard: Fact and Fiction at the Court of King James. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-05206-8. MacKinnon, Kenneth (1991) Gaelic A past and Future Prospect. Edinburgh: The Saltire Society. ISBN 0-85411-047-X Milling, Jane (2004). "The Development of a Professional Theatre", in The Cambridge History of British Theatre. Jane Milling, Peter Thomson, Joseph W. Donohue. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65040-2. Peck, Linda Levy (1982). Northampton: Patronage and Policy at the Court of James I. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-04-942177-8. Perry, Curtis (2006). Literature and Favoritism in Early Modern England. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85405-9. Rhodes, Neil; Richards, Jennifer; Marshall, Joseph (2003). King James VI and I: Selected Writings. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7546-0482-9. Rotary Club of Stornoway (1995) The Outer Hebrides Handbook and Guide. Machynlleth: Kittwake. ISBN 0-9511003-5-1 Smith, David L. (2003). "Politics in Early Stuart Britain," in A Companion to Stuart Britain. Ed. Barry Coward. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-21874-2. Stewart, Alan (2003). The Cradle King: A Life of James VI & I. London: Chatto and Windus. ISBN 0-7011-6984-2. Stroud, Angus (1999). Stuart England. Routledge ISBN 0-415-20652-9. Thompson, Francis (1968) Harris and Lewis, Outer Hebrides. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-4260-6 Williams, Ethel Carleton (1970). Anne of Denmark. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-12783-1. Willson, David Harris ([1956] 1963 ed). King James VI & I. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd. ISBN 0-224-60572-0.

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Further reading
Akrigg, G. P. V (1978). Jacobean Pageant: The Court of King James I. New York: Atheneum. ISBN 0-689-70003-2. Houston, S J. James I. Longman Publishing Group (June 1974), Seminar Studies ISBN 0-582-35208-8. Lockyer, Roger (1998). James VI and I. Longman. ISBN 0-582-27961-5.

External links
Works available online: by James VI and I (http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=creator:"James+I,+ King+of+England,+1566-1625"); about James VI and I (http://www.archive.org/search. php?query=subject:"James I, King of England, 1566-1625") Works by or about James I of England (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80-35841) in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Endymion Porter

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Endymion Porter
Endymion Porter (15871649) was an English diplomat and royalist.

Life
He was descended from Sir William Porter, sergeant-at-arms to Henry VII, and son of Edmund Porter, of Aston-sub-Edge in Gloucestershire, by his cousin Angela, daughter of Giles Porter of Mickleton, in the same county. He was brought up in Spainwhere he had relativesas page in the household of Olivares. He afterwards entered successively the service of Edward Villiers and of Buckingham, and through the latter's recommendation became groom of the bedchamber to Charles I. In October 1622 he was sent to negotiate concerning the affairs of the Palatinate and the proposed "Spanish Match" of the Prince of Wales A 1627 portrait of Endymion Porter by Daniel with the Infanta. He accompanied Charles and Buckingham on their Mytens (National Portrait Gallery, London) foolhardy expedition in 1623, acted as their interpreter, and was included in the consequent attack made by Lord Bristol on Buckingham in 1626. In 1628 he was employed as envoy to Spain to negotiate for peace, and in 1634 on a mission to the Netherlands to the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand. During the Civil War Porter remained a constant and faithful servant of the king. He was with him during the two Scottish campaigns, attended him again on the visit to Scotland in August 1641, and followed Charles on his last departure from London in 1642, receiving the nominal command of a regiment, and sitting in the Royalist parliament at Oxford in 1643. He had, however, little faith in the king's measures. "His Majesty's businesses," he writes in 1641, "run in their wonted channelsubtle designs of gaining the popular opinion and weak executions for the up-holding of monarchy." His fidelity to Charles was of a personal, not of a political nature. "My duty and loyalty have taught me to follow my king," he declares, "and by the grace of God nothing shall divert me from it." This devotion to the king, the fact that he was the agent and protg of Buckingham, and that his wife Olivia, daughter of John Boteler, 1st Baron Boteler of Bramfield, and niece of Buckingham, was a zealous Roman Catholic, drew upon him the hostility of the opposite faction. As member of the Long Parliament, in which he sat as member for Droitwich, he was one of the minority of 59 who voted against Strafford's attainder, and was in consequence proclaimed a "betrayer of his country." On February 15, 1642 he was voted one of the dangerous counsellors, and specially excepted from pardon on October 4 and in the treaties of peace negotiated subsequently, while on March 10, 1643 he was excluded from parliament. Porter was also implicated in the army plot; he assisted Glamorgan in illegally putting the great seal to the commission to negotiate with the Irish in 1644; and was charged with having in the same manner affixed the great seal of Scotland, then temporarily in his keeping, to that of O'Neill in 1641, and of having incurred some responsibility for the Irish rebellion. Towards the end of 1645, when the king's cause was finally lost, Porter abandoned England, and resided successively in France, Brussels and Antwerp, where he was reduced to great poverty, and the Netherlands. The property which he had accumulated during the tenure of his various appointments, by successful commercial undertakings and by favours of the court, was now for the most part either confiscated or encumbered. He returned to England in 1649, after the king's death, and was allowed to compound for what remained of it. He died shortly afterwards, and was buried on August 10, 1649 at St Martin's-in-the-Fields, leaving as a special charge

Endymion Porter in his will to his sons and descendants to "observe and respect the family of my Lord Duke of Buckingham, deceased, to whom I owe all the happiness I had in the world." He left five sons, who all played conspicuous, if not all creditable, parts in the history of the time. According to Wood, Porter was "beloved by two kings: James I. for his admirable wit and Charles I. for his general bearing, brave style, sweet temper, great experience, travels and modern languages." During the period of his prosperity Porter had gained a great reputation in the world of art and letters. He wrote verses, was a generous patron of Davenant, who especially sings his praises, of Dekker, Warmstrey, May, Herrick and Robert Dover, and was included among the 84 "essentials" in Bolton's "Academy Royal." He was a judicious collector of pictures, and as the friend of Rubens, Van Dyck, Danil Mijtens and other painters, and as agent for Charles in his purchases abroad he had a considerable share in forming the king's magnificent collection. He was also instrumental in procuring

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Double portrait of Sir Endymion and Anthony van Dyck, by Anthony van Dyck

the Arundel pictures from Spain.

Sources
Life and Letters of Endymion Porter, by Dorothea Townshend (1897) article in the Dictionary of National Biography, by CH Firth and authorities there cited Memoires, by D Lloyd (1668), p. 657 Burton's Hist. of Scotland (1873), vi. 346347 English Historical Review ii.531, 692 Gardiner's History of England Lives of the Lords Strangford (1877), by E.B. de Fonblanque (Life and Letters) Anthony Wood, Athenae Oxonienses Clarendon's History of the Rebellion State Papers and Calendar of State Papers; Calendar of Slate Papers: Dom. and of Committee for Compounding The Chesters of Chichele, by Waters, i.144149 Eikon Basilike, by Ed. Almack, p. 94

There are also various references, etc., to Endymion Porter in Additional Charters, British Museum, 6223, 1633, 6225; Add. manuscripts 15,858; 33,374; and Egerton 2550, 2533; in the Hist. Manuscripts Comm. Series; Manuscripts of Duke of Portland, etc., and in Notes and Queries; also Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus., E 118 (13).

References
This articleincorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Anthony van Dyck

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Anthony van Dyck

Sir Anthony van Dyck (many variant spellings;[2] 22 March 1599 9 December 1641) was a Flemish Baroque artist who became the leading court painter in England. He is most famous for his portraits of King Charles I of England and Scotland and his family and court, painted with a relaxed elegance that was to be the dominant influence on English portrait-painting for the next 150 years. He also painted biblical and mythological subjects, displayed outstanding facility as a draftsman, and was an important innovator in watercolour and etching.
Self Portrait With a Sunflower showing the gold collar and medal King Charles I gave [1] him in 1633. The sunflower may represent the king, or royal patronage.

Life and work

Education
Antoon van Dyck (his Flemish name) was born to prosperous parents in Antwerp. His talent was evident very early, and he was studying painting with Hendrick van Balen by 1609, and became an independent painter around 1615, setting up a workshop with his even younger friend Jan Brueghel the Younger.[3] By the age of fifteen he was already a highly accomplished artist, as his Self-portrait, 161314, shows.[4] He was admitted to the Antwerp painters' Guild of Saint Luke as a free master by February 1618.[5] Within a few years he was to be the chief assistant to the dominant master of Antwerp, and the whole of Northern Europe, Peter Paul Rubens, who made much use of sub-contracted artists as well as his own large workshop. His influence on the young artist was immense; Rubens referred to the nineteen-year-old van Dyck as "the best of my pupils".[6] The origins and exact nature of their relationship are unclear; it has been speculated Self-portrait, 1613-14. that Van Dyck was a pupil of Rubens from about 1613, as even his early work shows little trace of van Balen's style, but there is no clear evidence for this.[7] At the same time the dominance of Rubens in the small and declining city of Antwerp probably explains why, despite his periodic returns to the city, van Dyck spent most of his career abroad.[7] In 1620, in Rubens's contract for the major commission for the ceiling of the Jesuit church at Antwerp (now destroyed), van Dyck is specified as one of the "discipelen" who was to execute the paintings to Rubens' designs.[8]

Anthony van Dyck

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Italy
In 1620, at the instigation of the Duke of Buckingham, van Dyck went to England for the first time where he worked for King James I and James VI, receiving 100.[7] It was in London in the collection of Earl of Arundel that he first saw the work of Titian, whose use of colour and subtle modeling of form would prove transformational, offering a new stylistic language that would enrich the compositional lessons learned from Rubens.[9] After about four months he returned to Flanders, but moved on in late 1621 to Italy, where he remained for 6 years, studying the Italian masters and beginning his career as a successful portraitist. He was already presenting himself as a figure of consequence, annoying the rather bohemian Northern artist's colony in Rome, says Bellori, by appearing with "the pomp of Xeuxis ... his behaviour was that of a nobleman rather than an ordinary person, and he shone in rich garments; since he was accustomed in the circle of Rubens to noblemen, and being naturally of elevated mind, and anxious to make himself distinguished, he therefore woreas well as silksa hat with feathers and brooches, gold chains across his chest, and was accompanied by servants."[10] He was mostly based in Genoa, although he also travelled extensively to other cities, and stayed for Genoan hauteur from the Lomelli family, 1623 some time in Palermo in Sicily. For the Genoese aristocracy, then in a final flush of prosperity, he developed a full-length portrait style, drawing on Veronese and Titian as well as Rubens' style from his own period in Genoa, where extremely tall but graceful figures look down on the viewer with great hauteur. In 1627, he went back to Antwerp where he remained for five years, painting more affable portraits which still made his Flemish patrons look as stylish as possible. A life-size group portrait of twenty-four City Councillors of Brussels he painted for the council-chamber was destroyed in 1695.[11] He was evidently very charming to his patrons, and, like Rubens, well able to mix in aristocratic and court circles, which added to his ability to obtain commissions. By 1630 he was described as the court painter of the Habsburg Governor of Flanders, the Archduchess Isabella. In this period he also produced many religious works, including large altarpieces, and began his printmaking (see below).

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London
King Charles I was the most passionate and generous collector of art among the British monarchs, and saw art as a way of promoting his grandiose view of the monarchy. In 1628 he bought the fabulous collection that the Gonzagas of Mantua were forced to dispose of, and he had been trying since his accession in 1625 to bring leading foreign painters to England. In 1626 he was able to persuade Orazio Gentileschi to settle in England, later to be joined by his daughter Artemesia and some of his sons. Rubens was an especial target, who eventually came on a diplomatic mission, which included painting, in 1630, and later supplied more paintings from Antwerp. He was very well treated during his nine month visit, during which he was knighted. Charles' court portraitist, Daniel Mytens, was a somewhat pedestrian Fleming. Charles was extremely short (less than five feet tall) and presented challenges to a portraitist. Van Dyck had remained in touch with the English court, and had helped King Charles' agents in their search for pictures. He had also sent back some of his own works, including a portrait (1623) of himself with Endymion Porter, one of Charles's agents, a mythology (Rinaldo and Armida, 1629, now in the Baltimore Museum of Art), and a religious work The more intimate, but still elegant style he developed in for the Queen. He had also painted Charles's sister, Queen England, ca 1638 Elizabeth of Bohemia in the Hague in 1632. In April that year, van Dyck returned to London, and was taken under the wing of the court immediately, being knighted in July and at the same time receiving a pension of 200 per year, in the grant of which he was described as principalle Paynter in ordinary to their majesties. He was well paid for paintings in addition to this, at least in theory, as King Charles did not actually pay over his pension for five years, and reduced the price of many paintings. He was provided with a house on the river at Blackfriars, then just outside the City and hence avoiding the monopoly of the Painters Guild. A suite of rooms in Eltham Palace, no longer used by the Royal family, was also provided as a country retreat. His Blackfriars studio was frequently visited by the King and Queen (later a special causeway was built to ease their access), who hardly sat for another painter whilst van Dyck lived.[7] [12]

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He was an immediate success in England, rapidly painting a large number of portraits of the King and Queen Henrietta Maria, as well as their children. Many portraits were done in several versions, to be sent as diplomatic gifts or given to supporters of the increasingly embattled king. Altogether van Dyck has been estimated to have painted forty portraits of King Charles himself, as well as about thirty of the Queen, nine of Earl of Strafford and multiple ones of other courtiers.[13] He painted many of the court, and also himself and his mistress, Margaret Lemon. In England he developed a version of his style which combined a relaxed elegance and ease with an understated authority in his subjects which was to dominate English portrait-painting to the end of the 18th century. Many of these portraits have a lush landscape background. His portraits of Charles on horseback updated the grandeur of Titian's Emperor Charles V, but even more effective and original is his portrait of Charles dismounted in the Louvre: "Charles is given a totally natural look of King Charles I, ca. 1635 Louvre - see text instinctive sovereignty, in a deliberately informal setting where he strolls so negligently that that he seems at first glance nature's gentleman rather than England's King".[14] Although his portraits have created the classic idea of "Cavalier" style and dress, in fact a majority of his most important patrons in the nobility, such as Lord Wharton and the Earls of Bedford, Northumberland and Pembroke, took the Parliamentarian side in the English Civil War that broke out soon after his death.[15] Van Dyck became a "denizen", effectively a citizen, in 1638 and married Mary, the daughter of Lord Ruthven and a Lady in waiting to the Queen, in 1639-40; this may have been instigated by the King in an attempt to keep him in England.[7] He had spent most of 1634 in Antwerp, returning the following year, and in 1640-41, as the Civil War loomed, spent several months in Flanders and France. In 1640 he accompanied prince John Casimir of Poland after he was freed from French imprisonment;[16] [17] he also painted the prince's portrait.[16] [18] He left again in the summer of 1641, but fell seriously ill in Paris and returned hurriedly to London, where he died soon after in his house at Blackfriars.[8] He left a daughter each by his wife and mistress, the first only ten days old. Both were provided for, and both ended up living in Flanders.[19] He was buried in Old St. Paul's Cathedral, where the king erected a monument in his memory: Anthony returned to England, and shortly afterwards he died in London, piously rendering his spirit to God as a good Catholic, in the year 1641. He was buried in St. Paul's, to the sadness of the king and court and the universal grief of lovers of painting. For all the riches he had acquired, Anthony van Dyck left little property, having spent everything on living magnificently, more like a prince than a painter.[20]

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Portraits and other works

With the partial exception of Holbein, van Dyck and his exact contemporary Diego Velzquez were the first painters of pre-eminent talent to work mainly as Court portraitists. The slightly younger Rembrandt was also to work mainly as a portraitist for a period. In the contemporary theory of the hierarchy of genres portrait-painting came well below history painting (which covered religious scenes also), and for most major painters portraits were a relatively small part of their output, in terms of Samson and Delilah, ca. 1630. A strenuous history painting in the manner of Rubens; the saturated use of color reveals van Dyck's study of Titian. the time spent on them (being small, they might be numerous in absolute terms). Rubens for example mostly painted portraits only of his immediate circle, but though he worked for most of the courts of Europe, he avoided exclusive attachment to any of them. A variety of factors meant that in the 17th century demand for portraits was stronger than for other types of work. Van Dyck tried to persuade Charles to commission him to do a large-scale series of works on the history of the Order of the Garter for the Banqueting House, Whitehall, for which Rubens had earlier done the huge ceiling paintings (sending them from Antwerp). A sketch for one wall remains, but by 1638 Charles was too short of money to proceed.[7] This was a problem Velzquez did not have, but equally van Dyck's daily life was not encumbered by trivial court duties as Velzquez's was. In his visits to Paris in his last years van Dyck tried to obtain the commission to paint the Grande Gallerie of the Louvre without success.[21] A list of history paintings produced by van Dyck in England survives, by Bellori, based on information by Sir Kenelm Digby; none of these still appear to survive, although the Eros and Psyche done for the King (below) does.[7] But many other works, rather more religious than mythological, do survive, and though they are very fine, they do not reach the heights of Velzquez's history paintings. Earlier ones remain very much within the style of Rubens, although some of his Sicilian works are interestingly individual. Van Dyck's portraits certainly flattered more than Velzquez's; when Sophia, later Electoress of Hanover, first met Queen Henrietta Maria, in exile in Holland in 1641, she wrote: "Van Dyck's handsome portraits had given me so fine an idea of the beauty of all English ladies, that I was surprised to find that the Queen, who looked so fine in painting, was a small woman raised up on her chair, with long skinny arms

Henrietta Maria and the dwarf, Sir Jeffrey Hudson, 1633

Anthony van Dyck and teeth like defence works projecting from her mouth..."[7] Some critics have blamed van Dyck for diverting a nascent tougher English portrait tradition, of painters such as William Dobson, Robert Walker and Issac Fuller into what certainly became elegant blandness in the hands of many of van Dyck's successors, like Lely or Kneller.[7] The conventional view has always been more favourable: "When Van Dyck came hither he brought Face-Painting to us; ever since which time England has excel'd all the World in that great Branch of the Art (Jonathan Richardson: An Essay on the Theory of Painting, 1715, 41). Thomas Gainsborough is reported to have said on his deathbed "We are all going to heaven, and Van Dyck is of the Company."[22] A fairly small number of landscape pen and wash drawings or watercolours made in England played an important part in introducing the Flemish watercolour landscape tradition to England. Some are studies, which reappear in the background of paintings, but many are signed and dated and were probably regarded as finished works to be given as presents. Several of the most detailed are of Rye, a port for ships to the Continent, suggesting that van Dyck did them casually whilst waiting for wind or tide to improve.[23]

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Printmaking
Probably during his period in Antwerp after his return from Italy, van Dyck began his Iconography, eventually a very large series of prints with half-length portraits of eminent contemporaries. Van Dyck produced drawings, and for eighteen of the portraits he himself etched with great brilliance the heads and the main outlines of the figure, for an engraver to work up: "Portrait etching had scarcely had an existence before his time, and in his work it suddenly appears at the highest point ever reached in the art".[24] However for most of the series he left the whole printmaking work to specialists, who mostly engraved everything after his drawings. His own etched plates appear not to have been published commercially until after his death, and early states are very rare.[25] Most of his plates were printed after only his work had been done; some exist in further states after engraving had been added, sometimes obscuring his etching. He continued to add to the series until at least his departure for England, and presumably added Inigo Jones whilst in London. The series was a great success, but was his only venture into printmaking; portraiture probably paid better, and he was constantly in demand. At his death there were eighty plates by others, of which fifty-two were of artists, as well as his own eighteen. The plates were bought by a publisher; with the plates reworked periodically as they wore out they continued to be printed for centuries, and the series added to, so that it reached over two hundred portraits by the late 18th century. In 1851 the plates were bought by the Calcographie du Louvre.[26] The Iconography was highly influential as a commercial model for reproductive printmaking; now forgotten
Pieter Brueghel the Younger from the Iconography; etching by Van Dyck (only)

Anthony van Dyck series of portrait prints were enormously popular until the advent of photography: "the importance of this series was enormous, and it provided a repertory of images that were plundered by portrait painters throughout Europe over the next couple of centuries".[22] Van Dyck's brilliant etching style, which depended on open lines and dots, was in marked contrast to that of the other great portraitist in prints of the period, Rembrandt, and had little influence until the 19th century, when it had a great influence on artists such as Whistler in the last major phase of portrait etching.[24] Hyatt Mayor wrote: "Etchers have studied Van Dyck ever since, for they can hope to approximate his brilliant directness, whereas nobody can hope to approach the complexity of Rembrandt's portraits".[27]

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Studio
His great success compelled van Dyck to maintain a large workshop in London, a studio which was to become "virtually a production line for portraits". According to a visitor to his studio he usually only made a drawing on paper, which was then enlarged onto canvas by an assistant; he then painted the head himself. The clothes were left at the studio and often sent out to specialists.[22] In his last years these studio collaborations accounted for some decline in the quality of work.[28] In addition many copies untouched by him, or virtually so, were produced by the workshop, as well as by professional copyists and later painters; the number of paintings ascribed to him had by the 19th century become huge, as with Rembrandt, Titian This triple portrait of King Charles I was sent to Rome for Bernini to model a bust on and others. However most of his assistants and copyists could not approach the refinement of his manner, so compared to many masters consensus among art historians on attributions to him is usually relatively easy to reach, and museum labelling is now mostly updated (country house attributions may be more dubious in some cases). The relatively few names of his assistants that are known are Dutch or Flemish; he probably preferred to use trained Flemings, as no English equivalent training yet existed.[7] Adriaen Hanneman (160471) returned to his native Hague in 1638 to become the leading portraitist there.[29] Van Dyck's enormous influence of English art does not come from a tradition handed down through his pupils; in fact it is not possible to document a connection to his studio for any English painter of any significance.[7]

Other uses of van Dyck

Van Dyck painted many portraits of men, notably Charles I and himself, with the short, pointed beards then in fashion; consequently this particular kind of beard was much later (probably first in America in the 19th century) named a vandyke or Van dyke beard (which is the anglicized version of his name). During the reign of George III, a generic "Cavalier" fancy-dress costume called a Van Dyke was popular; Gainsborough's 'Blue Boy' is wearing such a Van Dyke outfit. The oil paint pigment van Dyck brown is named after him, and Van dyke brown is an early photographic printing process using the same colour. See also several people and places under Van Dyke, the more common form in English of the same original name.

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Collections
Most major museum collections include at least one Van Dyck, but easily the most outstanding collection is the Royal Collection, which still contains many of his paintings of the Royal Family. The National Gallery, London (fourteen works), The Museo del Prado (Spain) (twenty-five works), The Louvre in Paris (eighteen works), The Alte Pinakothek in Munich, The National Gallery of Art in Washington DC and the Frick Collection have splendid examples of all phases of his portrait style. Tate Britain held the exhibition Van Dyck & Britain in 2009.[30]

Gallery

"Self Portrait", ca. 1621 Alte Pinakothek

Elena Grimaldi, Genoa 1623

Rest of the Holy Family during the Flight into Egypt (around 1630) Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Marie-Louise de Tassis, Antwerp 1630

Queen Henrietta Maria, London 1632

Charles I with M. de St Antoine (1633)

A Family Group, c. 1634-35, oil on canvas, The Detroit Institute of Arts

James Stuart, Duke of Richmond, ca. 1637

Amor and Psyche, 1638

George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol, ca. 16389

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References
[1] So Ellis Waterhouse (as refs below). But Levey (refs below) suggests that either van Dyck is the sun to which the sun-flower (of popular acclaim?) turns its face, or that it is the face of the King, on the medal he holds, as presented by van Dyck to the world [2] Originally "van Dijck", with the "IJ" digraph, in Dutch. Anthony is the English for the Dutch Anthonis or Antoon, though Anthonie, Antonio or Anthonio was also used; in French he is often Antoine, in Italian Anthonio or Antonio. In English a capitalised "Van" in Van Dyck was more usual until recent decades (used by Waterhouse for example), and Dyke was often used during his lifetime and later [3] Brown, Christopher: Van Dyck 1599-1641, page 15. Royal Academy Publications, 1999. ISBN 0-900946-66-0 [4] Hans Vlieghe, Flemish art and architecture, 15851700, Yale University Press, 2004, p. 124. ISBN 0300104693 [5] Gregory Martin, The Flemish School, 1600-1900, National Gallery Catalogues, p.26, 1970, National Gallery, London, ISBN 0901791024 [6] Brown, page 17. [7] Ellis Waterhouse, "Painting in Britain, 1530-1790", 4th Edn, 1978,pp 70-77, Penguin Books (now Yale History of Art series) [8] Martin, op and page cit. [9] Brown, page 19. [10] Michael Levey, Painting at Court, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 1971, pp 124-5 [11] DNB accessed may 14 2007 [12] DNB ret 3 May 2007 (causeway, and Eltham) [13] Gaunt, William, English Court Painting [14] Levey p 128 [15] DNB ret. 3 May 2007 [16] (Polish) "Portret krlewicza" (http:/ / swiadectwotestimony. republika. pl/ dyck_vasas. html). Treasures.... . Retrieved 2008-08-29. [17] (Polish) "Jan II Kazimierz Waza" (http:/ / www. poczet. com/ janii. htm). www.stat.gov.pl. www.poczet.com. . Retrieved 2008-08-29. [18] now in the Accademia Nazionale di San Luca [19] Grove Art Online, accessed 13 May 2007, DNB 14 May 2007 [20] Brown, page 33. In 1666 the Great Fire of London destroyed Old St. Paul's Cathedral, and with it van Dyck's tomb. [21] Levey, op cit p.136 [22] DNB accessed 14 May 2007 [23] Martin Royalton-Kisch, The Light of Nature, Landscape Drawings and Watercolours by Van Dyck and his contemporaries, British Museum Press, 1999, ISBN 0714126217 [24] A History of Engraving and Etching, Arthur M. Hind,p. 165, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1923 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0486209547 [25] DP Becker in KL Spangeberg (ed), Six Centuries of Master Prints, Cincinnati Art Museum, 1993, no 72,ISBN 0931537150 [26] DP Becker in KL Spangeberg (ed), Six Centuries of Master Prints, Cincinnati Art Museum, 1993, no 72, ISBN 0931537150 [27] A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, 1971, no.433-35, ISBN 0691003262 [28] Brown, page 84-6. [29] Rudi Ekkart and Quentin Buvelot (eds), Dutch Portraits, The Age of Rembrandt and Frans Hals, Mauritshuis/National Gallery/Waanders Publishers, Zwolle, p.138 QB, 2007,ISBN 9781857093629 [30] Karen Hearn (ed.), Van Dyck & Britain (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ britain/ exhibitions/ vandyck/ ), Tate Publishing, 2009. ISBN 978-1-85437-795-1.

External links
"Van Dyck, Anthony". Dictionary of National Biography, 18851900 . London: Smith, Elder & Co. Anthony van Dyck Biography, Style and Artworks (http://www.artble.com/artists/anthony_van_dyck) The National Gallery: Van Dyck (http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/anthony-van-dyck)

Thomas Gainsborough

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Thomas Gainsborough
Thomas Gainsborough

Self-portrait, painted 1759 Birth name Thomas Gainsborough Born Died 14 May 1727 (baptised)Sudbury, Suffolk, England 2 August 1788 (aged61)

Nationality British Field Works Painter Mr and Mrs Andrews The Blue Boy

Thomas Gainsborough (christened 14 May 1727 2 August 1788) was an English portrait and landscape painter.

Life and work

Suffolk
Thomas Gainsborough was born in Sudbury, Suffolk. He was the youngest son of John Gainsborough, a weaver and maker of woolen goods. At the age of thirteen he impressed his father with his penciling skills so that he let him go to London to study art in 1740. In London he first trained under engraver Hubert Gravelot but eventually became associated with William Hogarth and his school. One of his mentors was Francis Hayman. In those years he contributed to the decoration of what is now the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children and the supper boxes at Vauxhall Gardens. In the 1740s, Gainsborough married Margaret Burr, an illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Beaufort, who settled a 200 annuity on the couple. The artist's work, then mainly composed of landscape paintings, was not selling very well. He returned to Sudbury in 17481749 and concentrated on the painting of portraits. In 1752, he and his family, now including two daughters, moved to Ipswich. Commissions for personal portraits increased, but his clientele included mainly local merchants and squires. He had to borrow against his wife's annuity.

Mr and Mrs Andrews (1748-49). National Gallery, London.

Thomas Gainsborough

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Bath
In 1759, Gainsborough and his family moved to Bath. There, he studied portraits by van Dyck and was eventually able to attract a better-paying high society clientele. In 1761, he began to send work to the Society of Arts exhibition in London (now the Royal Society of Arts, of which he was one of the earliest members); and from 1769 on, he submitted works to the Royal Academy's annual exhibitions. He selected portraits of well-known or notorious clients in order to attract attention. These exhibitions helped him acquire a national reputation, and he was invited to become one of the founding members of the Royal Academy in 1769. His relationship with the academy, however, was not an easy one and he stopped exhibiting his paintings there in 1773.

London
In 1774, Gainsborough and his family moved to London to live in Schomberg House, Pall Mall[1] . In 1777, he again began to exhibit his paintings at the Royal Academy, including portraits of contemporary celebrities, such as the Duke and Duchess of Cumberland. Exhibitions of his work continued for the next six years. In 1780, he painted the portraits of King George III and his queen and afterwards received many royal commissions. This gave him some influence with the Academy and allowed him to dictate the manner in which he wished his work to be exhibited. However, in 1783, he removed his paintings from the forthcoming exhibition and transferred them to Schomberg House. In 1784, royal painter Allan Ramsay died and the King was obliged to give the job to Gainsborough's rival and Academy president, Joshua Reynolds. Gainsborough remained the Royal Family's favorite painter, however. At his own express wish, he was buried at St. Anne's Church, Kew, where the Family regularly worshipped. In his later years, Gainsborough often painted relatively simple, ordinary Mr and Mrs William Hallett (1785). landscapes. With Richard Wilson, he was one of the originators of the eighteenth-century British landscape school; though simultaneously, in conjunction with Sir Joshua Reynolds, he was the dominant British portraitist of the second half of the 18th century. He died of cancer on 2 August 1788 at the age of 61 and is interred at St. Anne's Church, Kew, Surrey (located on Kew Green). He is buried next to Francis Bauer, the famous botanical illustrator.
The Blue Boy (1770). The Huntington, California.

Thomas Gainsborough

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Technique
Gainsborough was noted for the speed with which he applied his paint, and he worked more from his observations of nature (and of human nature) than from any application of formal academic rules. The poetic sensibility of his paintings caused Constable to say, "On looking at them, we find tears in our eyes and know not what brings them." He himself said, "I'm sick of portraits, and wish very much to take my viol-da-gam and walk off to some sweet village, where I can paint landskips (sic) and enjoy the fag end of life in quietness and ease." His most famous works, such as Portrait of Mrs. Graham; Mary and Margaret: The Painter's Daughters; William Hallett and His Wife Elizabeth, nee Stephen, known as The Morning Walk; and Cottage Girl with Dog and Pitcher, display the unique individuality of his subjects. Gainsborough's only known assistant was his nephew, Gainsborough Dupont. In the last year of his life he collaborated with John Hoppner in painting a full length portrait of Charlotte, Countess Talbot.

Mrs Thomas Hibbert. Neue Pinakothek.

In fiction and music

Kitty (1945) is a notable fictional film about Gainsborough, portrayed by Cecil Kellaway. Gainsborough has an important posthumous role in the alternate history novel The Two Georges, co-authored by Richard Dreyfuss and Harry Turtledove. Gainsborough is wistfully referred to in the song "20th Century Man", on the Muswell Hillbillies album by The Kinks: "You can keep all your smart modern painters/ I'll take Rembrandt, Titian, Da Vinci, and Gainsborough!"

Gallery of selected works

Landscape in Suffolk (1748)

Self-Portrait (1754)

Two Daughters with a Cat (c. 1759)

Sunset (1760)

Thomas Gainsborough

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The Artist`s Daughters, Molly and Peggy (1760)

Portrait of the Composer Carl Friedrich Abel with his Viola da Gamba (c. 1765)

Johann Christian Bach

John Campbell, 4th Duke of Argyll (1767)

The Harvest Wagon c. 1767

Lady in Blue (c. 1770), Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg

Gainsborough`s Daughter Mary (1777)

The Honorable Richard Savage Nassau de Zuylestein, M.P.,c. 1778-80, oil on canvas, The Detroit Institute of Arts

Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire (1783)

The Harvest Wagon c. 1784

Mrs. Sarah Siddons (1785)

Mrs. Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1785-86)

Thomas Gainsborough

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Cottage Girl with Dog and pitcher (1785)

Self-Portrait (1787)

River Landscape

The Painter`s Daughters Chasing a Butterfly

Her Grace Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire

Further reading
Thomas Gainsboroughs 'Lost' Portrait of Auguste Vestri, Martin Postle The Letters of Thomas Gainsborough (Paul Mellon Centre for Studies), John Hayes

References
[1] Plaque #2 on Open Plaques (http:/ / openplaques. org/ plaques/ 2).

External links
Webmuseum Paris: Thomas Gainsborough (http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/gainsborough/) Victoria and Albert Museum collection (http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/paintings/galleries/display/ gainsborough/index.html) http://www.abcgallery.com/G/gainsborough/gainsborough.html Olga's Gallery www.gac.culture.gov.uk/search/Artist.asp?maker_id=112361 (http://www.gac.culture.gov.uk/search/Artist. asp?maker_id=112361) www.Thomas-Gainsborough.org (http://www.thomas-gainsborough.org) 70 works by Thomas Gainsborough

Joshua Reynolds

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Joshua Reynolds
Sir Joshua Reynolds

Self-portrait Birth name Joshua Reynolds Born Died 16 July 1723 23 February 1792 (aged68)

Nationality English

Sir Joshua Reynolds RA FRS FRSA (16 July 1723 23 February 1792) was an influential 18th-century English painter, specialising in portraits and promoting the "Grand Style" in painting which depended on idealisation of the imperfect. He was one of the founders and first President of the Royal Academy. King George III appreciated his merits and knighted him in 1769.

Early life
Reynolds was born in Plympton, Devon, on 16 July 1723. As one of ten (maybe eleven) children and the son of the village school-master, Reynolds was restricted to a formal education provided by his father. He exhibited a natural curiosity and, as a boy, came under the influence of Zachariah Mudge, whose Platonistic philosophy stayed with him all his life. Reynolds made extracts into his commonplace book from Theophrastus, Plutarch, Seneca, Marcus Antonius, Ovid, William Shakespeare, John Milton, Alexander Pope, John Dryden, Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Aphra Behn and passages on art theory by Leonardo da Vinci, Charles Alphonse Du Fresnoy, and Andr Flibien.[1] The work that came to have the most influential impact on Reynolds was Jonathan Richardson's An Essay on the Theory of Painting (1715). Reynolds' annotated copy was lost for nearly two hundred years when it appeared in a Cambridge bookshop, inscribed with the signature J. Reynolds Pictor.[1]

Career
Showing an early interest in art, Reynolds was apprenticed in 1740 to the fashionable portrait painter Thomas Hudson, with whom he remained until 1743. In 1749, Reynolds became friend with Augustus Keppel, a naval officer, and they both sailed on the Centurion to the Mediterranean. Whilst on board, Reynolds wrote later, "I had the use of his cabin and his study of books, as if they had been my own".[2] From 1749 to 1752, he spent over two years in Italy, where he studied the Old Masters and acquired a taste for the "Grand Style". Unfortunately, whilst in Rome, Reynolds suffered a severe cold which left him partially deaf, and, as a result, he began to carry a small ear trumpet with which he is often pictured. From 1753 until the end of his life, he lived in London, his talents gaining recognition soon after his arrival in France.

Joshua Reynolds

79 Reynolds worked long hours in his studio, rarely taking a holiday. He was both gregarious and keenly intellectual, with a great number of friends from London's intelligentsia, numbered amongst whom were Dr Samuel Johnson, Oliver Goldsmith, Edmund Burke, Giuseppe Baretti, Henry Thrale, David Garrick and fellow artist Angelica Kauffmann. Johnson said in 1778: "Reynolds is too much under Fox and Burke at present. He is under the Fox star and the Irish constellation [meaning Burke]. He is always under some planet".[4]

Because of his popularity as a portrait painter, Reynolds enjoyed constant interaction with the wealthy and famous men and women of the day, and it was he who first brought together the famous figures of "The" Club. By 1761 Reynolds could command a fee of 80 Guineas for a full-length portrait (Mr Fane); in 1764 he was paid 100 Guineas for a portrait of Lord Burghersh.[5]
'A literary party at Sir Joshua Reynolds's'.'A literary party at Sir Joshua Reynolds's [3] , D. George Thompson, published by Owen Bailey, after James William Edmund Doyle, published 1 October 1851 Use a cursor to see who is who.

With his rival Thomas Gainsborough, Reynolds was the dominant English portraitist of 'the Age of Johnson'. It is said that in his long life he painted as many as three thousand portraits. Although not principally known for his landscapes, Reynolds did paint in this genre. He had an excellent vantage from his house on Richmond Hill, and painted the view in about 1780.[6] In the Battle of Ushant with the French in 1778, Lord Keppel commanded the Channel Fleet and the outcome resulted in no clear winner; Keppel ordered to renew the attack and this was obeyed except by Sir Hugh Palliser, who commanded the rear, and the French escaped bombardment. A dispute between Keppel and Palliser arose and Palliser brought charges of misconduct and neglect of duty against Keppel and the Admiralty decided to court-martial him. On 11 February 1779 Keppel was acquitted of all charges and became a national hero. One of Keppel's lawyers commissioned Sir Nathaniel Dance to paint a portrait of Keppel but Keppel redirected it to Reynolds. Reynolds alluded to Keppel's trial in the painting by having him have his hand on his sword, reflecting the presiding officer's words at the court-martial: "In delivering to you your sword, I am to congratulate you on its being restored to you with so much honour".[7] On 10 August 1784 Allan Ramsay died and the office of Principal Painter in Ordinary to the King therefore became vacant. Gainsborough felt that he had a good chance of securing it but Reynolds felt that he deserved it and threatened to resign the presidency of the Royal Academy if he did not receive it. Reynolds noted in his pocket book: "Sept. 1, 2, to attend at the Lord Chancellor's Office to be sworn in painter to the King".[8] However this did not make Reynolds happy, as he wrote to Boswell: "If I had known what a shabby miserable place it is, I would not have asked for it; besides as things have turned out I think a certain person is not worth speaking to, nor speaking of", presumably meaning the King.[9] Reynolds wrote to Jonathan Shipley, Bishop of St Asaph, a few weeks later: "Your Lordship
Lord Keppel (1779).

Joshua Reynolds congratulation on my succeeding Mr. Ramsay I take very kindly but it is a most miserable office, it is reduced from two hundred to thirty-eight pounds per annum, the Kings Rat catcher I believe is a better place, and I am to be paid only a fourth part of what I have from other people, so that the Portraits of their Majesties are not likely to be better done now, than they used to be, I should be ruined if I was to paint them myself".[9] In 1788 Reynolds painted the portrait of Lord Heathfield, who became a national hero for his successful defence of Gibraltar during its Great Siege from 1779 to 1783 against the combined forces of France and Spain. Heathfield is depicted against a background of clouds and cannon smoke, wearing the uniform of the 15th Light Dragoons and clasping the key of the Rock, its chain wrapped twice around his right hand.[10] John Constable said in the 1830s that it was "almost a history of the defence of Gibraltar".[1] Desmond Shawe-Taylor has claimed that the portrait may have a religious meaning, Heathfield holding the key similar to St Peter (Jesus' "rock") possessing the keys to Heaven, Heathfield "the rock upon which Britannia builds her military interests".[1] [11]

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Lord Heathfield (1788).

Later life

In 1789 he lost the sight of his left eye, which finally forced him into retirement. In 1791 James Boswell dedicated his Life of Samuel Johnson to Reynolds. Reynolds agreed with Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France and, writing in early 1791, expressed his belief that the ancien rgime of France had fallen due to spending too much time tending "to the splendor of the foliage, to the neglect of the stirring the earth about the roots. They cultivated only those arts which could add splendor to the nation, to the neglect of those which supported it They neglected Trade & substantial Manufacture...but does it follow that a total revolution is necessary that because we have given ourselves up too much to the ornaments of life, we will now have none at all".[12] When attending a dinner at Holland House, Fox's niece Caroline was sat next to Reynolds and "burst out into glorification of the Revolution and was grievously chilled and checked by her neighbour's cautious and unsympathetic tone".[13] On 4 June 1791 at a dinner at the Freemasons' Tavern to mark the King's birthday, Reynolds drank to the toasts "GOD save the KING!" and "May our glorious Constitution under which the arts flourish, be immortal!", in what was reported by the Public Advertiser as "a fervour truly patriotick". Reynolds "filled the chair with a most convivial glee".[14] He returned to town from Burke's house in Beaconsfield and Edmond Malone wrote that "we left his carriage at the Inn at Hayes, and walked five miles on the road, in a warm day, without his complaining of any fatigue".[14] Later that month Reynolds suffered from a swelling over his left eye and had to be purged by a surgeon. In October he was too ill to take the President's chair and in November Fanny Burney recorded that "I had long languished to see that kindly zealous friend, but his ill health had intimidated me from making the attempt": "He had a bandage over one eye, and the other shaded with a green half-bonnet. He seemed serious even to sadness, though extremely kind. I am very glad, he said, in a meek voice and dejected accent, to see you again, and I wish I could see you better! but I have only one ye now, and hardly that. I was really quite touched".[15] On 5 November Reynolds, fearing he may not have an opportunity to write a will, wrote a memorandum intended to be his last will and testament, with Burke, Malone and Philip Metcalfe named as executors. On 10 November Reynolds wrote to Benjamin West to resign the Presidency, but the General Assembly agreed that Reynolds should

Joshua Reynolds be re-elected, with Sir William Chambers and West to deputise for him.[16] The doctors Richard Warren and Sir George Baker believed Reynolds' illness to be psychological and they bled his neck "with a view of drawing the humour from his eyes" but the effect of this in the view of his niece was that it seemed "as if the 'principle of life' were gone" from Reynolds. On New Year's Day 1792 Reynolds became "seized with sickness" and from that point onwards could not keep down food.[16] Reynolds died on 23 February 1792 in his house in Leicester Fields in London between eight and nine in the evening. Burke was present on the night Reynolds died, and he was moved within hours to write a eulogy of Reynolds: Sir Joshua Reynolds was on very many accounts one of the most memorable men of his Time. He was the first Englishman who added the praise of the eligant Arts to the other Glories of his Country. In Taste, in grace, in facility, in happy invention, and in the richness and Harmony of colouring, he was equal to the great masters of the renowned Ages. In Pourtrait he went beyond them; for he communicated to that description of the art, in which English artists are the most engaged a variety, a Fancy, and a dignity derived from the higher Branches, which even those who professed them a superior manner, did not always preserve when they delineated individual nature. His Purtraits remind the Spectator of the Invention of History, and the amenity of Landscape. In painting pourtraits, he appeard not to be raised upon that platform; but to descend to it from an higher sphere. his paintings illustrate his Lessonsand his Lessons seem to be derived from his Paintings. He possessed the Theory as perfectly as the Practice of his Art. To be such a painter, he was a profound and penetrating Philosopher. In full affluence of foreign and domestick Fame, admired by the expert in art, and by the learned in Science, courted by the great, caressed by Sovereign powers, and celebrated by distinguished Poets, his Native humility, modesty and Candour never forsook him, even on surprise or provocation, nor was the least degree of arrogance or assumption visible to the most scrutinizing eye, in any part of his Conduct or discourse. His talents of every kind powerful from Nature, and not meanly cultivated by Letters, his social Virtues in all the relations, and all the habitudes of Life renderd him the center of a very great and unparalleled Variety of agreeable Societies, which will be dissipated by his Death. He had too much merit not to excite some Jealously; too much innocence to provoke any Enmity. The loss of no man of his Time can be felt with more sincere, general, and unmixed Sorrow. HAIL! AND FAREWELL![17] Burke's tribute was well received and one journalist called it "the eulogium of Apelles pronounced by Pericles".[18] Reynolds was buried at St. Paul's Cathedral.

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Joshua Reynolds

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Legacy
Professionally, Reynolds' career never peaked. He was one of the earliest members of the Royal Society of Arts, helped found the Society of Artists, and, with Gainsborough, established the Royal Academy of Arts as a spin-off organisation. In 1768 he was made the RA's first President, a position he held until his death. As a lecturer, Reynolds' Discourses on Art (delivered between 1769 and 1790) are remembered for their sensitivity and perception. In one of these lectures he was of the opinion that "invention, strictly speaking, is little more than a new combination of those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in the memory." Reynolds and the Royal Academy have historically received a mixed reception. Critics include many of the Pre-Raphaelites, and William Blake, the latter having published his vitriolic Annotations to Sir Joshua Reynolds' Discourses in 1808. To the contrary, both J. M. W. Turner Reynolds painted by American artist Gilbert Stuart, oil on canvas, 1784 and James Northcote were fervent acolytes: Turner requested he be laid to rest at Reynolds' side, and Northcote (who lived for four years as Reynolds' pupil) wrote to his family "I know him thoroughly, and all his faults, I am sure, and yet almost worship him."

Appearance
In appearance Reynolds was not striking. Slight, he was about 5'6" with dark brown curls, a florid complexion and features which James Boswell thought were "rather too largely and strongly limned." He had a broad face, a cleft chin, and the bridge of his nose was slightly dented; his skin was scarred by smallpox, and his upper lip disfigured as a result of falling from a horse as a young man. Edmond Malone asserted that "his appearance at first sight impressed the spectator with the idea of a well-born and well-bred English gentleman." Renowned for his placidity, Reynolds often claimed that he "hated nobody". Never quite losing his Devonshire accent, he was not only an amiable and original conversationalist but a friendly and generous host, so that Fanny Burney recorded in her diary that he had "a suavity of disposition that set everybody at their ease in his society", and William Makepeace Thackeray believed "of all the polite men of that age, Joshua Reynolds was the finest gentleman." Dr. Johnson commented on the inoffensiveness of his nature; Edmund Burke noted his "strong turn for humor". Thomas Bernard, who later became Bishop of Killaloe, wrote in his verses on Reynolds: "Dear knight of Plympton, teach me how To suffer, with unruffled brow And smile serene, like thine, The jest uncouth or truth severe; To such I'll turn my deafest ear And calmly drink my wine.

Joshua Reynolds Thou say'st not only skill is gained But genius too may be attained By studious imitation; Thy temper mild, thy genius fine I'll copy till I make them mine By constant application." Admittedly, some did construe Reynolds' equable calm as cool and unfeeling. Hester Lynch Piozzi's pen-portrait reads: "Of Reynolds what good shall be said?- or what harm? His temper too frigid; his pencil too warm; A rage for sublimity ill understood, To seek still for the great, by forsaking the good..." It is to this luke-warm temperament that Frederick W. Hilles, Bodman Professor of English Literature at Yale attributes the fact Reynolds never married. In the editorial notes of his compendium Portraits by Sir Joshua Reynolds, Hilles theorizes that "as a corollary one might say that he [Reynolds] was somewhat lacking in a capacity for love", and cites Boswell's notary papers: "He said the reason he would never marry was that every woman whom he liked had grown indifferent to him, and he had been glad he did not marry her." Reynolds' own sister, Frances, who lived with him as housekeeper, took her own negative opinion further still, thinking him "a gloomy tyrant". The presence of family compensated Reynolds for the absence of a wife; he wrote on one occasion to his friend Bennet Langton, that both his sister and niece were away from home "so that I am quite a bachelor." Biographer Ian McIntyre discusses the possibility of Reynolds having enjoyed sexual rendezvous with certain clients, such as Nelly O'Brien (or "My Lady O'Brien", as he playfully dubbed her) and Kitty Fisher, who visited his house for more sittings than were strictly necessary. Claims to this end are, however, purely speculative.

83

"Robert Clive and his family with an Indian maid", painted 1765.

Colonel Acland and Lord Sydney, The Archers, 1769. In September 2005, the Tate Gallery acquired the painting for over UK2.5 million (US$4.4 million).

Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond painted 1758

Joshua Reynolds

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Notes
[1] Martin Postle, Reynolds, Sir Joshua (17231792) (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 23429), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Oct 2009, accessed 24 Sept 2010. [2] Ian McIntyre, Joshua Reynolds. The Life and Times of the First President of the Royal Academy (London: Allen Lane, 2003), p. 39. [3] http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ portrait. php?LinkID=mp64290& rNo=0& role=art [4] James Boswell, Life of Johnson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 923. [5] The Times Sale Of The Vaile And Other Pictures 25 May 1903 [6] http:/ / www. richmond. gov. uk/ local_history_richmond_hill. pdf [7] McIntyre, pp. 350-353. [8] McIntyre, p. 426. [9] McIntyre, p. 427. [10] McIntyre, p. 472. [11] Desmond Shawe-Taylor, The Georgians: Eighteenth-Century Portraiture and Society (London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1990), p. 49. [12] McIntyre, p. 513. [13] McIntyre, p. 487. [14] McIntyre, p. 523. [15] McIntyre, pp. 523-524. [16] McIntyre, pp. 524-525. [17] P. J. Marshall and John A. Woods (eds.), The Correspondence of Edmund Burke. Volume VII. January 1792August 1794 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 75-76. [18] McIntyre, p. 528.

References
James Boswell, Life of Johnson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). Ian McIntyre, Joshua Reynolds. The Life and Times of the First President of the Royal Academy (London: Allen Lane, 2003). Martin Postle, Reynolds, Sir Joshua (17231792) (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/23429), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Oct 2009, accessed 24 Sept 2010.

Further reading
John Barrell, The Political Theory of Painting from Reynolds to Hazlitt (1986). A. Graves and W. V. Cronin, A History of the Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds (18991901, 4 volumes). F. W. Hilles, The Literary Career of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1936). Derek Hudson, Sir Joshua Reynolds: A Personal Study (1958). J. Ingamells and J. Edgcumbe (eds.), The Letters of Sir Joshua Reynolds (2000). C. R. Leslie and T. Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1865, 2 volumes). E. Malone (ed.), The Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1798, 3 volumes). D. Mannings, Sir Joshua Reynolds PRA, 172392 (1992). J. Northcote, Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds, knt. (181315). J. Northcote, The Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1818, 2nd edition, 2 volumes). Martin Postle, Joshua Reynolds: The Creation of Celebrity (Tate, 2005). ISBN 1854375644 Martin Postle, Sir Joshua Reynolds: The Subject Pictures (1995). Martin Postle, Drawings of Joshua Reynolds. R. Prochno, Joshua Reynolds (1990). E. K. Waterhouse, Reynolds (1941). E. K. Waterhouse, Reynolds (1973).

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External links
"Reynolds, Joshua". Dictionary of National Biography, 18851900 . London: Smith, Elder & Co. Joshua Reynolds' biography, style and critical reception (http://www.artble.com/artists/joshua_reynolds) The National Gallery: Sir Joshua Reynolds (http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/sir-joshua-reynolds) Works in the National Galleries of Scotland (http://www.nationalgalleries.org/collection/online_az/4:322/ ?initial=R&artistId=4423&artistName=Sir Joshua Reynolds&submit=1) www.abcgallery.com/R/reynolds/reynolds.html (http://www.abcgallery.com/R/reynolds/reynolds.html) Olga's Gallery http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/online/featuredartists/reynolds/ http://www.classicartrepro.com/ArtistsDetails.aspx?A=reynolds www.gac.culture.gov.uk/search/Artist.asp?maker_id=112498 (http://www.gac.culture.gov.uk/artist. aspx?id=112498) Port Eliot House, home of the Earl of St. Germans contains many fine works by Reynolds, including a rare view of Plymouth. (http://www.porteliot.co.uk/features.php) 'Sir Joshua Reynolds: The Acquisition of Genius' exhibition at Plymouth City Museum and Art Gallery - 21 November 2009 to 20 February 2010 (http://www.plymouth.gov.uk/museumexhibitionsdisplays)

Paintings
Artcyclopedia: Sir Joshua Reynolds (http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/reynolds_sir_joshua.html) National Portrait Gallery Collection (http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person. php?LinkID=mp03755&role=art) Sir Joshua Reynolds at Olga's Gallery (http://www.abcgallery.com/R/reynolds/reynolds.html) Sir Joshua Reynolds, A Complete Catalogue of His Paintings (http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book. asp?isbn=0300085338) (book-bound)

Writings
By Sir Joshua Reynolds The Letters of Sir Joshua Reynolds (http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=0300087330) Seven Discourses on Art (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2176) at Project Gutenberg Portraits by Sir Joshua Reynolds (http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000OLCE4A) (character sketches) Biographies The Life Of Sir Joshua Reynolds: Late President Of The Royal Academy, volumes 1 (http://www.amazon. com/dp/1428649573/) and 2 (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1428649603/), by Reynolds' Friend James Northcote Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1843680017/), by Reynolds' friend Farington Joseph Staff Sir Joshua Reynolds: The Painter in Society (http://www.npg.org.uk/live/pubreyn.asp), by Richard Wendorf (winner of the Annibel Jenkins Prize for Biography) Sir Joshua Reynolds (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19009), by Estelle M. Hurll, from Project Gutenberg

Thomas Lawrence

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Thomas Lawrence
Sir Thomas Lawrence

Thomas Lawrence, Self-portrait, 1788 Born Died 13 April 1769Bristol 7 January 1830 (aged60)London

Nationality English Field Painting

Sir Thomas Lawrence RA FRS (13 April 1769 7 January 1830) was a leading English portrait painter and president of the Royal Academy. Lawrence was a child prodigy. He was born in Bristol and began drawing in Devizes, where his father was an innkeeper. At the age of ten, having moved to Bath, he was supporting his family with his pastel portraits. At eighteen he went to London and soon established his reputation as a portrait painter in oils, receiving his first royal commission, a portrait of Queen Charlotte, in 1790. He stayed at the top of his profession until his death, aged 60, in 1830. Self-taught, he was a brilliant draughtsman and known for his gift of capturing a likeness, as well as his virtuoso handling of paint. He became an associate of the Royal Academy in 1791, a full member in 1794, and president in 1820. In 1810 he acquired the generous patronage of the Prince Regent, was sent abroad to paint portraits of allied leaders for the Waterloo chamber at Windsor Castle, and is particularly remembered as the Romantic portraitist of the Regency. Lawrence's love affairs were not happy (his tortuous relationships with Sally and Maria Siddons became the subject of several books) and, in spite of his success, he spent most of life deep in debt. He never married. At his death, Lawrence was the most fashionable portrait painter in Europe. His reputation waned during Victorian times, but has been partially restored in more recent ones.

Biography
Childhood and early career
Thomas Lawrence was born at 6 Redcross Street, Bristol, the youngest surviving child of Thomas Lawrence, a supervisor of excise, and Lucy Read, the daughter of a clergyman. The couple had 16 children but only five survived infancy: Lawrence's brother Andrew became a clergyman; William had a career in the army; sisters Lucy and Anne married a solicitor and a clergyman (Lawrence's nephews included Andrew Bloxam). Soon after Thomas was born his father decided to become an innkeeper and took over the White Lion Inn and next-door American Coffee House in Broad Street, Bristol. But the venture did not prosper and in 1773 Lawrence senior removed his family from Bristol and took over the tenancy of the Black Bear Inn in Devizes,[1] a favourite stopping place for the London gentry who were making their annual trip to take the waters at Bath.[2]

Thomas Lawrence It was during the family's six-year stay at the Black Bear Inn that Lawrence senior began to make use of his son's precocious talents for drawing and reciting poetry. Visitors would be greeted with the words "Gentlemen, here's my son - will you have him recite from the poets, or take your portraits?" Among those who listened to a recitation from Tom, or Tommy as he was called, was the actor David Garrick.[3] Lawrence's formal schooling was limited to two years at The Fort, a school in Bristol, when he was aged six to eight, and a little tuition in French and Latin from a dissenting minister.[4] He also became accomplished in dancing, fencing, boxing and billiards.[5] By the age of ten his fame had spread sufficiently for him to receive a mention in Daines Barrington's Miscellanies as "without the most distant instruction from anyone, capable of copying historical pictures in a masterly style".[6] But once again Lawrence senior failed as a landlord and, in 1779, he was declared bankrupt and the family moved to Bath. From now on, Lawrence was to support his parents with the money he earned from his portraits. The family settled at 2 Alfred Street in Bath, and the young Lawrence established himself as a portraitist in pastels. The oval portraits, for which he was soon charging three guineas, were about 12inches by 10inches (30 by 25 centimetres), and usually portrayed a half-length. His sitters included the Duchess of Devonshire, Sarah Siddons, Sir Henry Harpur (of Calke Abbey, Derbyshire, who offered to send Lawrence to Italy - Lawrence senior refused to part with his son), Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey.[7] Talented, charming and attractive (and surprisingly modest) Lawrence was popular with Bath residents and visitors: artists William Hoare and Mary Hartley gave him encouragement;[8] wealthy people allowed him to study their collections of paintings and Lawrence's drawing of a copy of Raphael's Transfiguration was awarded a silver-gilt palette and a prize of 5 guineas by the Society of Arts in London.[9]

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An early pastel portrait

"Always in love and always in debt"[10]

Sometime before his eighteenth birthday in 1787 Lawrence arrived in London, taking lodgings in Leicester Square, near to Joshua Reynold's studio. He was introduced to Reynolds, who advised him to study nature, rather than the Old Masters. Lawrence set up a studio at 41 Jermyn Street and installed his parents in a house in Greek Street. He exhibited several works in the 1787 Royal Academy exhibition at Somerset House, and enrolled as a student at the Royal Academy but didn't stay long, abandoning the drawing of classical statues to concentrate on his portraiture. In the Royal Academy exhibition of 1788 Lawrence was represented by five portraits in pastels and one in oils, a medium he quickly mastered. Between 1787 and his death in 1830 he would miss only two of the annual exhibitions: once, 1809, in protest about the way his paintings had been displayed and once, in 1819, because he was abroad. In 1789 he exhibited 13 portraits, mostly in oil, including one of William Linley and one of Lady Cremorne, his first attempt at a full-length portrait.[11] The paintings received favourable comments in the press with one critic referring to him as "the Sir Joshua of futurity not far off" and, aged just twenty, Lawrence's first royal commission: Lawrence received his first royal commission, a summons arriving from Queen Charlotte Windsor Palace to paint the portraits of Queen Charlotte and Princess Amelia.[12] The queen found Lawrence presumptuous (although he made a good impression on the princesses and

Thomas Lawrence ladies-in-waiting) and she didn't like the finished portrait, which remained in Lawrence's studio until his death. When it was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1790 however it received critical acclaim.[13] Also shown that year was another of Lawrence's most famous portraits, that of the actress Elizabeth Farren, soon to be the Countess of Derby, "completely Elizabeth Farren: arch, spirited, elegant and engaging", according to one newspaper.[14] In 1791 Lawrence was elected an associate of the Royal Academy and the following year, on the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds, King George III appointed him "painter-in-ordinary to his majesty". His reputation was established, and he moved to a studio in Old Bond Street. In 1794 he became a full member of the Royal Academy.[15] Although commissions were pouring in, Lawrence was in financial difficulties. His debts would stay with him for the rest of life: he narrowly avoided bankruptcy and had to be bailed out by wealthy sitters and friends, and died insolvent. Biographers have never been able to discover the source of his debts; he was a prodigiously hard worker (once referring in a letter to his portrait Lawrence exhibited in 40 Royal Academy annual painting as "mill-horse business")[16] and didn't appear to live exhibitions extravagantly. Lawrence himself said: "I have never been extravagant nor profligate in the use of money. Neither gaming, horses, curricles, expensive entertainments, nor secret sources of ruin from vulgar licentiousness have swept it from me".[17] This has generally been accepted, with biographers blaming his financial problems on his generosity towards his family and others, his inability to keep accounts (in spite of advice from his friend the painter and diarist Joseph Farington), and his magnificent but costly collection of Old Master drawings. Another source of unhappiness in Lawrence's life was his romantic entanglement with two of Sarah Siddons' daughters. He fell in love first with Sally, then transferred his affections on to her sister Maria, then broke with Maria and turned to Sally again. Both the sisters had fragile health; Maria died in 1798, on her deathbed extracting a promise from her sister never to marry Lawrence. Sally kept her promise and refused to see Lawrence again, dying in 1803. But Lawrence continued on friendly terms with their mother and painted several portraits of her. He never married. In later years two women would provide him with companionship, friends Elizabeth Croft and Isabella Wolff who first met Lawrence when she sat for her portrait in 1803. Isabella was married to the Danish consul Jens Wolff, but she separated from him in 1810, and Sir Michael Levey suggests that people may have wondered if Lawrence was the father of her son Herman.[18]

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Lawrence's departures from portraiture were very rare. In the early 1790s he completed two history pictures: Homer reciting his poems, a small picture of the poet in a pastoral setting; and Satan summoning his legions, a giant canvas to illustrate lines from John Milton's Paradise Lost.[19] The boxer John Jackson posed for the naked body of Satan; the face is that of Sarah Siddons' brother, John Philip Kemble.[20]

Lawrence was in love with Sally Siddons. (Sally Siddons by Thomas Lawrence)

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Lawrence's parents died within a few months of each other in 1797 and he gave up his house in Picadilly, where he had moved from Old Bond Street, to set up his studio in the family home in Greek Street. By now, to keep up with the demand for replicas of his portraits, he was making use of studio assistants, most notable of whom would be William Etty and George Henry Harlow. The early years of the nineteenth century saw Lawrence's portrait practice continue to flourish: amongst his sitters were major political figures such as Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville and William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, whose wife Lady Caroline Lamb was also painted by Lawrence. The king commissioned portraits of his daughter-in-law Caroline, the estranged wife of the Prince of Wales, and his granddaughter Charlotte. Lawrence stayed at the Montague House, the residence of the princess in Portrait of Henry Dundas Blackheath, while he was painting the portraits and thus became implicated in the "delicate investigation" into Caroline's morals. He swore an affidavit that although he had on occasion been alone with the princess, the door had never been locked or bolted and he had "not the least objection for all the world to have heard or seen what took place".[21] Expertly defended by Spencer Perceval, he was exonerated.

"Pictorial chronicler of the Regency"[22]

By the time the Prince of Wales was made regent in 1814, Lawrence was acknowledged as the foremost portrait painter in the country. Through one of his sitters, Lord Charles Stewart, he met the Prince Regent who was to become his most important patron. As well as portraits of himself, the prince commissioned portraits of allied leaders: the Duke of Wellington, Field-Marshall von Blcher and Count Platov sat for Lawrence at his new house at 65 Russell Square.[23] The prince also had plans for Lawrence to travel abroad and paint foreign royalty and leaders, and as a preliminary he was given a knighthood on 22 April 1815. Napoleon's return from Elba put these plans on hold, although Lawrence did make a visit to Paris, where his friend Lord Charles Stewart was ambassador, and saw the art that Napoleon had looted from Italy, including Raphael's Transfiguration, the painting he had reproduced for his silver-gilt palette as a boy.[24]

The Duke of Wellington in 1814

Thomas Lawrence

90 In 1817 the prince commissioned Lawrence to paint a portrait of his daughter Princess Charlotte, who was pregnant with her first child. Charlotte died in childbirth; Lawrence completed the portrait and presented it to her husband Prince Leopold at Claremont on his birthday, as agreed. The princess's obstetrician, Sir Richard Croft, who later shot himself, was the half-brother of Lawrence's friend, Elizabeth Croft, and for her Lawrence drew a sketch of Croft in his coffin.[25] Eventually, in September 1818, Lawrence was able to make his postponed trip to the continent to paint the allied leaders, first at Aachen and then at the conference of Vienna, for what would become the Waterloo Chamber series, housed in Windsor Castle. His sitters included Tsar Alexander, Emperor Francis I of Austria, the King of Prussia, Field-Marshall Prince Schwarzenberg, Archduke Charles of Austria and Henriette his wife, and a young Napoleon II, as well as various French and Prussian ministers. In May 1819, still under orders from the Prince Regent, he left Vienna for Rome to paint Pope Pius VII and Cardinal Consalvi.[26]

Lawrence painted Pope Pius VII in Rome in 1819

President of the Royal Academy

Lawrence arrived back in London 30 March 1820 to find that the president of the Royal Academy, Benjamin West, had died. That very evening Lawrence was voted the new president, a position he would hold until his death 10 years later. George III had died in January; Lawrence was granted a place in the procession for the coronation of George IV. On 28 February 1822 he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society "for his eminence in art".[27] The royal commissions continued during the 1820s, including one for a portrait of the king's sister Sophia, and one of Sir Walter Scott (along with Jane Austen, one of Lawrence's favourite authors), as well as one to paint King Charles X of France for the Waterloo series, for which Lawrence made a trip to Paris, taking Herman Wolff with him.[28] Lawrence acquired another important patron in Robert Peel, who commissioned the painter to do portraits of his family as well a portrait of George Canning. Two of Lawrence's most famous portraits of children were painted during the 1820s: that of Emily and Laura Calmady and that of Master Charles William Lambton, painted for his father Lord Durham for 600 guineas and known as The Red Boy. The latter portrait attracted much praise when it was exhibited in Paris in 1827.[29] One of the artist's last commissions was of future prime-minister the Earl of Aberdeen. Fanny Kemble, a niece of Sarah Siddons, was one of his last sitters (for a drawing).

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Lawrence died suddenly on 7 January 1830, just months after his friend Isabella Wolff. A few days previously he had experienced chest pains but had continued working and was eagerly anticipating a stay with his sister at Rugby, when he collapsed and died during a visit from his friends Elizabeth Croft and Archibald Keightley.[30] After a post-mortem examination, doctors concluded that the artist's death had been caused by ossification of the aorta and vessels of the heart. Lawrence's first biographer, D. E. Williams suggested that this in itself was not enough to cause death and it was his doctors' over-zealous bleeding and leeching that killed him.[31] Lawrence was buried on 21 January in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral. Amongst the mourners was J. M. W. Turner who painted a sketch of the funeral from memory.[32] Lawrence was famed for the length of time he took to finish some of his unfinished paintings (Isabella Wolff waited twelve years for her portrait to be completed) and, at his death, his studio contained a large number of unfinished works. Some were completed by his assistants and other artists, some were sold as they were. In his will Lawrence left instructions to offer, at a price much below their worth, his collection of Old Master drawings to first George IV, then the trustees of the British Museum, then Robert Peel and the Earl of Dudley. None of them accepted the offer and the collection was split up and auctioned; many of the drawings later found their way into the British Museum and the Ashmolean Museum.[33] After Lawrence's creditors had been paid, there was no money left, although a memorial exhibition at the British Institution raised 3,000 which was given to his nieces.[34]
A portrait of William Wilberforce was

Legacy
Lawrence's friends asked the Scottish poet Thomas Campbell to write the artist's biography, but he passed the task on to D.E. Williams whose two rather inaccurate volumes were published in 1831.[35] It would be nearly 70 years later, in 1900, before another biography of Lawrence appeared, this time by Lord Ronald Gower. In 1913 Sir Walter Armstrong, who was not a great admirer of Lawrence, published a monograph. The 1950s saw the publication of two further works: Douglas Goldring's Regency portrait painter, and Kenneth Garlick's catalogue of Lawrence's paintings (a further edition was published in 1989). Sir Michael Levey, curator of the National Portrait Gallery's 1979-80 Lawrence exhibition, produced books on the artist in 1979 and 2005. Lawrence's entanglements with the Siddons family has been the subject of three books (by Oswald Knapp, Andr Maurois and Naomi Royde-Smith) and a recent radio play.

Thomas Lawrence

92 Lawrence's reputation as an artist fell during the Victorian era. Critic and artist Roger Fry did something to restore it in the 1930s, when he described Lawrence as having a "consummate mastery over the means of artistic expression" with an "unerring hand and eye". At one time Lawrence was more popular in the United States and France than he was in Britain, and some of his best known portraits, including those of Elizabeth Farren, Sarah Barrett Moulton (known to her family as Pinkie), and Charles Lambton (the "Red Boy") found their way to the United States during the early 20th century enthusiasm there for English portraits. Sir Michael Levey acknowledges that Lawrence is still dismissed by some art historians; his explanation is that "He was a highly original artist, quite unexpected on the English scene: self-taught, self-absorbed in perfecting his own personal style, and in effect self-destructing, since he left behind no significant followers or creative influence. Leaving aside Sargent, his sole successor has been not in painting, but in fashionable, virtuoso photography." [36]

The most extensive collections of Lawrence's work can be found in the Royal Collections[37] and the National Portrait Gallery in London.[38] The Tate Britain, the National Gallery and the Dulwich Picture Gallery house smaller collections of his work in London. There are a few examples of his work in the Holburne Museum of Art and the Victoria Art Gallery in Bath, and in Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery. In the United States, The Huntington Library houses Pinkie, and Lawrence's portraits of Elizabeth Farren, Lady Harriet Maria Conyngham, and the Calmady children are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In Europe, the Muse du Louvre has a few example's of Lawrence's work, and the Vatican Pinacoteca has a swagger portrait of George IV (presented by the king himself) as almost its only British work. In October of 2010 a survey of Lawrence's work opened at the National Portrait Gallery in London, England. Closing in Great Britain in January of 2011, the exhibition then traveled to Yale Center for British Art in New Haven, Connecticut where it it opened in February of 2011 and is on view until early June.

Elizabeth Farren's portrait went to the US

Gallery

Alexander MacKenzie, (c.1800), National Gallery of Canada

Portrait of the Honorable Mrs. Seymour Bathurst, 1828, Dallas Museum of Art

Lord Seaforth, (c.1805), Figge Art Museum, Davenport, USA

Portrait of Marguerite, Countess of Blessington, 1819, Wallace Collection, London

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King George IV's coronation

Notes
[1] The Black Bear is still a hotel [2] Goldring 1951: 28 [3] Goldring 1951: 35 [4] Goldring 1951: 29 [5] Annual Review 1830 [6] Goldring 1951: 40 [7] Levey 2005: 49-59 [8] Levey 2005: 43 [9] Levey 2005: 56 [10] L.J. Jennings 1885 The Croker papers, vol 2: 297 [11] Levey 2005: 77-79 [12] Levey 2005: 76-77 [13] Levey 2005: 85-90 [14] Levey 2005: 92 [15] Lawrence is shown second from left seated (number 6) in Henry Singleton's The Royal Academicians in General Assembly (http:/ / www. racollection. org. uk/ ixbin/ indexplus?record=ART90), 1795 [16] Levey 2005: 137 [17] Lawrence, Sir Thomas Dictionary of national biography, vol. 32, 1892: 278-285 [18] Levey 2005: 194, 263 [19] Royal Academy of the Arts Collections artist of the month: Sir Thomas Lawrence (http:/ / www. racollection. org. uk/ ixbin/ indexplus?record=ART389& session=OVO3AeCglt_) features Satan summoning his legions [20] Goldring 1951: 110 [21] Goldring 1951: 213-219 [22] Levey 2005: 171 [23] The house was demolished in the early 20th century to make way for the Imperial Hotel. The private sitting-room of Sir Thomas Lawrence (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ largerimage. php?mkey=mw195502& LinkID=mp02654& role=sit& rNo=9) shows Lawrence at 65 Russell Square, surrounded by casts of classical sculpture [24] Levey 2005: 198 [25] Levey 2005: 201-3 [26] Levey 2005: 207-238 [27] "Library and Archive Catalog: Lawrence, Sir Thomas (17691830)" (http:/ / www2. royalsociety. org/ DServe/ dserve. exe?dsqIni=Dserve. ini& dsqApp=Archive& dsqDb=Catalog& dsqSearch=RefNo=='EC/ 1821/ 40'& dsqCmd=Show. tcl). London: The Royal Society. . Retrieved 6 July 2010. [28] Levey 2005: 263 [29] Levey 2005: 249-258 [30] Levey 2005: 296-99 [31] Goldring 1951: 330 [32] Turner's painting of Lawrence's funeral (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ servlet/ ViewWork?workid=52804& searchid=14834& roomid=4319& tabview=image) is in the Tate Gallery

Thomas Lawrence
[33] Goldring 1951: 335-342 [34] Levey 2005: 306 [35] Levey 2005: 302-3 [36] Levey 2005: 312-13 [37] Lawrence in the Royal Collections (http:/ / www. royalcollection. org. uk/ egallery/ maker. asp?maker=11738) [38] Lawrence in the National Portrait Gallery (http:/ / www. npg. org. uk/ collections/ search/ person. php?search=sa& sText=thomas+ lawrence& LinkID=mp02654& role=art)

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References
D Goldring 1951 Regency portrait painter: the life of Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A. London: Macdonald M Levey 2005 Sir Thomas Lawrence. New Haven and London: Yale University Press

External links
Thomas Lawrence: Regency Power and Brilliance (http://www.npg.org.uk/whatson/exhibitions/2010/ thomas-lawrence-regency-power-and-brilliance-minisite.php) exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery "Thomas Lawrence: the new romantic - review" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2010/oct/16/ thomas-lawrence-national-portrait-review) Richard Holmes reviews the National Portrait Gallery exhibition, The Guardian, 16 October 2010 "Gainsborough's forgotten rival is recognised at last" (http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/ news/gainsboroughs-forgotten-rival-is-recognised-at-last-2043649.html) Jerome Taylor, The Independent, 5 August 2010

Pompeo Batoni
Pompeo Girolamo Batoni (25 January 1708 4 February 1787) was an Italian painter whose style incorporated elements of the French Rococo, Bolognese classicism, and nascent Neoclassicism.

Biography
He was born in Lucca, the son of a goldsmith, Paolino Batoni. He moved to Rome in 1727, and apprenticed with Agostino Masucci, Sebastiano Conca and/or Francesco Imperiale (1679-1740). Batoni owed his first independent commission to the rains that struck Rome in April 1732. Seeking shelter from a sudden storm, Forte Gabrielli di Gubbio, count of Baccaresca took cover under the portico of the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Capitoline Hill. Here the nobleman met the young artist who was drawing the ancient bas-reliefs and the paintings of the staircase of the palace. Impressed by his skill and the purity of the design, Gabrielli asked Batoni to see some of his
Pompeo Girolamo Batoni, self portrait

Pompeo Batoni works, and when conducted to the painter's studio he was so awed by his talent that he offered him to paint a new altarpiece for the chapel of his family in San Gregorio Magno al Celio, the Madonna on a Throne with child and four Saints and Blesseds of the Gabrielli family (1739). The Gabrielli Madonna obtained general admiration and by the early 1740s Batoni started to receive other independent commissions. In 1741, he was inducted into the Accademia di San Luca. His celebrated painting, The Ecstasy of Saint Catherine of Siena (1743) [1] illustrates his academic refinement of the late-Baroque style. Another masterpiece, his Fall of Simon Magus[2] was painted initially for the St Peter's Basilica. Batoni became a highly-fashionable painter in Rome, particularly after his rival, the proto-neoclassicist Anton Raphael Mengs, departed for Spain in 1761. Batoni befriended Winckelmann and, like him, aimed in his painting to the restrained classicism of painters from earlier centuries, such as Raphael and Poussin, rather than to the work of the Venetian artists then in vogue. He was greatly in demand for portraits, particularly by the British traveling through Rome [3] [4] , who took pleasure in commissioning standing portraits set in the milieu of antiquities, ruins, and works of art. There are records of over 200 portraits by Batoni of visiting British patrons [5] . Such "Grand Tour" portraits by Batoni came to proliferate in the British private collections, thus ensuring the genre's popularity in the United Kingdom, where Sir Joshua Reynolds would become its leading practitioner. In 1760, the painter Benjamin West, while visiting Rome would complain that Italian artists "talked of nothing, looked at nothing but the works of Pompeo Batoni"[6] . In 1769, the double portrait[7] of Joseph II and Leopold II won an Austrian nobility for Batoni. He also portrayed Pope Pius VI[8] . According to a rumor, he bequeathed his palette and brushes to Jacques-Louis David. He was married twice, to Caterina Setti (d. 1742) in 1729, and then to Lucia Fattori in 1747, and had twelve children; three of his sons assisted in his studio. From 1759 Batoni lived in a large house on the Via Bocca di Leone in Rome, which included a studio as well as exhibition rooms and a drawing academy. He died in Rome.

95

Exhibition
He was the subject of a major exhibition at the National Gallery in London in 2008.

Gallery

Lady Mary Fox, 1767

Christ with Saints Julian and Basilissa, Celsus and Marcionilla, 1736-8

Portrait of Clement XIII, Galleria Venezia, Rome

Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes, 1745, oil on canvas, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Pompeo Batoni

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Diana & Cupid, 1761, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

The Sacred Family, Capitoline Museums, Rome

Apollo and two Muses, Palace Museum in Wilanw, Warsaw

Architecture, Sculpture and Paintings

The Holy Family with St Elizabeth and the Infant St John the Baptist 1777 now in the Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg

Samson and Delilah, 1766, oil on canvas, The Detroit Institute of Arts

References
Clarck, M. (1985). Pompeo Batoni. Oxford.

Footnotes
[1] Ecstasy of Saint Catherine of Siena (http:/ / www. wga. hu/ html/ b/ batoni/ extasy. html) at Museo di Villa Guinigi in Lucca. [2] Fall of Simon Magus (http:/ / www. clevelandart. org/ Explore/ artistwork. asp?artistLetter=B& recNo=63& woRecNo=0) (1750) at Cleveland Museum of Art. [3] Portrait of John Talbot (http:/ / www. getty. edu/ art/ gettyguide/ artObjectDetails?artobj=767) [4] Portrait of John Wodehouse (http:/ / www. oberlin. edu/ allenart/ collection/ batoni_pompeo. html) [5] European Paintings; Keith Christiansen. Notable Acquisitions (Metropolitan Museum of Art) (1982) pp39-41. [6] K. Christiansen. p40 [7] Portrait of Emperor Joseph and his brother, Grand Duke Leopold, in Rome (http:/ / www. khm. at/ system2E. html?/ staticE/ page222. html) [8] Portrait of Pius VI (http:/ / mv. vatican. va/ 3_EN/ pages/ x-Schede/ PINs/ PINs_Sala15_02_058. html)

Pompeo Batoni

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External links
Pompeo Batoni in the "A World History of Art" (http://www.all-art.org/rococo/batoni1.html) UK National Portrait Gallery (http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp06659&role=art) Images of Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, and Philip Metcalfe.

Antonis Mor
For the musician, see Anthony More (musician). Sir Antonis Mor (fl. c. 1545 - 1575) was a Netherlandish portrait painter, much in demand by the courts of Europe. He has also been referred to as Antoon, Anthonius, Anthonis, or Mor van Dashorst, Antonio Moro, Anthony More, etc, but signed most of his his portraits as, Anthonis Mor. [1]

Early life and education

Mor was born in Utrecht, Netherlands by some estimation between 1516 and 1520. What is known of his early life is that his artistic education commenced under Jan van Scorel. His earliest work is probably a portrait at Stockholm, dated 1538.

Self-portrait.

Antonis Mor

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Painting career
A group of Knights of St. John, at Utrecht, supposed to have been painted about 1541; a picture of two pilgrims at the Gemldegalerie, Berlin, dated 1544; together with the portrait of an unknown woman, in the Lille gallery, were probably among his earliest works although their authenticity has not been proved.

Portrait of Granvelle.

Antwerp

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In 1547, he was received as a member of the Venerable Guild of St. Luke at Antwerp, and shortly afterwards (about 1548) he attracted the attention of Cardinal Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, who became his steady patron. Of the portraits executed during the early period of his career as Granvelle's protege, two are especially notable: one of the bishop himself (in the imperial gallery in Vienna), and one of the Duke of Alba, which now belongs to the Hispanic Society of New York. Between 1549 and 1550 Prince Philip II of Spain (1527-1598) traveled around the Netherlands to present himself as the future ruler. Mor painted his portrait in Brussels in 1549. He probably visited Italy (when exactly is not known) where he copied some works by Titian, notably the Dana.

Portugal
In the middle of 1550 Mor left for Lisbon with a commission from Maria of Hungary to portray the Portrait of Queen Mary I of England, 1554. Portuguese branch of the family. Mor probably travelled via Valladolid where he painted the portraits of Maximilian II and his wife Maria of Austria, their daughter Anna and the son of Philip, Don Carlos. In Lisbon, Mor portrayed King Joo, Queen Catharina, prince Joo and Philips future wife princess Maria of Portugal. Little more about Mor's stay in Portugal is known, but Mor was definitely back in Brussels in November 1553.

England
After the sudden death of the king of England, Edward VI, in July 1553, Charles V now saw the possibility of an alliance between Spain and England. The Portuguese engagement was broken and negotiations started for a marriage with the successor Mary Tudor. During these negotiations Mor was send to England to paint a portrait of Mary, but the exact date of the painting is unknown. This portrait was much appreciated in England and Mor made at least three versions, much the best known likeness of the queen (Prado, Marquess of Northampton). On 20 December 1553 Philip officially appointed Mor as painter in his service.

Brussels-Utrecht
In October 1555 Charles V abdicated the throne. During the ceremonies and festivities surrounding the coronation of Philip as king of Spain Mor would have received many commissions. Unfortunately many of these painting are lost or only known through copies. His productivity was large in this period and amongst these works are some of his most important portraits, such as the portrait of Prince William I of Orange (William the Silent) (1555), the portrait of Alessandro Farnese (1557) and a new portrait of Philip II. Other important works from this period are the portrait of Jane Dormer (1558), the portraits of Jean Lecocq and his wife (1559), and the portrait of Jan van Scorel (1559), which was at a later time to be hung at his tomb and now belongs to the Society of Antiquaries (London). After the death of Mary Tudor in 1558 Philip was remarried in June 1559 to Isabella de Valois. The original of the portrait which Mor painted of her around 1561 has probably been lost. Also from this period dates the only known self-portrait of Anthonis Mor, now in the Uffizi Gallery, and one of his (presumed) wife, now in the Prado (see image gallery below).

Antonis Mor

100

The Spanish court

Mor probably accompanied Philip on his return to Spain in 1559. That Mor stayed at the Spanish court is confirmed by the letters which Philip send regularly to Mor after he had left again in 1561. In these letters the return of the painter to the court was asked several for times by Philip, but Mor would never comply to this request. Among the works which Mor supposedly painted in Spain are the Portrait of Juana of Austria and the Portrait of Don Carlos. A much praised work from this period is the Portrait of Pejern, the fool of the earl of Benavente and the duke of Alva. There has been extended speculation about the reason for his departure. According to Carel van Mander Mor became too confidential with the king and this aroused the suspicion of the Inquisition. He may also have been alarmed by the increasingly repressive Counter-Reformation tenor of the Spanish court.[2] Mor's pupil Alonso Snchez Coello continued in the style of his master, and replaced him as Spanish court painter.

Return to the Netherlands

On his return Mor probably travelled around among Utrecht, Antwerp and Brussels. In this period he was in regular contact with Granvelle and also worked for the court where he portrayed Margaretha of Parma. After his return Mor focused on the portrayal of citizens, especially of the trade elite in Antwerp and their wives, Beside this type of portrait (among others the Portrait of Thomas Gresham) he also painted artisans such as the goldsmith Steven van Herwijck (1564). These works differs from the paintings which Mor made for the court and they show another side of his skills. The return of Granvelle to France and the increasing social and political disorder in the Netherlands caused financial problems for Mor. These problems were partly solved with the commissions and favours granted by the duke of Alva. From 1568 Mor was established in Antwerp and in 1572 he registered as a master with the Antwerp guild. Possibly Mor visited England once again in 1568, based on the Portrait of a nobleman with dog and of the Portrait of Sir Henry Lee. In 1559 and 1562 Mor painted the portraits of Margaretha of Parma. On her way to Spain Anna of Austria stayed for a period of time in Antwerp where she was portrayed by Mor in 1570. This is the last know work which he painted for the court. Hereafter it becomes more quiet around Mor, maybe as result of competition by painters such as Adriaen Thomasz. Key, Frans Pourbus the Elder (1545-1581) and Frans Floris (1519/20-1570). The last portrait attributed to Mor is the Portrait of Hubertus Goltzius dated 1576. Mor focused during his last years on religious and mythological work, but in this area he would never equal his success as a portrait painter. The last document that refers to him was one issued at Antwerp in 1573. He probably died there shortly afterwards.

Antonis Mor

101

Main works
Many of Mor's portraits were copied by others. Among those whose works have been confused with Mor's are Alonso Snchez Coello, Francisco de Holanda, and Cristvo de Morais Lopes. A large number of engravings based on his work also circulated. NB: Some attributions and locations may be out of date.

Alleged portrait of Jane Dormer, Queen Mary's Lady-in-Waiting and later Duchess of Feria.

Portrait of Philip II[3] (c. 1549-1550) - Oil on oak, 107.5 x

83.3cm, Bilbao Fine Arts Museum

Portrait of Cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (1549) - Oil on panel, 107 x 82cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. See
image above

Cardinal's Granvelle Dwarf with a Dog (1549-1553) - Oil

on canvas, 126 x 92cm, Muse du Louvre, Paris

Portrait of a Man Pointing at a Table Clock (c. 1550) - Oil

on canvas, 100 x 80cm, Muse du Louvre, Paris

Portrait of a Giovanni Battista di Castaldo (c. 1550)[4] - Oil

on panel, 107.6 x 82.2cm, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid Portrait of John III of Portugal (c. 1550)[5] - Oil on canvas, 101 x 81cm, Fundacin Lzaro Galdiano, Madrid; see image gallery below.

Portrait of Catherine of Austria (or Habsburg) (c. 1552)[6] - Oil on panel, 107 x 84cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid, inv. 2109; see
image gallery below. Portrait of Thomas Gresham.

Portrait of Maria of Portugal (c. 1552)[7] - Oil on canvas, 100

x 87cm, Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales, Madrid, inv. PN822. Portrait of Isabel de Bragana (1552)[8] - Oil on panel, 55 x 50cm, Private collection, Germany.

Portrait of Prince William I of Orange/Nassau (c. 1554) - Oil on panel, 105 x 81.5cm, Staatliche Museen, Kassel; see image
gallery below.

Antonis Mor Portrait of a Man (c. 1555-1560) - Oil on wood, 97.8 x 71.2cm, National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa Portrait of Philip II of Spain in Armour (c. 1557)[9] - Oil on canvas, 186 x 82cm, Monasterio de San Lorenzo, El Escorial, inv.
1653; see image gallery below.

102

Portrait of a Man in Armor (1558)[10] - Oil on canvas, 111 x 80cm, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles Portrait of a Young Man [by an anonymous follower of Mor] (1558) - Oil on panel, 97.5 x 69.9cm, National Gallery of Art,
Washington

Self-portrait (1558) -Oil on wood, 113 x 84cm, Uffizi, Florence; see image above Portrait of Simon Renard (1560) - Oil on canvas, Muse du Temps, Besanon. Portrait of a Lady (c. 1560) - Oil on oak, 116.8 x 86.9cm, National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa Portrait of Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn (c. 1560) - Oil on panel. Present location not known. Portrait of Sir Thomas Gresham (1560-1565) - Oil on panel, 90 x 75.5cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam; see image above Portrait of Lady Gresham (Anne Femely) (1560-1565) - Oil on oak, 88 x 75.5cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Portrait of Metgen, wife of the artist (also known as Portrait of a married woman) (c. 1560-1565)- Oil on panel, 100
x 80cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid, inv. 2114; see image gallery below.

Portrait of a Man (1560-1577) - Oil on oak, 49.5 x 40.6cm, National Gallery, London Portrait of Margaret, Duchess of Parma (c. 1562) - oil on canvas, Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Gemldengalerie, Berlin,
inv. L310A; see image gallery below.

Portrait of Jeanne Lullier (1563) - Oil on canvas, Muse du Temps, Besanon. Portrait of Maria of Portugal, Princess of Parma (c. 1565)[11] - Oil on panel, 35 x 15cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid, inv.
2117.

Portrait of Sir Henry Lee of Ditchley (1568) - Oil on panel, 64.1 x 53.3cm, National Portrait Gallery, London; see image gallery
below.

Portrait of a Gentleman (1569) - Oil on canvas, 119.7 x 88.3cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington Portrait of Hendrik Goltzius (c. 1570) - Oil on wood, 66 x 50cm, Muses Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels Portrait of a Gentleman (c. 1570) - Oil on panel, 122 x 98.5cm, North Carolina Museum of Art Portrait of Mary I of England (date unknown - Oil on wood, 109 x 84cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid; see image above Portrait of a Lady - Oil on wood panel, 107 x 72.1cm, National Gallery of Victoria. Portrait of Margaret, Duchess of Parma (date unknown) - oil on panel transferred on canvas, 97.8 x 71.7cm, Philadelphia
Museum of Art.

Portrait of Jane Dormer (?) - Museo del Prado, Madrid; see image above.

Gallery

John III of Portugal

Queen Catherine of Habsburg

William of Orange

Philip II of Spain in armour

Antonis Mor

103

Metgen

Margaret of Parma

Henry Lee of Ditchley

Notes
[1] The Getty Union List of Artist Names lists a record 29 variants (http:/ / www. getty. edu/ vow/ ULANFullDisplay?find=Anthony+ More& role=& nation=& prev_page=1& subjectid=500027909) [2] Trevor-Roper:45 believes so, following Richard Ford. [3] Annemarie Jordan, Retrato de Corte em Portugal. O Legado de Antnio Moro (1552-1572) (Lisbon: Quetzal Editores, 1994), p. 17 [4] Castaldo (1500-1562) was a soldier of Neapolitan origin who took part in the Battle of Pavia, the Sack of Rome, the Battle of Mhlberg etc. Charles V rewarded him with various titles and honors. [5] Jordan, p. 32. [6] Jordan, p. 31. [7] Jordan, pp. 36, 163. [8] Jordan, pp. 61, 164. [9] Jordan, p. 97; P. G. Matthews, Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England, Burlington Magazine, vol. 142, no. 1162 (Jan. 2000), p. 17. [10] J. Paul Getty Museum. Portrait of a Man in Armor. (http:/ / www. getty. edu/ art/ gettyguide/ artObjectDetails?artobj=789) Retrieved September 4, 2008. [11] Jordan, pp. 70, 168.

Sources
Annemarie Jordan, Retrato de Corte em Portugal. O Legado de Antnio Moro (1552-1572, (Lisbon: Quetzal Editores, 1994) Georges Marleir, Anthonis Mor van Dashorst (Antonio Moro), Acadmie royale de Belgique ,Classe des beaux-arts, Mmoires (Brussels: M. Hayez, 1934). Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0500232326 Marieke van Wamel Pictor regis. Anthonis Mor van Dashorst and his position as painter at the Habsburg court., Thesis Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2009 Pictor regis - Van Wamel (http://cid-e1320a1f734a9fc7.skydrive. live.com/self.aspx/.Documents/Anthonis Mor - Pictor regis |5eng|6.pdf) Joanna Woodall, Anthonis Mor; Art and Authority (Zwolle: Waanders Publishers, 2008).

External links
Paintings (http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/m/mor/index.html) More Paintings (http://www.bildindex.de/rx/apsisa.dll/registerinhalt?sid=&cnt=&rid=2&aid=*&query=+ xdbpics:alle +r1a_name:'M*' +r1a_name:"mor, anthonis"&no=1&count=50&sort=no&rid=2)

Article Sources and Contributors

104

Article Sources and Contributors

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Anthony van Dyck Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=420552597 Contributors: Abcfox, Alansohn, Alexius08, Amit A., Andreas Kaganov, Andres, BD2412, Barnabypage, Bigbluefish, Bsroiaadn, Camilo Sanchez, Castagna, Chris the speller, CinciArt, Clicketyclack, Colonies Chris, Corruptcopper, D6, DO'Neil, DRTllbrg, Da Joe, Da monster under your bed, David Eppstein, Dcoetzee, Deadstar, Deedeebee, Demophon, Donarreiskoffer, Downwards, EHayter, EllenHodges, Enviroboy, Eugene van der Pijll, Ewulp, Fangjian, Filll, Finneganw, Fluellen27, Fram, Ginsengbomb, Gryffindor, Hede2000, Hugh Manatee, J.delanoy, JASpencer, JNW, JdH, JohnWBarber, Johnbod, Jorge Stolfi, Jovianeye, Jpbowen, Jw6aa, Karel Anthonissen, Kbthompson, Kmorozov, Koavf, Kummi, Kungfuadam, Kusma, Knsterle, LeaveSleaves, Lightmouse, Lupin, Lusitana, Luwilt, MBisanz, MER-C, Magnus Manske, Mandarax, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Martim33, Marv1N, Mattissa, Merteuil, Modernist, Mohsinwaheed, Mrblackmanelakash, Neddyseagoon, Neelix, Olessi, PKM, Parkwells, Passingtramp, Paul A, Picapica, Pietdesomere, Purslane, PuzzletChung, RainbowOfLight, Ravenhurst, RedWolf, Resist, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Robin klein, Rodolph, RogDel, Roo72, Scoo, Shadygrove2007, Small-town hero, Snowdog, Solipsist, Sparkit, Stay Dead, Stomme, Str1977, TGC55, Taarten, Tancrede, TheKMan, Topbanana, Tpbradbury, Tresckow, Tuckerekcut, Vanjagenije, Wetman, XJamRastafire, Xp54321, , , 132 anonymous edits Thomas Gainsborough Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=420833758 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., Adam Keller, Alansohn, AlexiusHoratius, Anetode, Anturiaethwr, Arcturus, Asterion, Attilios, Avaleigh, BD2412, Barrympls, Bjankuloski06en, Boi O Death, Bongwarrior, CWii, CalJW, Caltas, Captain-tucker, Catgut, CinciArt, Clementina, Cmyk, Conscious, Conversion script, D6, DBaba, DShamen, Dalexwats, Dapsv, DaughterofSun, Dcoetzee, Deedeebee, Den fjttrade ankan, DerHexer, Doctoroxenbriery, Donarreiskoffer, Duja, Ellywa, Erud, Esprit15d, Fabiform, Gilgamesh he, Good Olfactory, Grenavitar, Ham, Hans Dunkelberg, Harriyott, Iain99, Icairns, Imnotminkus, Instinct, InvisibleSun, Isis, It is me i think, JRBC1, Jahreszeiten13, Jinxed, Joaqun Martnez Rosado, John Maynard Friedman, Johnbod, JorgeGG, Jpbowen, Jusdafax, Katharineamy, Keith Edkins, Kingpin13, Kot Pafnuty, Ksnow, Landon1980, Lara96, Laurapr, Le Hibou, Lights, Linnell, Lockley, LouI, MBK004, MBisanz, MER-C, Magaston34, Magnus Manske, Mandarax, MapsMan, MartinHarper, Matt Deres, Mattis, Mav, Michael David, Modernist, Moneyhat, Montrealais, Moonraker2, Mwanner, Nagy, Peter Entwisle, Pethan, Piano non troppo, Profoss, Razorflame, Red Bowen, Renata, Rich Farmbrough, Richc80, Rmhermen, Robert K S, Robinsbri, Saga City, Sean3000, Sfahey, SimonP, Sketchmoose, Skyring, Skysmith, Smile a While, Song Huijun, Sparkit, Srnec, Stemonitis, Stepshep, Studerby, Suffusion of Yellow, Suisui, TYelliot, Tarquin, Thruston, Tony1, Tyrenius, Tzartzam, VAwebteam, Vojvodaen, Wayne Slam, Wereon, Wizardman, Wtmitchell, Xdamr, Zanimum, Zoicon5, 186 anonymous edits Joshua Reynolds Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416336837 Contributors: Andreas Kaganov, AnnaFrance, Antiquary, Arctic sunrise, Arpingstone, Arthena, Artlover, BD2412, Balthazarduju, Biruitorul, Bjankuloski06en, Bobo192, Brian0918, Britannicus, Callipides, Charles Matthews, Chicheley, Cnikki, ContiAWB, Conversion script, D6, Da monster under your bed, David Thrale, Deb, Dimadick, Discospinster, Dpr, EHayter, EllenHodges, FeanorStar7, FinnWiki, Florrie, F, Giftlite, Gzornenplatz, Ham, Hephaestos, HiLo48, HieronymousCrowley, Icairns, Ionutzmovie, It is me i think, J.delanoy, JNW, Jim Craigie, Joanenglish, Joanne Clarke, JodyB, Johnbod, Jolly Janner, Jpbowen, Jwillbur, Kansan, Kernel Saunters, Kill3rbandit, Kittybrewster, Kpjas, Ksnow, Kumioko, Lightmouse, LoopZilla, Lumos3, Magnus Manske, Mandarax, Manuel Anastcio, MarmadukePercy, Marokwitz, Mattis, Merseysites, Michael Hardy, Mintguy, Missmarple, Modernist, NawlinWiki, Necrothesp, NellieBly, Neptune5000, Nick Number, NigelR, Ntsimp, Oliver Pereira, Ottava Rima, PBS-AWB, Parkwells, Paul A, Paul W, Pepsi2786, Pethan, Philip Baird Shearer, Philip Trueman, Pkeets, Rbreen, Recognizance, Redf0x, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, SDC, SE7, Saga City, Sam Francis, Sfahey, Skyring, Smallweed, Song Huijun, Sparkit, Squigglysheep, Stepshep, Stevertigo, Suisui, Tagishsimon, Tesscass, Textbook, Tide rolls, Tiggerjay, Tommy2010, Tony1, TonyW, Topbanana, Turzh, Ugajin, Vald, Vandenwyngaerde, Victuallers, Wayne Slam, Wegge, William Avery, Wizardman, Woodshed, Woolber, Yomangan, Zeyra, jlfr, 154 anonymous edits Thomas Lawrence Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=419921402 Contributors: Adrienlenoir, BD2412, Bender235, Bhoeble, BillFlis, Bob Burkhardt, ClockworkLunch, Connormah, D6, Daemonic Kangaroo, Deb, Dioda74, Drpickem, Dudley Miles, Durova, EHayter, Evil Monkey, Feydey, Gabbe, Gaius Octavius Princeps, Giacomo Augusto, Glenlarson, GregorB, Ham, Honbicot, Isis, J heisenberg, Jan Arkesteijn, Johnbod, JorgeGG, Jtpbe, Kittybrewster, Leondumontfollower, Lightmouse, Lockley, Mandarax, MarmadukePercy, Masterknighted, Melesse, Michael Zimmermann, Modernist, Nancy, Nick Number, Notionis, Old Moonraker, Peruvianllama, Pethan, Piccadilly, Piersbertrand, Plamoa, Plucas58, RogDel, Rotational, Samw, Seduisant, SemperBlotto, SimonP, Southdevonian, Sparkit, Tassedethe, Textbook, Thuresson, Ugajin, VanessaBloomsbury, Voyager, Winstonsmith99, Wizardman, Xn4, Zigzig20s, , 52 ,anonymous edits Pompeo Batoni Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=414847192 Contributors: AlexKazakhov, Alexander Shatulin, Angusmclellan, Attilios, Benhur767, Bill Thayer, Blamed, C.Fred, CARAVAGGISTI, CommonsDelinker, D6, DO'Neil, Deedeebee, Denisarona, Drewwiki, Dudley Miles, Ealdgyth, Ghirlandajo, Goldenrowley, Jaraalbe, Jetman, Lcw27, Magnus Manske, Mark Troedson, PKM, Polaco77, Polylerus, Postdlf, Redf0x, Rholton, Rjwilmsi, Rl, Rocastelo, RogDel, Scriberius, Template namespace initialisation script, Tetraktys-English, Wetman, 24 anonymous edits Antonis Mor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=413308676 Contributors: Adam Keller, Afasmit, Alai, AlexGWU, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, ArtPhotoLover, Attilios, Auntof6, Balloonguy, Bruce1ee, Charles Matthews, CommonsDelinker, D6, Diwas, Djnjwd, DuncanHill, Ewulp, FeanorStar7, Feydey, Fram, Gacgorge, HansEworth, JASpencer, Jane023, Joanenglish, Johnbod, Kukijordan, Melesse, Mwamel, Neddyseagoon, OldakQuill, PKM, Pethan, Philip Baird Shearer, Rar, Razr, Remuel, Ron B. Thomson, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Shakko, Sietse Snel, SlipperyHippo, Sophruhig Vita@comcast.net, Sparkit, Vincent Steenberg, 22 anonymous edits

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Image:Mary1 by Eworth 3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mary1_by_Eworth_3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abu badali, PKM, Wanduran, 1 anonymous edits Image:Mary I Signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mary_I_Signature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Connormah File:Catherine aragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Catherine_aragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ? File:Mary Tudor by Horenbout.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mary_Tudor_by_Horenbout.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: DrKiernan File:Henry-VIII-kingofengland 1491-1547.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henry-VIII-kingofengland_1491-1547.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was LiVeRpOOl 4 EvA at en.wikipedia File:Mary I by Master John.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mary_I_by_Master_John.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: See description File:Mary I. 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Thomson, Thomas Gun, Thorvaldsson, Vincent Steenberg File:Coat of Arms of England (1554-1558).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_England_(1554-1558).svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Sodacan Image:King Charles I by Antoon van Dyck.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_Charles_I_by_Antoon_van_Dyck.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sir Anthony van Dyck (15991641) Image:Charles I as Duke of York and Albany Robert Peake.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_I_as_Duke_of_York_and_Albany_Robert_Peake.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Robert Peake the Elder File:Charles, Prince of Wales (later Charles I) by Isaac Oliver.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles,_Prince_of_Wales_(later_Charles_I)_by_Isaac_Oliver.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Isaac Oliver Image:Charles I of England.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_I_of_England.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Bohme, Darwinius, Jastrow, Llull, Mattes, Nico-dk, PKM, Paris 16, Shakko, Small-town hero, Thomas Gun, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits Image:Charlesx3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charlesx3.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Ihcoyc at en.wikipedia Image:William Laud.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Laud.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: after Sir Anthony Van Dyck Image:Carolus I Angliae.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carolus_I_Angliae.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Brandmeister (old) Image:Henrietta Maria.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henrietta_Maria.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bohme, Ecummenic, Infrogmation, Kaho Mitsuki, Kilom691, Mattes, OsamaK, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Skipjack, Warburg, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits Image:Court-charles-I-sm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Court-charles-I-sm.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Judge Oliver Seymour Phelps and Andrew T. Servin Image:Contemporary German print depicting Charles Is beheading.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Contemporary_German_print_depicting_Charles_Is_beheading.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dcoetzee, Giacomo Augusto, Infrogmation, Interpretix, Madmedea, Pixeltoo, S kitahashi, Urban, Verica Atrebatum File:Charles I Insulted by Cromwell's Soldiers.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_I_Insulted_by_Cromwell's_Soldiers.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ingolfson, Materialscientist, Nyttend Image:Charles I memorial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_I_memorial.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was ChrisO at en.wikipedia File:Coat of Arms of the Stuart Princes of Wales (1610-1688).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Stuart_Princes_of_Wales_(1610-1688).svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Sodacan File:Coat of Arms of England (1603-1649).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_England_(1603-1649).svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Sodacan File:Coat of Arms of Scotland (1603-1649).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Scotland_(1603-1649).svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Sodacan Image:The children of Charles I of England-painting by Sir Anthony van Dyck in 1637.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_children_of_Charles_I_of_England-painting_by_Sir_Anthony_van_Dyck_in_1637.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: . 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Image:James I of England by Daniel Mytens.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_I_of_England_by_Daniel_Mytens.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dcoetzee, Giacomo Augusto File:King James I of England and VI of Scotland by Arnold van Brounckhorst.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_James_I_of_England_and_VI_of_Scotland_by_Arnold_van_Brounckhorst.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Arnold van Brounckhorst (floruit 1580) Image:James VI of Scotland aged 20, 1586..jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_VI_of_Scotland_aged_20,_1586..jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Madmedea, Qp10qp Image:Anne of Denmark-1605.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anne_of_Denmark-1605.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: attributed to John de Critz Image:Nicholas Hilliard 020.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicholas_Hilliard_020.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Orlady, Qp10qp, Shakko, Thuresson, Wst File:KingJamesLetter.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KingJamesLetter.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Man vyi, World Imaging, 1 anonymous edits Image:James I, VI by John de Critz, c.1606..png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_I,_VI_by_John_de_Critz,_c.1606..png License: Public Domain Contributors: Madmedea, Qp10qp, 2 anonymous edits Image:James I of England 404446.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_I_of_England_404446.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Paul van Somer ( 1621/1622) Image:Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset by John Hoskins.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_Carr,_Earl_of_Somerset_by_John_Hoskins.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: John Hoskins (died 1670) Image:GeorgeVilliers.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeorgeVilliers.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Infrogmation, Kaho Mitsuki, Kilom691, Madmedea, PKM, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Urban File:Union of the Crowns Royal Badge.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Union_of_the_Crowns_Royal_Badge.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Sodacan File:Royal Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Sodacan

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:James I and his royal progeny by Willem van de Passe cropped.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_I_and_his_royal_progeny_by_Willem_van_de_Passe_cropped.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Willem van de Passe (died 1642) Image:Endymion Porter by Daniel Mytens.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Endymion_Porter_by_Daniel_Mytens.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dcoetzee Image:Anthonis van Dyck 033.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_033.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dcoetzee, FernandoFranciles, Frank C. Mller, Giacomo Augusto, Mattes, Shakko, Skipjack, Zolo, 2 anonymous edits File:PD-icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Duesentrieb, User:Rfl File:Anthonyvandyckselfportrait.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonyvandyckselfportrait.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anne97432, Dcoetzee, Frank C. Mller, Giacomo Augusto, Grenavitar, Jan Arkesteijn, Johann, Kelson, Marv1N, Mattes, Shakko, Svencb, Thomas Gun, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits File:Anthonis van Dyck 008.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_008.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anne97432, Frank C. Mller, Gryffindor, Oxxo, Wst, Zolo File:Anthonis van Dyck 012.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_012.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: G.dallorto, Johnbod, Olivier2, PKM, Sailko, Shakko, Skipjack, Zolo File:Sir-Anthony-van-Dyck-Lord-John-Stuart-and-His-Brother-Lord-Bernard-Stuart.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sir-Anthony-van-Dyck-Lord-John-Stuart-and-His-Brother-Lord-Bernard-Stuart.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ecummenic, Giacomo Augusto, Mattes, PKM, Shakko, Zolo File:Charles I of England.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_I_of_England.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Bohme, Darwinius, Jastrow, Llull, Mattes, Nico-dk, PKM, Paris 16, Shakko, Small-town hero, Thomas Gun, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits File:Anthonis van Dyck 052.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_052.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bukk, Gryffindor, Shakko, Werckmeister, Wst, Zolo File:Anthonis van Dyck 013.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_013.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bohme, Ecummenic, Emijrp, Gryffindor, Kilom691, Mattes, Mutter Erde, Natl1, PKM, Sailko, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Skipjack, Thorvaldsson, Urban, Warburg, Wst, Zolo File:Van Dyck Pieter Brueghel the Younger.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Van_Dyck_Pieter_Brueghel_the_Younger.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Jarekt, Lewenstein, Warburg File:Anthonis van Dyck 041.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_041.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anne97432, Diomede, G.dallorto, Kaho Mitsuki, Mattes, PKM, Shakko, Skipjack, Zolo File:SchoolofVanDyckLabel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SchoolofVanDyckLabel.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Rodolph Image:Anthonis van Dyck Self Portrait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_Self_Portrait.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Gogafax at en.wikipedia Image:Anthonis van Dyck 016.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_016.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anne97432, Diwas, Frank C. Mller, G.dallorto, Gryffindor, Mattes, Olivier2, Shakko, Skipjack, Urban, Vincent Steenberg, Wst, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits Image:Anthonis van Dyck 048.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_048.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: EDUCA33E, Joseolgon, Kairios, Mattes, Skipjack, Wst, Zolo Image:Anthonis van Dyck 021.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_021.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Diomede, Dmitry Rozhkov, Giacomo Augusto, PKM, Shakko, Warburg, Wst, Zolo Image:HenriettaMariaofFrance03.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HenriettaMariaofFrance03.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Frank C. 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Image:Thomas Gainsborough 012.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsborough_012.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: EDUCA33E, Emijrp, Ham, Mattes, 1 anonymous edits Image:Thomas Gainsborough Richard Savage.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsborough_Richard_Savage.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Gainsborough Image:Thomas Gainsboroguh Georgiana Duchess of Devonshire 1783.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsboroguh_Georgiana_Duchess_of_Devonshire_1783.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Ham, Madmedea, Thuresson, Wst File:Gainsborough-HarvestWagon1784.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gainsborough-HarvestWagon1784.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Gainsborough File:Thomas Gainsborough 015.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsborough_015.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: EDUCA33E, Ecummenic, Frank C. Mller, Ham, Krschner, Thuresson, Wst, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits Image:Thomas Gainsborough 014.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsborough_014.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: EDUCA33E, Ecummenic, Frank C. Mller, Ham, Mattes, Thuresson, Wst Image:Thomas Gainsborough 005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsborough_005.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, EDUCA33E, Ecummenic, Emijrp, MU, Verne Equinox Image:Thomas Gainsborough 023.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsborough_023.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Beria, EDUCA33E, Ecummenic, Emijrp, Frank C. Mller, Ham, Mattes, 1 anonymous edits Image:GAINSBOROUGH River Landscape.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GAINSBOROUGH_River_Landscape.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Concord, Mattes, Urban, 1 anonymous edits Image:Gainsborough - The Painters Daughters Chasing a Butterfly.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gainsborough_-_The_Painters_Daughters_Chasing_a_Butterfly.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Anne97432, Ecummenic, Ham, Hans Dunkelberg, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits Image:Thomas Gainsborough Lady Georgiana Cavendish.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gainsborough_Lady_Georgiana_Cavendish.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Cybershot800i, Dcoetzee, Diomede, Docu, Kaho Mitsuki, Thuresson, Victuallers, 1 anonymous edits File:Joshua Reynolds Self Portrait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joshua_Reynolds_Self_Portrait.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Joshua Reynolds File:JoshuaReynoldsParty.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JoshuaReynoldsParty.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: D. George Thompson after James William Edmund Doyle. 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Mller Image:MariaLinley.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MariaLinley.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Neddyseagoon File:Sir Thomas Lawrence 003.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sir_Thomas_Lawrence_003.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andrew0921, Ecummenic, Gryffindor, Ham, Sir Gawain, Thuresson, Wst, Xhienne, 1 anonymous edits File:The Exhibition Room at Somerset House by Thomas Rowlandson and Augustus Pugin. 1800..jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Exhibition_Room_at_Somerset_House_by_Thomas_Rowlandson_and_Augustus_Pugin._1800..jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Piccadilly at en.wikipedia File:Sally Siddons by Thomas Lawrence.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sally_Siddons_by_Thomas_Lawrence.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Lawrence File:Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville by Sir Thomas Lawrence.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henry_Dundas,_1st_Viscount_Melville_by_Sir_Thomas_Lawrence.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sir Thomas Lawrence (died 1830) File:Lord Arthur Wellesley the Duke of Wellington.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lord_Arthur_Wellesley_the_Duke_of_Wellington.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: DIREKTOR, Glorfndel, Madmedea, Panther, Samulili File:Thomas Lawrence - Pope Pius VII.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Lawrence_-_Pope_Pius_VII.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, G.dallorto, Johnbod, Kuerschner, Krschner, OldakQuill, Schaengel89, Shakko File:Sir Thomas Lawrence02.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sir_Thomas_Lawrence02.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dcoetzee, Diomede, Elcobbola, Rotational, Victuallers File:Sir Thomas Lawrence 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sir_Thomas_Lawrence_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Diomede, Ecummenic, Ham, Shakko, Victuallers, Xhienne, 1 anonymous edits File:Alexander MacKenzie by Thomas Lawrence (c.1800).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander_MacKenzie_by_Thomas_Lawrence_(c.1800).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andre Engels, AndreasPraefcke, Feydey, Gump Stump, Razr, Skeezix1000 File:Thomas Lawrence - Portrait of the Honorable Mrs. Seymour Bathurst.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Lawrence_-_Portrait_of_the_Honorable_Mrs._Seymour_Bathurst.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Lawrence File:LordSeaforthByThomas Lawrence.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LordSeaforthByThomas_Lawrence.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Lawrence (painter)Thomas Lawrence File:Maguerite, Countess of Blessington.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maguerite,_Countess_of_Blessington.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Churchh, Conscious, Infrogmation, Krschner, Magnus Manske, Thuresson, 1 anonymous edits File:George_IVcoronation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_IVcoronation.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) File:Pompeo-batoni-painting-self-portrait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pompeo-batoni-painting-self-portrait.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alexander Shatulin, Krschner Image:Batoni_lady_mary_fox.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batoni_lady_mary_fox.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnRo0002, Ecummenic, G.dallorto, Infrogmation, Jean-Frdric, Mattes, PKM, Shakko, Thuresson, Warburg, 1 anonymous edits Image:Basilissa Julian.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Basilissa_Julian.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bocachete, Concord, Sailko Image:Clement_xii.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clement_xii.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AdriAg, Bwpach, G.dallorto, Kuerschner, Krschner, Nurni, Shakko, Torvindus, 1 anonymous edits Image:Batoni,_Pompeo_~_Achilles_at_the_Court_of_Lycomedes,_1745,_oil_on_canvas,_Galleria_degli_Uffizi,_Florence.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batoni,_Pompeo_~_Achilles_at_the_Court_of_Lycomedes,_1745,_oil_on_canvas,_Galleria_degli_Uffizi,_Florence.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Drewwiki File:Batoni Diana and Cupid.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batoni_Diana_and_Cupid.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ham, Henrytow, Thorvaldsson

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Image:Pompeobatoni-sagradafam.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pompeobatoni-sagradafam.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Tetraktys Image:Batoni Apollo and two Muses.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batoni_Apollo_and_two_Muses.png License: Public Domain Contributors: 84user, BurgererSF, G.dallorto, Kilom691, Mattes, PetrusSilesius, Pierpao, Shakko Image:Batoni Architecture.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Batoni_Architecture.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bohme, BurgererSF, Gerardus, Ilmari Karonen, Jarekt, Jmabel, Martimar, Paulo Cesar-1, Polaco77 File:Hermitagebatoniholyfamily.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hermitagebatoniholyfamily.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Ealdgyth Image:Samson and Delilah Pompeo Girolamo Batoni.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Samson_and_Delilah_Pompeo_Girolamo_Batoni.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Pompeo Girolamo Batoni Image:Mor-antonis-self-portrait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mor-antonis-self-portrait.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Docu, Frank C. Mller, Ron B. Thomson, Shakko, Vincent Steenberg Image:Anthonis Mor 006.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_Mor_006.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Andre Engels, User:Gryffindor Image:Mary I of England.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mary_I_of_England.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Airunp, Calliopejen1, Madmedea, Razr, Ron B. Thomson, Thomas Gun, Thorvaldsson, Vincent Steenberg Image:jane dormer.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jane_dormer.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:DieBuche Image:Anthonis Mor 004.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_Mor_004.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hannah, Ilse@, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Rlbberlin, Ron B. Thomson, Shakko, Slomox, Vincent Steenberg, Wst Image:Mor - Joao III.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mor_-_Joao_III.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ron B. Thomson, Vincent Steenberg Image:Infanta Caterina of Spain.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Infanta_Caterina_of_Spain.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Caro1409, PKM, Ron B. Thomson, Vincent Steenberg, 6 anonymous edits Image:Antonio Moro - Willem I van Nassau.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antonio_Moro_-_Willem_I_van_Nassau.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Beria, Dedden, Diomede, Ecummenic, JdH, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Vincent Steenberg, YPS Image:King PhilipII of Spain.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_PhilipII_of_Spain.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Balbo, Razr, Ron B. Thomson, Shakko, Vincent Steenberg, Wanduran, 2 anonymous edits Image:Anthonis Mor 002.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_Mor_002.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Balbo, Ecummenic, Emijrp, Erin Silversmith, Frank C. Mller, Ron B. Thomson, Shakko, Vincent Steenberg, 1 anonymous edits Image:MargarethevonParma01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MargarethevonParma01.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Beek100, G.dallorto, Ron B. Thomson, Sir Gawain, Vincent Steenberg, 1 anonymous edits Image:Anthonis Mor 024.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthonis_Mor_024.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Shakko, Vincent Steenberg

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