16

SECTION 1601
GENERAL
1601.1 Scope. The provisions oI this chapter shall govern the
structural design oI buildings, structures and portions thereoI
regulated by this code.
Exception: Buildings and structures located within the
high-velocity hurricane zone shall comply with the provi-
sions oI Sections 1612 through 1626.
While a significant portion of Chapter 16 is dedicated
to the determination of minimum design loads, it also
includes other important criteria that impact the de-
sign of structures, such as the permitted design meth-
odologies as well as the combinations of design loads
used to establish the required minimum strength of
structural members. Unless stated otherwise, the cri-
teria found in this chapter are applicable to all build-
ings and structures. See the 2007 Florida Building
Code, Existing Building Commentary for application of
these requirements to alterations, additions or repairs
to existing structures.
The exception addresses buildings and structures
located in what's referred to as the High-Velocity Hur-
ricane Zone (HVHZ). Section 202 defines the HVHZ
as Broward and Dade Counties. The HVHZ is unique
in that these zones are regulated by a separate set of
structural code provisions than the rest of the state.
Chapters 14 through 16 and Chapters 18 through 26
contain separate provisions for the HVHZ. The
scoping sections of each of these chapters directs the
user to alternate sections for buildings located in the
HVHZ.
The implication of this exception is that buildings
and structures built in Miami-Dade or Broward County
have to comply with the requirements contained in
Sections 1612 through 1626. Sections 1602 through
1611 are not applicable in the HVHZ.
The HVHZ provisions, generally, contain many of
the same provisions that are contained in Sections
1602 through 1611 that are applicable to the rest of
the state. However, many of the requirements in the
HVHZ provisions are somewhat more stringent that
the other sections.
SECTION 1602
DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS
1602.1 Definitions. The Iollowing words and terms shall, Ior
the purposes oI this chapter, have the meanings shown herein.
Certain terms are used in the code to describe some-
thing very specific to the related subject matter while
other terms may have multiple meanings that can vary
based on the subject matter and context. To avoid
misunderstandings, it is preferable to reach a consen-
sus on the meaning of these terms. Definitions are in-
tended to facilitate the understanding of code provi-
sions and to minimize potential confusion.
This section contains definitions of terms
associated with structural design and minimum load
criteria. Note that these terms are also listed in Chap-
ter 2 with a cross reference to this section. Definitions
that pertain primarily to structural design loads are in-
cluded within this chapter to provide convenient ac-
cess to them without having to refer back to Chapter
2. The use and application of all defined terms, includ-
ing those defined herein, as well as undefined terms
are set forth in Section 201.
2007 FLORIDA BUILDING CODE COMMENTARY 16-1
CHAPTER 16
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
GeneraI Comments
This chapter contains the commentary for the following
structural topics: definitions of structural terms, con-
struction document requirements, design requirements,
load combinations, dead loads, live loads, wind loads,
soil lateral loads, rain loads, and provisions for the High
Velocity Hurricane Zones (HVHZ). This chapter provides
minimum design requirements so that all buildings and
structures are proportioned to resist the loads and forces
that are likely to be encountered. The loads specified
herein have been established through research and ser-
vice performance of buildings and structures. The appli-
cation of these loads and adherence to the serviceability
criteria will enhance the protection of life and property.
The determination and calculation of wind loads in the
2007 FBCB is to be in accordance with the 2005 edition
of ASCE 7 (ASCE 7-05). The FBCB does however, pro-
vide requirements for the basic wind speed, exposure
categories, and the type and extent of opening protec-
tion required.
Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to prescribe minimum
structural loading requirements for use in the design and
construction of buildings and structures with the intent to
minimize hazard to life and improve the occupancy ca-
pability of essential facilities after a design level event or
occurrence.
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN. Amethod oI proportion-
ing structural members, such that elastically computed stresses
produced in the members by nominal loads do not exceed spec-
iIied allowable stresses (also called working stress design).
This definition describes the allowable stress design
method, which is one of the design approaches recog-
nized under the code in Section 1604.1. n this ap-
proach, the computed stresses determined from the
unfactored, or nominal loads (see def inition below)
cannot exceed allowable stresses, which provide a
factor of safety. The material chapters of the code
specify either the allowable stresses for a given mate-
rial or in some cases provide allowable capacities of
specific assemblies, such as the wood structural
panel shear wall capacities specified in Chapter 23.
BALCONY. EXTERIOR. An exterior Iloor proiecting Irom
and supported by a structure without additional independent
supports.
This definition is provided primarily to differentiate the
application of live loads between a balcony and a
deck. Balconies are basically cantilevered structures
and are required to be designed for different live loads
than decks.
BASESHEAR. Total design lateral Iorce or shear at the base.
Base shear is the total lateral force that is collected at
the foundation (base) resulting fromlateral loads such
as wind.
DEAD LOADS. The weight oI materials oI construction
incorporated into the building, including but not limited to
walls, Iloors, rooIs, ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, Iin-
ishes, cladding and other similarly incorporated architectural
and structural items, and the weight oI Iixed service equipment,
such as cranes, plumbing stacks and risers, electrical Ieeders,
heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems and Iire
sprinkler systems.
The definition of "Dead loads iden tifies the type of
items that must be accounted for in the design. Also
see Section 1607.11.2.3 for inclusion of items on land-
scaped roofs. This definition is necessary to distin-
guish dead loads from other loads, and for use in load
combinations, as specified by Section 1605. The
nominal dead load is to be determined in accordance
with Section 1606.
The weights of service equipment, such as plumb-
ing stacks and risers; heating, ventilating and air-con-
ditioning (HVAC) equipment; elevators and elevator
machinery; fire protection systems and similar fixed
equipment are to be included in the dead load. For the
most part tracking the weights of each utility system is
not practical and the structural design is therefore
based on a dead load allowance for these items. At
times the actual weight of equipment to be installed is
unknown during the design phase of a building be-
cause the supplier of the equipment has yet to be de-
termined. The structural design must often proceed
based on an estimated equipment dead load. For ad-
ditional comments on dead load estimates, see the
commentary to Section 1606.2.
DECK. An exterior Iloor supported on at least two opposing
sides by an adiacent structure, and/or posts, piers or other inde-
pendent supports.
This definition is provided to differentiate live loads be-
tween a balcony and a deck, based on the different
live loads specified in Table 1607.1.
DESIGN STRENGTH. The product oI the nominal strength
and a resistance Iactor (or strength reduction Iactor).
Design strength is applicable to the structural design
using the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
method. Design strength is the nominal or ultimate
strength that will keep a material in the elastic range
resulting from a design event.
DIAPHRAGM. Ahorizontal or sloped systemacting to trans-
mit lateral Iorces to the vertical-resisting elements. When the
term diaphragm is used, it shall include horizontal bracing
systems.
Floor and roof diaphragms act to transfer the lateral
forces due to wind loads to the vertical-resisting ele-
ments, such as shear walls or moment frames sup-
porting them at their perimeter or intermittent loca-
tions. Diaphragms collect lateral forces such as wind
from the windward and leeward sides of the building
and distribute the total load to the vertical-resisting
elements.
Diaphragm. blocked. In light-Irame construction, a dia-
phragm in which all sheathing edges not occurring on a
Iraming member are supported on and Iastened to blocking.
Blocked diaphragms are horizontal or nearly hori-
zontal assemblies designed to resist high shear
forces in light-frame construction. Diaphragm
sheathing may be applied with its long dimension
either perpendicular or parallel to the main framing
members. When the edge of the sheathing is not
supported by the main framing member, it is con-
sidered to be unblocked. Blocking is accomplished
by installing a framing member parallel to the other-
wise unsupported edge of the sheathing. n some
cases, the code may require blocking, while in
other cases, the capacity of a diaphragm assembly
will vary based on whether it is blocked or
unblocked.
Diaphragm boundary. In light-Irame construction, a loca-
tion where shear is transIerred into or out oI the diaphragm
sheathing. TransIer is either to a boundary element or to
another Iorce-resisting element.
Diaphragmboundary is typically the connection be-
tween the floor or roof sheathing and the band
board surrounding the diaphragm.
Diaphragm chord. A diaphragm boundary element per-
pendicular to the applied load that is assumed to take axial
stresses due to the diaphragm moment.
A diaphragm acts as a deep horizontal beam. The
chords of the beam are the elements at the bound-
16-2 2007 FLORIDA BUILDING CODE COMMENTARY
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
ary of the diaphragm that are perpendicular to the
direction of the applied load and are subjected to
axial forces such as tension and compression de-
pending on the direction of the lateral load.
Diaphragm flexible. A diaphragm is Ilexible Ior the pur-
pose oI distribution oI story shear and torsional moment
where so indicated inSection 12.3.1 oI ASCE7, as modiIied
in Section 1613.6.1.
Because typical structural engineering design
practice for flexible diaphragms differs from that of
rigid diaphragms it is necessary to distinguish a
rigid diaphragm from a flexible diaphragm. A flexi-
ble diaphragm deforms more than a rigid dia-
phragm when subjected to the same load. Where
the diaphragm is determined to be flexible, the ef-
fect of diaphragm rigidity on the distribution of lat-
eral forces is negligible and it need not be consid-
ered in the structural analysis. Load distribution
froma flexible diaphragmto vertical supporting ele-
ments is usually based on the tributary area associ-
ated with those elements.
This definition is needed to apply the wind load
provisions that are referenced in this chapter.
There is a direct reference to the ASCE 7 earth-
quake provision that addresses the classification of
diaphragms as either flexible or rigid. That provi-
sion prescribes diaphragmconstruction that can be
assumed to be flexible without the need of a sub-
stantiating calculation. Similarly, it prescribes dia-
phragm construction that can be assumed to be
rigid. For diaphragms that do not meet either of
these prescriptive classification criteria, the deter-
mination of whether a diaphragm is flexible is in ac-
cordance with the criteria of Section 12.3.1.3 of
ASCE7 that are illustrated Figure 1602.1. Note that
the reference to average story drift of adjoining
vertical elements is actually the average (relative)
deflection of those elements for the story being
evaluated.
While this definition references Section 1613.6.1,
this section is not applicable to the determination of
whether or not a diaphragm is considered flexible.
n fact, Section 1613.6.1 does not even exist in the
2007 FBCB. This section reference is applicable in
the base code (2006 BC) for diaphragm flexibility
as it pertains to seismic loads. t is not applicable to
the 2007 FBCB.
Diaphragm. rigid. Adiaphragm is rigid Ior the purpose oI
distribution oI story shear and torsional moment when the
lateral deIormation oI the diaphragmis less than or equal to
two times the average story driIt.
A rigid diaphragm deforms less than a flexible dia-
phragm when subjected to the same load. Load
distribution from a rigid diaphragm is based on the
stiffness of the vertical-resisting elements.
DURATION OF LOAD. The period oI continuous applica-
tion oI a given load, or the aggregate oI periods oI intermittent
applications oI the same load.
An understanding of duration of load is necessary
since the allowable design stresses for wood mem-
bers and fasteners can be modified by a duration of
load factor that is a function of the length of time that
the wood member must resist an applied load. Note
that it can be applied in the basic allowable stress load
combinations of Section 1605.3.1 even though tradi-
tional allowable stress increases are not permitted for
some materials.
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES. Buildings and other structures
that are intended to remain operational in the event oI extreme
environmental loading IromIlood, wind, snowor earthquakes.
Design loads are higher for buildings and structures
that are considered essential facilities due their level
of importance with regard to operation after a design
event such as a hurricane. All buildings and structures
are assigned an Occupancy Category in accordance
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1602.1
FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM DETERMINATION
with Table 1604.5. The mportance Factor (used in the
wind design of the building) is to be determined from
ASCE 7. Examples of essential facilities include shel-
ters, emergency operation centers (EOC's), water
treatment facilities and many others (See commen-
tary to Table 1604.5).
FABRIC PARTITION. A partition consisting oI a Iinished
surIace made oI Iabric, without a continuous rigid backing, that
is directly attached to a Iraming system in which the vertical
Iraming members are spaced greater than 4 Ieet (1219 mm) on
center.
This definition identifies which assemblies are consid-
ered fabric partitions for the purpose of applying the
specific load criteria that is given in Section 1607.13.1.
They are typically for uses such as office furniture
panel systems, for open floor plans in offices and simi-
lar occupancies.
FACTORED LOAD. The product oI a nominal load and a
load Iactor.
Factored loads are applicable to structural design us-
ing the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
method.
GUARD. See Section 1002.1.
This is simply a cross reference to the section where
the complete definition is located. t is listed here since
guard loads are addressed in this chapter.
IMPACTLOAD. The load resulting Irommoving machinery,
elevators, craneways, vehicles and other similar Iorces and
kinetic loads, pressure and possible surcharge Irom Iixed or
moving loads.
This definition identifies the scope of the type of load-
ing addressed in Section 1607.8. The effect of impact
loads on a structure can be significantly higher than
the weight of the impacting elements because of their
movement or vibration.
LIMIT STATE. A condition beyond which a structure or
member becomes unIit Ior service and is iudged to be no longer
useIul Ior its intended Iunction (serviceability limit state) or to
be unsaIe (strength limit state).
This definition is needed for a clear understanding of
the load and resistance factor design methodology.
LIVE LOADS. Those loads produced by the use and occu-
pancy oI the building or other structure and do not include con-
struction or environmental loads such as wind load, snowload,
rain load, earthquake load, Ilood load or dead load.
Live loads to be used in the design of buildings and
structures are specified in Section 1607. Generally,
live loads are not environmental loads or dead loads,
but are variable in nature and will vary in magnitude
over the life of a structure.
LIVE LOADS (ROOF). Those loads produced (1) during
maintenance by workers, equipment and materials; and (2)
during the liIe oI the structure by movable obiects such as
planters and by people.
This definition clarifies that roof loads, such loads
from equipment and maintenance from workers are
live loads and are accounted for in Table 1607.1. See
Commentary on Table 1607.1.
LOADANDRESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN(LRFD). A
method oI proportioning structural members and their connec-
tions using load and resistance Iactors such that no applicable
limit state is reached when the structure is subiected to appro-
priate load combinations. The term LRFD is used in the
design oI steel and wood structures.
This definition describes the load and resistance fac-
tor design method, which is one of the design ap-
proaches recognized under the code in Section
1604.1. t is needed for the proper application of the
steel design requirements in Chapter 22 and the wood
design requirements in Chapter 23.
LOAD EFFECTS. Forces and deIormations produced in
structural members by the applied loads.
This definition is needed to properly apply the struc-
tural load requirements in this chapter. Load effects
is a collective term used to refer to the internal mem-
ber forces and member deformations that result from
the applied loads.
LOAD FACTOR. AIactor that accounts Ior deviations oI the
actual load Iromthe nominal load, Ior uncertainties in the anal-
ysis that transIorms the load into a load eIIect, and Ior the prob-
ability that more than one extreme load will occur
simultaneously.
This definition clarifies the application of the load and
resistance factor design load combinations in this
chapter.
LOADS. Forces or other actions that result Iromthe weight oI
building materials, occupants and their possessions, environ-
mental eIIects, diIIerential movement and restrained dimen-
sional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which
variations over time are rare or oI small magnitude, such as
dead loads. All other loads are variable loads (see also Nomi-
nal loads).
This definition is needed for the proper application of
the structural load requirements in this chapter. t also
includes a definition of Permanent loads that serves
as the distinction between variable loads and perma-
nent loads. This is important in Section 1605.1, which
requires all load combinations to be investigated with
one or more of the variable loads taken as zero.
The distinction made between variable loads and
permanent loads is fairly straightforward. Dead load is
specifically mentioned because it is an ideal example
of a load that does not vary over time. But dead load is
not necessarily the only load that could be considered
permanent. An additional complication is the definition
of certain loads that may include both permanent and
variable components. An indicator of this is provided
in the load combinations in Section 1605. For in-
stance, in the allowable stress design basic load com-
binations given by Equations 16-11 and 16-13, the
variable loads are reduced by a factor of 0.75. Based
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
on the application of the reduction factor in these load
combinations, live load, L, self-straining forces, T, roof
live load, L
r
, rain load, R, wind load, W, and are explic-
itly treated as variable loads. Since they are not re-
duced in these load combinations, pressure of a
well-defined fluid, F, and lateral earth pressure, H,
could be considered, at least in part, permanent loads.
NOMINALLOADS. The magnitudes oI the loads speciIied in
this chapter (dead, live, soil, wind, snow, rain, Ilood and earth-
quake).
For the most part, the loads determined in this chapter
are considered nominal loads, which used directly in
allowable stress design or multiplied by a load factor
for use in strength or load and resistance factor
design.
OCCUPANCY CATEGORY. A category used to determine
structural requirements based on occupancy.
Occupancy category is a classification given to all
buildings in Section 1604.5 based on the nature of the
occupancy related to the hazard associated with the
design event (hurricane, flood). mportance factors
are assigned to each Occupancy Category that es-
sentially increases the return period for the design
event such as a hurricane. Also see the definition of
Essential facilities and the commentary for Section
1604.5.
OTHER STRUCTURES. Structures, other than buildings,
Ior which loads are speciIied in this chapter.
This definition is needed for application of the mini-
mum load requirements to structures other than build-
ings that are included in this chapter. Note that build-
ings are defined in Chapter 2 of the code as
structures used to support or shelter an occupancy.
PANEL(PARTOFASTRUCTURE). The section oI a Iloor,
wall or rooI comprised between the supporting Irame oI two
adiacent rows oI columns and girders or column bands oI Iloor
or rooI construction.
This definition is needed to apply the structural load
requirements in this chapter.
PRODUCTION GREENHOUSE. Greenhouses that are
occupied Ior growing plants on a product or research basis
without public access.
RESISTANCE FACTOR. A Iactor that accounts Ior devia-
tions oI the actual strength Irom the nominal strength and the
manner and consequences oI Iailure (also called strength
reduction Iactor).
Resistance factor is applicable to structural design us-
ing the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
method.
STRENGTH. NOMINAL. The capacity oI a structure or
member to resist the eIIects oI loads, as determined by compu-
tations using speciIied material strengths and dimensions and
equations derived Irom accepted principles oI structural
mechanics or by Iield tests or laboratory tests oI scaled models,
allowing Ior modeling eIIects and diIIerences between labora-
tory and Iield conditions.
This definition is needed to apply the structural analy-
sis and structural material design requirements in this
chapter and the structural materials requirements in
Chapters 19 through 23.
STRENGTH. REQUIRED. Strength oI a member, cross sec-
tion or connection required to resist Iactored loads or related
internal moments and Iorces in such combinations as stipulated
by these provisions.
This definition is needed to apply the structural analy-
sis requirements in this chapter and the structural ma-
terial design requirements in Chapters 19 through 23.
STRENGTHDESIGN. Amethod oI proportioning structural
members such that the computed Iorces produced in the mem-
bers by Iactored loads do not exceed the member design
strength |also called load and resistance Iactor design
(LRFD)|. The term strength design is used in the design oI
concrete and masonry structural elements.
This definition describes the strength design method,
which is one of the design approaches recognized un-
der the code in Section 1604.1. t is needed to apply
the structural analysis requirements in this chapter
and the structural material design requirements in
Chapters 19 through 23.
VEHICLEBARRIERSYSTEM. AsystemoI building com-
ponents near open sides oI a garage Iloor or ramp or building
walls that act as restraints Ior vehicles.
This definition identifies vehicle barrier systems for
the purposes of applying the minimum design loads
specified in Section 1607.7.3.
NOTATIONS.
D Dead load.
F Load due to Iluids with well-deIined pressures and
maximum heights.
F
a
Flood load.
H Load due to lateral earth pressures, ground water
pressure or pressure oI bulk materials.
L Live load, except rooI live load, including any per-
mitted live load reduction.
L
r
RooI live load including any permitted live load
reduction.
R Rain load.
T SelI-straining Iorce arising Irom contraction or
expansion resulting Irom temperature change,
shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component
materials, movement due to diIIerential settlement
or combinations thereoI.
W Load due to wind pressure.
These notations are used in this chapter, primarily in
Section 1605. Generally, the definition of notations is
included in the section where they are used in formu-
las. Thus, it is not necessary to refer back to Section
1602 to understand the formulas.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
SECTION 1603
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
1603.1 General. Construction documents shall show the size,
section and relative locations oI structural members with Iloor
levels, column centers and oIIsets Iully dimensioned. The
design loads and other inIormation pertinent to the structural
design required by Sections 1603.1.1 through 1603.1.8 shall be
clearly indicated on the construction documents Ior parts oI the
building or structure.
Exception: Construction documents Ior buildings con-
structed in accordance with the conventional light-Irame
construction provisions oI Section 2308 shall indicate the
Iollowing structural design inIormation:
1. Floor and rooI live loads.
2. Basic wind speed (3-second gust), miles per hour
(mph) (m/s) and wind exposure.
The term Construction documents is defined in
Chapter 2. t is commonly used to refer to calculations,
drawings and specifications but it includes other data
that is required to indicate compliance with the code as
described in Section 106. The purpose of this section
is to specifically require the design professional to pro-
vide the building official and other interested parties
with the appropriate structural details, criteria and
design load data for verifying compliance with the pro-
visions of this chapter. This information is also used by
the manufacturers of building components in the
design of structural members. Note that additional
structural information may also be required to be incor-
porated by Chapters 17 through 23.
The construction documents are required to contain
sufficient detail for the building official to perform plan
review and field inspection, as well as for construction
activity. Dimensions indicated on architectural draw-
ings are not required to be duplicated on the structural
drawings and vice versa. The design loads, to be indi-
cated by the design professional on the construction
documents, are to be consistent with the loads used in
the structural calculations. Note that the loads are not
required to be on the construction drawings but must
be included within the construction documents in a
manner such that the design loads are clear. The
building official is to compare the loads on the con-
struction documents with the applicable minimum
required loads as specified by this chapter. The inclu-
sion of the load design information is an indication that
the structure has been designed for the loads required
by the code. t should be emphasized that these
requirements for construction documents are applica-
ble regardless of the involvement of a registered
design professional, which is regulated by the applica-
ble state's licens ing laws. The exception provides a
less extensive list of structural data to be indicated for
buildings constructed in accordance with the conven-
tional wood-frame provisions of Section 2308. This is
appropriate in view of the prescriptive nature of these
requirements.
1603.1.1 Floor live load. The uniIormly distributed, concen-
trated and impact Iloor live load used in the design shall be
indicated Ior Iloor areas. Use oI live load reduction in accor-
dance with Section 1607.9 shall be indicated Ior each type oI
live load used in the design.
The purpose of the requirement in this section is to
provide information for the building official to facilitate
the plan review process. The floor live loads, which
are indicated on the construction documents by the
design professional, are required to meet or exceed
the loads in Section 1607. Any live load reductions
taken are also to be indicated. These loads are also
important for the proper design of individual building
components.
1603.1.2 Roof live load. The rooI live load used in the design
shall be indicated Ior rooI areas (Section 1607.11).
This section provides information allowing the build-
ing official to facilitate the plan review process. The
roof live loads, indicated on the construction docu-
ments by the design professional, are required to
meet or exceed the loads in Section 1607.11. These
loads are also important for the proper design of indi-
vidual building components.
1603.1.3 Roof snow load. Reserved.
1603.1.4 Wind design data. The Iollowing inIormation
related to wind loads shall be shown, regardless oI whether
wind loads govern the design oI the lateral-Iorce-resisting sys-
tem oI the building:
1. Basic wind speed (3-second gust), miles per hour (m/s).
2. Wind importance Iactor, I
W
, and building classiIication
Irom Table 1604.5 or Table 6-1, ASCE 7 and building
classiIication in Table 1-1, ASCE 7.
3. Wind exposure. Where more than one wind exposure is
utilized, the wind exposure and applicable wind direc-
tion shall be indicated.
4. The applicable enclosure classiIications and, iI design-
ing with ASCE 7, internal pressure coeIIicient.
5. Components and cladding. The design wind pressures in
terms oI psI (kN/m
2
) to be used Ior the selection oI exte-
rior components and cladding materials not speciIically
designed by the registered design proIessional.
The wind load design basis, indicated on the con-
struction documents (design drawings or specifica-
tions) by the design professional, provides informa-
tion allowing the building official to facilitate the plan
reviewprocess. All five of the indicated items are to be
on the submitted construction documents. Each of the
indicated items is an important parameter in the deter-
mination of the wind resistance that is required in the
building framework. The building official should verify
that the information is on the construction documents
during the plan review process. The correctness of
the listed items is the responsibility of the owner or the
owner's design professional.
The intent of tem 2 is that the Occupancy Category
be determined from Table 1604.5 or Table 1-1 in
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
ASCE 7. The mportance Factor is to be determined
from Table 6-1 in ASCE 7. mportance factors are no
longer provided in Table 1604.5. The Occupancy Cat-
egories in Table 1604.5 are identical to the Occupancy
Categories in Table 1-1 of ASCE 7 except that Table
1604.5 adds screen enclosures in Occupancy Cate-
gory .
1603.1.5 Earthquake design data. Reserved.
1603.1.6 Flood design data. Reserved.
1603.1.7 Special loads. Special loads that are applicable to the
design oI the building, structure or portions thereoI shall be
indicated along with the speciIied section oI this code that
addresses the special loading condition.
ndication of special loads on the construction docu-
ments by the design professional provides information
allowing the building official to facilitate the plan re-
view process. The design professional is expected to
identify any special loads that the occupancy will im-
pose on the structure. These could include the operat-
ing weight of specialty equipment, for instance. There
are also instances outside of Chapter 16 where the
code specifies loading criteria that the structural de-
sign must address. For example, in Section 415.7.3
liquefied petroleum gas distribution facilities that are
separated from an adjacent use must have walls or
floor assemblies that are designed for a static pres-
sure of 100 pounds per square foot (psf) (4788 Pa).
1603.1.8 Systems andcomponents requiring special inspec-
tions for seismic resistance. Reserved.
1603.2 Restrictions on loading. It shall be unlawIul to place,
or cause or permit to be placed, on any Iloor or rooI oI a build-
ing, structure or portion thereoI, a load greater than is permitted
by these requirements.
The loads that this section is referring to are the vari-
ous structural loads specified in this chapter. For ex-
ample, Table 1607.1 includes the minimum live loads
for building design. Unless the building is designed for
higher loads than specified in Table 1607.1, those val-
ues are not to be exceeded. Note that the loads in Ta-
ble 1607.1 are minimum live loads. A building is per-
mitted to be designed for higher loads, in which case
the higher loads would be the limit of the actual ap-
plied loads.
1603.3 Live loads posted. Where the live loads Ior which each
Iloor or portion thereoI oI a commercial or industrial building
is or has been designed to exceed 50 psI (2.40 kN/m
2
), such
design live loads shall be conspicuously posted by the owner in
that part oI each story in which they apply, using durable signs.
It shall be unlawIul to remove or deIace such notices.
This section requires that live loads be posted for
most occupancies, since many of the live loads speci-
fied in Table 1607.1 exceed 50 psf (2.40 kN/m
2
).
Where part of the floor is designed for 50 psf (2.40
kN/m
2
) or less and part for more than 50 psf (2.40
kN/m
2
), the live loads are required to be posted for
those portions more than 50 psf (2.40 kN/m
2
). The
code requires that the posting be done in the part
where it applies. For example, an assembly area such
as a restaurant would need to have the live load
posted in the dining room.
This live load posting gives the building department
easy access to the information for field verification. t
also serves as a notice of the loading restriction that is
stated in Section 1603.2.
1603.4 Occupancy permits for changed loads. Occupancy
permits Ior buildings hereaIter erected shall not be issued until
the Iloor load signs, required by Section 1603.3, have been
installed.
The design live load signs required by Section 1603.3
need to be in place prior to the occupancy of the build-
ing for reference purposes. They serve as a record of
the structural design loads for future reference, partic-
ularly when a change in occupancy is contemplated.
SECTION 1604
GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
1604.1 General. Building, structures and parts thereoI shall be
designed and constructed in accordance with strength design,
load and resistance Iactor design, allowable stress design,
empirical design or conventional construction methods, as per-
mitted by the applicable material chapters.
This section identifies the various design methods
that are permitted by the code and referenced design
standards. The details for these design methods are
either explicitly specified in the code or are located in
the design standards that are referenced in the struc-
tural material design chapters for concrete, aluminum,
masonry, steel and wood. For example, empirical de-
sign of masonry is addressed in Section 2109. The
design of masonry using allowable stress design is re-
quired to be in accordance with AC 530/ASCE 5/TMS
402 with the modifications in Section 2107.
1604.2 Strength. Buildings and other structures, and parts
thereoI, shall be designed and constructed to support saIely the
Iactored loads in load combinations deIined in this code with-
out exceeding the appropriate strength limit states Ior the mate-
rials oI construction. Alternatively, buildings and other
structures, and parts thereoI, shall be designed and constructed
to support saIely the nominal loads in load combinations
deIined in this code without exceeding the appropriate speci-
Iied allowable stresses Ior the materials oI construction.
Loads and Iorces Ior occupancies or uses not covered in this
chapter shall be subiect to the approval oI the building oIIicial.
This section describes the strength and allowable
stress design methods in the code. t also gives the
building official approval authority for structural loads
in buildings used for occupancies that are not specifi-
cally addressed in this chapter.
1604.3 Serviceability. Structural systems and members
thereoI shall be designed to have adequate stiIIness to limit
deIlections and lateral driIt.
The stated objective in this section is to limit member
deflections and system drifts by providing adequate
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
stiffness. Note that the definition of Limit state de -
scribes a serviceablilty limit state as a condition be-
yond which a structure or member is no longer useful
for its intended purpose. This would be in contrast to a
strength limit state beyond which the structure or
member is considered unsafe. The code does not di-
rectly address a serviceablilty limit state. nstead the
code limits certain member deflections under specific
nominal loads in addition to the story drift limits under
earthquake loads.
The deflection limits for structural members must be
in accordance with the requirements in this and sub-
sequent sections. This section also provides a refer-
ence to the story drift limitations in the earthquake pro-
visions. Generally, deflection limits are needed for the
comfort of the building occupants and so that the
structural member's deflection does not cause dam-
age to supported construction. Excessive deflection
can also contribute to excessive vibration, which is
discomforting to the occupants of the building.
Deflections are a serviceability issue, not a strength
issue. Serviceability has become increasingly impor-
tant in structural design due the greater use of high
strength materials which tend to result in more flexible
structures. While excessive deflections may not affect
the ability of a structure to adequately support the re-
quired design loads, they may affect or impair its func-
tion and usefulness.
1604.3.1 Deflections. The deIlections oI structural members
shall not exceed the more restrictive oI the limitations oI Sec-
tions 1604.3.2 through 1604.3.5 or that permitted by Table
1604.3.
The deflection of structural members is limited by the
code as well as certain material standards for damage
control of supported construction and human comfort.
Generally, the public equates visible deflection, or
even detectable vibration, with a potentially unsafe
condition (which in many cases is not true). The intent
of this section is that deflection is not to exceed either
the limitations in the applicable material design stan-
dard or the applicable specified requirements.
1604.3.2 Reinforced concrete. The deIlection oI reinIorced
concrete structural members shall not exceed that permitted by
ACI 318.
The deflection limitations in AC 318 are not to be ex-
ceeded for reinforced (and prestressed) concrete
(see AC 318 for detailed deflection requirements).
1604.3.3 Steel. The deIlection oI steel structural members shall
not exceed that permitted by AISC360, AISI-NAS, AISI-Gen-
eral, AISI-Truss, ASCE 3, ASCE 8, SJI JG-1.1, SJI K-1.1 or
SJI LH/DLH-1.1, as applicable.
The design standard to be met depends on the type of
steel structural member. For example, steel joists are
to meet the deflection limitations in the Steel Joist n-
stitute's (SJ) standard, which is applicable to the type
of joist, and rolled steel members are to meet the de-
flection criteria in ASC 360.
TABLE 1604.3.
The deflection limits in this table apply when they are
more restrictive than those in the structural design
standards that are indicated in Sections 1604.3.2
through 1604.3.5. Note that the deflection limits for ex-
terior walls and interior finishes vary with flexible or
brittle finishes. A flexible finish is intended to be one
that has been designed to accommodate the higher
deflection indicated and remain serviceable. A brittle
finish is any finish that has not been designed to ac-
commodate the deflection allowed for a flexible finish.
The deflection limit for a roof member supporting a
plaster ceiling is intended to apply only for a plaster
ceiling. The limit for a roof member supporting a gyp-
sum board ceiling is that listed in the table for sup-
porting a nonplaster ceiling.
The answers to the following frequently asked
questions provide further guidance on applying the
deflection limits of the code.
FrequentIy Asked Questions-TabIe 1604.3
Q1. For purposes of checking the deflection limits, of
Table 1604.3, should the calculated wind load be
used directly or the combined loads from Section
1605.3.1 or 1605.3.2?
A1. n computing deflections to verify compliance with
Table 1604.3 limits, the loads shown in the col-
umn headings of Table 1604.3 are the only loads
that must be applied to the member. The load
used to check the deflection in this case is W, the
nominal wind load in accordance with Section
1609. t is not necessary to use the load combina-
tions of Section 1605.3 for verifying that the de-
flection limits have been met.
Q2. While checking the member deflection of wall
studs for a facility having a wind importance fac-
tor, I =1.15, could the wind importance factor be
neglected?
A2. No. The nominal wind load, W, determined in ac-
cordance with Section 1609 includes the impor-
tance factor.
Q3. The allowable deflections for members due to
wind load refer to Note f. This note allows the use
of 0.7 times the component and cladding wind
loads for determining the deflection value to
check against these limits. Do these deflection
limits only apply to secondary framing members,
or must primary framing members (specifically
rafters) meet these limits too?
A3. Where the components and cladding wind load is
applicable to a roof framing member, the deflec-
tion may be verified using 0.7 times the compo-
nent and cladding wind load. See definitions of
Main wind force resisting system (MWFRS) and
Components and cladding (C&C).
Q4. n Table 1604.3, Note g states dead load shall be
taken as zero for structural steel members.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Would this apply to the precomposition check of
composite beam deflection limits under wet
weight of concrete?
A4. No. The serviceability requirements of Section
1604.3 apply to the finished construction. The
loading condition described would be a construc-
tion consideration, which is not directly regulated
by the serviceability criteria.
1604.3.4 Masonry. The deIlection oI masonry structural mem-
bers shall not exceed that permitted by ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS
402.
The deflection of masonry beams and lintels is limited
by AC 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 (see AC 530/ASCE
5/TMS 402 for deflection requirement details).
1604.3.5 Aluminum. The deIlection oI aluminum structural
members shall not exceed that permitted by AA ADM1.
The deflection of aluminum structural members is lim-
ited to that in AA-94 for aluminum or that permitted by
Table 1604.3 of the code.
1604.3.6 Limits. DeIlection oI structural members over span,
l, shall not exceed that permitted by Table 1604.3.
The limits specified in Table 1604.3 apply to the indi-
cated members for any structural material. As indi-
cated in Section 1604.3.1, the deflection limits in the
structural material standards apply when they are
more restrictive than indicated in the table.
The deflection limits that are applicable to a flat con-
crete roof member that does not support any
nonstructural elements likely to be damaged by large
deflections are summarized in Table 1604.3.6. As can
be seen, the code deflection criteria is more stringent
and would govern the design of this type of member.
1604.4 Analysis. Load eIIects on structural members and their
connections shall be determined by methods oI structural anal-
ysis that take into account equilibrium, general stability, geo-
metric compatibility and both short- and long-term material
properties.
Members that tend to accumulate residual deIormations
under repeated service loads shall have included in their analy-
sis the added eccentricities expected to occur during their ser-
vice liIe.
Any system or method oI construction to be used shall be
based on a rational analysis in accordance with well-estab-
lished principles oI mechanics. Such analysis shall result in a
system that provides a complete load path capable oI transIer-
ring loads Irom their point oI origin to the load-resisting ele-
ments.
The total lateral Iorce shall be distributed to the various
vertical elements oI the lateral-Iorce-resisting system in pro-
portion to their rigidities, considering the rigidity oI the hori-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1604.3
DEFLECTION LIMITS
a, b, c, h, i, j
CONSTRUCTION or
f
+
d,g
RooI members:
e
Supporting plaster ceiling
Supporting nonplaster ceiling
Not supporting ceiling
Members supporting screen
surIace
l/360
l/240
l/180
----
l/360
l/240
l/180
-----
l/240
l/180
l/120
l/60
Floor members l/360 l/240
Exterior walls and interior
partitions:
With brittle Iinishes
With Ilexible Iinishes
l/240
l/120
Farm buildings l/180

Greenhouses l/120
For SI: 1 Ioot 304.8 mm.
a. For structural rooIing and siding made oI Iormed metal sheets, the total load
deIlection shall not exceed l/60. For secondaryrooI structural members sup-
porting Iormed metal rooIing, the live load deIlection shall not exceedl/150.
For secondary wall members supporting Iormed metal siding, the design
wind load deIlection shall not exceed l/90. For rooIs, this exception only
applies when the metal sheets have no rooI covering.
b. Interior partitions not exceeding 6 Ieet in height and Ilexible, Iolding and
portable partitions are not governed by the provisions oI this section. The
deIlection criterion Ior interior partitions is based on the horizontal load
deIined in Section 1607.13.
c. See Section 2403 Ior glass supports.
d. For wood structural members having a moisture content oI less than 16 per-
cent at time oI installation and used under dry conditions, the deIlection
resulting Irom L 0.5D is permitted to be substituted Ior the deIlection
resulting Irom L D.
e. The above deIlections do not ensure against ponding. RooIs that do not have
suIIicient slope or camber to assure adequate drainage shall be investigated
Ior ponding. See Section 1611 Ior rain and ponding requirements and Sec-
tion 1503.4 Ior rooI drainage requirements.
I. The wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.7 times the component and clad-
ding loads Ior the purpose oI determining deIlection limits herein.
g. For steel structural members, the dead load shall be taken as zero.
h. For aluminumstructural members or aluminumpanels used in skylights and
sloped glazing Iraming, rooIs or walls oI sunroomadditions or patio covers,
not supporting edge oI glass or aluminum sandwich panels, the total load
deIlection shall not exceed l/60. For aluminum sandwich panels used in
rooIs or walls oI sunroomadditions or patio covers, the total load deIlection
shall not exceed l/120.
i. For cantilever members, l shall be takenas twice the lengthoI the cantilever.
i. Screen surIaces shall be permitted to include a maximumoI 25solid Ilexi-
ble Iinishes.
TABLE 1604.3.6
CONCRETE ROOF MEMBER DEFLECTION
CRITERIA
Construction
LOADS
or +
FBC TabIe 1604.3
Roof members 360 360 240
Concrete per ACI 318 See TabIe 9.5(b)
FIat roofs 180 Note a Note a
a. No deflection limit specified in AC 318
zontal bracing system or diaphragm. Rigid elements assumed
not to be a part oI the lateral-Iorce-resisting systemare permit-
ted to be incorporated into buildings provided their eIIect on
the action oI the system is considered and provided Ior in the
design. Except where diaphragms are Ilexible, or are permitted
to be analyzed as Ilexible, provisions shall be made Ior the
increased Iorces induced on resisting elements oI the structural
system resulting Irom torsion due to eccentricity between the
center oI application oI the lateral Iorces and the center oI rigid-
ity oI the lateral-Iorce-resisting system.
Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning
eIIects caused by the lateral Iorces speciIied in this chapter. See
Section 1609 Ior wind loads, and Section 1610 Ior lateral soil
loads.
This section includes the general requirements for
structural analysis. The principles stated in this sec-
tion are those commonly found in structural engineer-
ing textbooks. The requirement that the structural
analysis be capable of demonstrating a complete load
path is essential to the adequate resistance of the
structural system, particularly for wind loads. The load
path is to be capable of transferring all of the loads
from their point of application onto the structure to the
foundation. t is also important that nonstructural rigid
elements be properly accounted for in the design. For
example, a partial-height rigid masonry wall placed
between steel columns in a steel frame will resist the
horizontal shear load and cause bending in the col-
umn unless a flexible joint is provided between the
wall and the column.
The definition of Diaphragm in Sec tion 1602.1 in-
cludes definitions that distinguish a rigid diaphragm
from a flexible diaphragm. The distribution of forces in
buildings with flexible diaphragms differs from those
having rigid diaphragms. Where the diaphragm is de-
termined to be flexible, the effect of diaphragm rigidity
on the distribution of lateral forces is considered to be
negligible and can therefore be neglected in the struc-
tural analysis. Otherwise, for structures having rigid
diaphragms, this section requires the engineer to dis-
tribute lateral forces to the vertical supporting ele-
ments in proportion to their rigidities, and to include
the effect of the increased forces induced on the verti-
cal supporting elements resulting from torsion due to
eccentricity between the center of mass and the cen-
ter of rigidity.
1604.5 Occupancy category. Buildings shall be assigned an
occupancy category in accordance with Table 1604.5.
This section requires classification of the occupancy
category of any building in accordance with the nature
of occupancy as described in Table 1604.5. The occu-
pancy category serves as a threshold for code provi-
sions related to wind loads. Particularly noteworthy
are the importance factors that are used in the calcu-
lation of design wind loads. mportance factors are as-
signed to each Occupancy Category. The value of the
importance factor generally increases with the impor-
tance of the facility. Structures assigned greater im-
portance factors must be designed for larger forces.
The result is a more robust structure that would be
less likely to sustain damage under the same condi-
tions than a structure with a lower importance factor.
The intent is to enhance a structure's performance
based upon its use or the need to remain in operation
during and after a design event.
The importance factors for wind are no longer spec-
ified in Table 1604.5. The importance factors are ob-
tained from Table 6-1 of ASCE 7.
TABLE 1604.5.
The occupancy categories determined in this table
are assigned based on the importance of the facility,
which generally relates to the availability of the facility
after an emergency, and the consequence of a struc-
tural failure on human life. The categories range from
Occupancy Category , which represents the lowest
hazard to life, through Occupancy Category V, which
encompasses essential facilities.
Occupancy Category IV: These are buildings that
are considered to be essential in that their continuous
use is needed, particularly in response to disasters.
Fire, rescue and police stations and emergency vehi-
cle garages must remain operational during and after
major events such as hurricanes. The phrase desig-
nated as essential facilities refers to designation by
the building official that certain facilities are required
for emergency response or disaster recovery. This
provides jurisdictions the latitude to identify specific
facilities that should be considered essential in re-
sponding to various types of emergencies. These
could include structures that would not otherwise be
included in this occupancy category. This designation
would only be made with consideration of broader
public policy as well as emergency preparedness
planning within the jurisdiction in question. The rea-
sons for including facilities such as fire stations, police
stations emergency response operations center, etc.,
should be self-evident. Some items warranting addi-
tional discussion are as follows:
i Hospitals and other health care facilities having
surgery or emergency treatment facilities. Hos-
pitals are classified as Group -2 in Section
308.3 and their important role in emergency re-
sponse should be apparent. This item appears
to group all health care facilities with emergency
treatment or surgery facilities together with hos-
pitals. Seemingly, this could include ambulatory
surgery centers or outpatient units that typically
do not have significant emergency capabilities
and they could be classified as Group B occu-
pancies, since they don't treat patients on a 24-
hour basis. The existence of these facilities may
not be apparent to emergency responders that
need to direct the injured to a medical facility.
Therefore, it may be more appropriate that the
classification of such health care facilities should
apply only where they are, in fact, designated
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
as being essential in the emergency prepared-
ness planning in that jurisdiction.
i Designated emergency shelters and designated
emergency response facilities. These items re-
peat the term designated which is re ferring to
designation by the building official that the facili-
ties have been identified as necessary for shel-
tering evacuees or responding to emergencies
(see discussion of designated above). For ex-
ample, an elementary school having an occu-
pant load of 275 would typically be considered
an Occupancy Category facility. f that school
is designated as an emergency shelter, then the
school will be considered an Occupancy Cate-
gory V building.
i Facilities supplying emergency backup power
for Occupancy Category IV. Apower-generating
station or other utility (such as a natural gas facil-
ity) is to be classified as Occupancy Category V
only if the facility serves an emergency backup
function for an Occupancy Category V building
such as a fire station or police station. Other-
wise, the power-generating station or utility
should be classified as Occupancy Category .
i Structures with highly toxic materials in excess
of the quantities allowed in Table 307.1(2). This
applies only to highly toxic materials (see def i-
nition in Section 307.2), which are covered in the
second rowof Table 307.1(2). That table lists the
maximum allowable quantities per control area
of materials posing a health hazard. Since the
use of control areas is permitted by Table
307.1(2), it seems reasonable to recognize the
control area for the purpose of applying this oc-
cupancy category. n other words, this would ap-
ply only to occupancies classified as Group H-4
based on the quantities of highly toxic material.
Recognizing control areas means the occu-
pancy classification could be changed from a
high hazard Group H-4 to the appropriate classi-
fication by adding either fire-resistance-rated
walls or floor-ceiling assemblies in order to di-
vide a building into a number of smaller control
areas. Also note that a Group H-4 occupancy
classification could be based on exceeding the
quantities permitted for toxics or corrosives, but
the presence of those materials would not affect
the classification of the facility.
Occupancy Category III: Occupancy Category
buildings include those occupancies that have rela-
tively large numbers of occupants because of the
overall size of the building. They also include uses
that pose an elevated life safety hazard to the occu-
pants, such as public assembly, schools or colleges.
n addition, Occupancy Category includes uses
where the occupant's ability to respond to an emer-
gency is either restricted, such as in jails, or otherwise
impaired, such as in nursing homes housing patients
that require skilled nursing care. Adiscussion of some
of the specific table listings follows:
i Covered structure with a primary occupancy that
is public assembly with an occupant load greater
than 300. Public assembly occupancies meeting
this criterion will typically be classified as Group
Ain Chapter 3. These occupancies represent an
elevated life safety risk due to higher concentra-
tions of large numbers of people. n the 2007
edition this criterion has been changed to read
covered structures whose primary occupancy
is public assembly with an occupant load greater
than 300 to pro vide better consistency with prior
practice under legacy codes. The revised word-
ing requires agreement on the determination
that a building's primary occupancy is in fact
public assembly. This could be as simple as veri-
fying that the portion of the building housing the
public assembly occupancy is more than 50 per-
cent of the total building area. Also, the previous
wording referred to the occupant load of 300 in
"one area. Since the ref erence to one area has
been dropped, it would now appear that the ag-
gregate occupant load of all the public assembly
uses would be used in making this determina-
tion.
i Health care facilities with at least 50 resident pa-
tients and not providing emergency treatment.
This category applies to health care facilities
with at least 50 resident patients. The term resi-
dent patient is not de fined or used elsewhere in
the code, but would seem to refer to locations
where those patients receive around-the-clock
(24 hour) care as opposed to ambulatory sur-
gery centers or outpatient units. For the most
part, this table entry covers facilities that would
be classified as Group -1 or -2, which typically
means these patients have difficulty responding
to an emergency or are incapable of self-preser-
vation. f such facilities also have significant
emergency treatment capability, they would
more appropriately require classification as Oc-
cupancy Category V.
i Buildings having an occupant load greater than
5,000. Uses that pose elevated life safety con-
cerns such as public assembly uses, schools
and health care facilities are covered elsewhere
and have much lower threshold based on the
number of occupants. This table entry covers
buildings that are large enough to have more
than 5,000 occupants, providing added protec-
tion for the occupants of larger structures what-
ever the use happens to be. For example, an of-
fice building having an occupant load that is
based on one occupant per 100 square feet (9.3
m
2
) of gross floor area in accordance with Table
1004.1.2 would be classified as Occupancy Cat-
egory if the area exceeds 500,000 square feet
(46 450 m
2
).
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
i Power-generating stations, potable water treat-
ment facilities, waste water treatment and other
public utilities not included in Occupancy Cate-
gory IV. A failure and subsequent shutdown of
these types of facilities would not pose an imme-
diate threat to life safety. These infrastructure
items are considered Occupancy Category
because of the impact an extended disruption in
service can have on the public.
i Buildings not included in Occupancy Category
IV containing sufficient quantities of toxic or ex-
plosive substances that would be dangerous to
the public if released. Buildings included under
Occupancy Category V would be those contain-
ing quantities of highly toxic materials that ex-
ceed the permitted quantity per control area.
This itemaddresses buildings with explosives or
toxic substances, both of which are defined in
Section 307.2. The wording refers to sufficient
quantities.to be dan gerous to the public if re-
leased without explaining what quantities are
sufficient to pose such a danger. More impor-
tantly, it does not make any specific reference to
the tabulated allowable quantities of either ex-
plosives or toxics in Section 307. n other words,
the issue of whether the building needs to be
classified as a high hazard, Group H occupancy
is subject to interpretation, leaving the door
open, perhaps, to consider occupancies not
classified as high hazard (Group H) to be cate-
gorized as Occupancy Classification . This
possibility may be justifiable, considering that
the use of control areas addresses fire safety is-
sues that are reflected in the occupancy classifi-
cation of the building. Table 1604.5 addresses
the hazard posed by a structural failure.
Whether or not the building has control areas al-
lowing a different occupancy classification,
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1604.5
OCCUPANCY CATEGORY OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES
OCCUPANCY
CATEGORY NATURE OF OCCUPANCY
I
Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human liIe in the event oI Iailure, including but not limited
to:
Agricultural Iacilities.
Certain temporary Iacilities.
Minor storage Iacilities.
Screen enclosures
II Buildings and other structures except those listed in Occupancy Categories I, III and IV
III
Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human liIe in the event oI Iailure, including but not
limited to:
Covered structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly with an occupant load greater than 300.
Buildings and other structures with elementary school, secondary school or day care Iacilities with an occupant load
greater than 250.
Buildings and other structures with an occupant load greater than 500 Ior colleges or adult education Iacilities.
Health care Iacilities with an occupant load oI 50 or more resident patients, but not having surgery or emergency treat-
ment Iacilities.
Jails and detention Iacilities.
Any other occupancy with an occupant load greater than 5,000.
Power-generating stations, water treatment Ior potable water, waste water treatment Iacilities and other public utility Ia-
cilities not included in Occupancy Category IV.
Buildings and other structures not included in Occupancy Category IV containing suIIicient quantities oI toxic or explo-
sive substances to be dangerous to the public iI released.
IV
Buildings and other structures designated as essential Iacilities, including but not limited to:
Hospitals and other health care Iacilities having surgery or emergency treatment Iacilities.
Fire, rescue and police stations and emergency vehicle garages.
Designated hurricane or other emergency shelters.
Designated emergency preparedness, communication, and operation centers and other Iacilities required Ior emergency
response.
Power-generating stations and other public utility Iacilities required as emergency backup Iacilities Ior Occupancy Cate-
gory IV structures.
Structures containing highly toxic materials as deIined by Section 307 where the quantity oI the material exceeds the
maximum allowable quantities oI Table 307.1.(2).
Aviation control towers, air traIIic control centers and emergency aircraIt hangars.
Buildings and other structures having critical national deIense Iunctions.
Water treatment Iacilities required to maintain water pressure Ior Iire suppression.
could be irrelevant. t may be more logical that
the occupancy category is determined by the to-
tal quantities of the hazardous material housed
in the structure under consideration.
Occupancy Category II: Occupancy Category
buildings represent a lesser hazard to life because of
fewer building occupants and smaller building size
compared to those that are considered Occupancy
Category . Since Occupancy Categories and V
represent buildings with higher risk or essential facili-
ties, on a relative scale Occupancy Category can be
thought of as a standard occupancy build ing as evi-
denced by importance factor for wind equal to 1.
Occupancy Category I: Occupancy Category build-
ings exhibit the lowest hazard to life since they have
little or no human occupants or, for those that are tem-
porary, the exposure to the hazards of hurricanes,
would be considerably less than that of a permanent
structure. Note that this category includes minor stor-
age facilities, but the code does not provide an expla-
nation of which storage facilities could be considered
minor.
1604.5.1 Multiple occupancies. Where a structure is occupied
by two or more occupancies not included in the same occu-
pancy category, the structure shall be assigned the classiIica-
tion oI the highest occupancy category corresponding to the
various occupancies. Where structures have two or more por-
tions that are structurally separated, each portion shall be sepa-
rately classiIied. Where a separated portion oI a structure
provides required access to, required egress Iromor shares liIe
saIety components with another portion having a higher occu-
pancy category, both portions shall be assigned to the higher
occupancy category.
Buildings are frequently occupied by a mixture of uses
or occupancies. A single-use building is probably the
exception rather than the rule. Where multiple occu-
pancies are proposed in a building, the occupancy
category of each of those occupancies must be con-
sidered. n some cases, the proposed occupancies in
a building will fall into more than one occupancy cate-
gory and the requirements for multiple occupancies
stated in Section 1604.5.1 must be satisfied. These
requirements were previously part of the earthquake
load provisions of the base code (2006 BC). n the
2007 edition, they have been relocated so that they
now apply regardless of the type of load being consid-
ered. The code identifies two design options. The en-
tire structure can be designed as a single unit based
on the requirements for the most stringent occupancy
category that will occupy the building. Alternatively,
the engineer can separate portions of the structure
containing distinct occupancy categories and design
each portion accordingly.
This section also provides direction regarding ac-
cess to and egress from adjacent structures that fall
into different occupancy categories by making the re-
quirements for the more stringent occupancy category
applicable to both structures. This requirement is the
result of lessons learned from events in which essen-
tial functions have been rendered unusable because
of a failure in an adjacent structure.
1604.6 In-situ load tests. The building oIIicial is authorized to
require an engineering analysis or a load test, or both, oI any
construction whenever there is reason to question the saIety oI
the construction Ior the intended occupancy. Engineering anal-
ysis and load tests shall be conducted in accordance with Sec-
tion 1713.
The building official has the option of requiring either a
structural analysis, an on-site in-situ load test or both,
in accordance with Section 1713, on an existing struc-
ture, building or portion thereof if there is reasonable
doubt as to structural integrity. The building official
should document his or her reasons for the testing re-
quirement. Whenever possible, the concern should
be addressed by structural analysis since load testing
a structure is very expensive. One example would be
an analysis by a third-party engineering firm accept-
able to both the building official and the owner. The
structural integrity may be examined for items such as
visible signs of excessive settlement or lateral deflec-
tion, such as cracks in concrete foundation walls or
excessive vibration when the assembly is loaded. The
procedure must simulate the actual load conditions to
which the structure is subjected during normal use.
1604.7 Preconstruction load tests. Materials and methods oI
construction that are not capable oI being designed by
approved engineering analysis or that do not comply with the
applicable material design standards listed in Chapter 35, or
alternative test procedures in accordance with Section 1711,
shall be load tested in accordance with Section 1714.
The alternative test procedure described in Section
1711 and the preconstruction load test procedure de-
scribed in Section 1714 are intended to apply to mate-
rials or an assembly of structural materials that do not
have an accepted analysis technique; thus, they are
approved for use by way of the alternative test proce-
dure. The preconstruction test procedure in Section
1714 includes the determination of the allowable su-
perimposed design load (see Section 1714 for
details).
1604.8 Anchorage.
1604.8.1 General. Anchorage oI the rooI to walls and col-
umns, and oI walls and columns to Ioundations, shall be pro-
vided to resist the upliIt and sliding Iorces that result Irom the
application oI the prescribed loads.
This section states a specific load path requirement
for anchorage that is already required in more general
terms by Section 1604.4. Required anchorage resis-
tance to uplift and sliding is determined in accordance
with the appropriate load combinations in Section
1605, which account for the effects of fluid pressures,
lateral earth pressure or wind (also see Section
1604.9).
1604.8.2 Concrete and masonry walls. Concrete and
masonry walls shall be anchored to Iloors, rooIs and other
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
structural elements that provide lateral support Ior the wall.
Such anchorage shall provide a positive direct connection
capable oI resisting the horizontal Iorces speciIied in this chap-
ter but not less than a minimum strength design horizontal
Iorce oI 280 plI (4.10 kN/m) oI wall, unless the lateral Iorce has
otherwise been calculated by the Engineer oI Record. Walls
shall be designed to resist bending between anchors where the
anchor spacing exceeds 4 Ieet (1219 mm). Required anchors in
masonry walls oI hollow units or cavity walls shall be embed-
ded in a reinIorced grouted structural element oI the wall. See
Sections 1609 Ior wind design requirements.
This section prescribes a minimum strength design
load for anchorages between concrete masonry walls
and horizontal diaphragms. This minimum does not
apply if the lateral force is calculated by the engineer
of record. The connection requirements apply to both
bearing walls and nonstructural walls. The wall an-
chorage must be a positive connection that does not
rely on friction for strength.
1604.8.3 Decks. Where supported by attachment to an exterior
wall, decks shall be positively anchored to the primary structure
anddesignedIor bothvertical andlateral loads as applicable. Such
attachment shall not be accomplished by the use oI toenails or
nails subiect to withdrawal. Where positive connection to the pri-
mary building structure cannot be veriIied during inspection,
decks shall be selI-supporting. For decks with cantilevered Iram-
ing members, connections to exterior walls or other Iraming
members shall be designed and constructed to resist upliIt result-
ing Iromthe Iull live load speciIied in Table 1607.1 acting on the
cantilevered portion oI the deck.
This requirement for the positive anchorage of decks
is a result of failures that have occurred primarily on
nonengineered residential decks. Toenail connec-
tions are very weak since many of the field connec-
tions split the wood framing member. Nails that are in-
stalled in line with applied tension forces pull out
easily. Wood deck framing should be attached to the
main framing members of a building and not to ve-
neers such as brick. There have been numerous doc-
umented failures of wood decks attached only to exte-
rior masonry veneer. n some cases, the failure of the
deck often pulls large sections of the masonry veneer
off the wall as well. Uplift occurs at the point of connec-
tion between the wood framing and the exterior wall
for cantilevered deck framing. This section highlights
the need for resistance to uplift by a positive connec-
tion at the exterior wall.
1604.9 Counteracting structural actions. Structural mem-
bers, systems, components and cladding shall be designed to
resist Iorces due to wind, with consideration oI overturning,
sliding, and upliIt. Continuous load paths shall be provided Ior
transmitting these Iorces to the Ioundation. Where sliding is
used to isolate the elements, the eIIects oI Iriction between slid-
ing elements shall be included as a Iorce.
This section requires that all elements of the structure
be designed to resist the forces due to wind. The re-
quired level of resistance will be based on the appro-
priate load combinations of Section 1605. The term
counteracting used in the sec tion title refers to
so-called counteracting load combinations as op-
posed to those in which the load effects are additive.
The effects of overturning, uplift and sliding are most
pronounced in these counteractive load combina-
tions. These would consist of the following depending
on the design method chosen:
i Load and resistance factor design or strength de-
sign, Section 1605.2.1:
Equation 16-6 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
i Basic allowable stress design load combinations,
Section 1605.3.1:
Equation 16-14 0.6D + W + H
i Alternative allowable stress design load combina-
tions, Section 1605.3.2:
Equation 16-17 (
2
/
3
)D + 1.3W
(Equation 16-17 with L = 0 in accordance with
Section 1605.1 requirement to investigate each
load combination with one or more variable
loads equal to zero, two-thirds of the dead load
in accordance with requirement in Section
1605.3.2 and set equal to 1.3 for ASCE 7 wind
loads).
As can be seen, for the critical counteracting load
combinations, resistance to overturning, uplift and
sliding is largely provided by dead load. Note that Sec-
tion 1605.3.2 requires the designer to consider only
the dead load likely to be in place during a design wind
event when using the alternative allowable stress load
combinations. The intent is that this applies to the load
combinations for load and resistance factor design
and allowable stress design as well. Regardless of the
design methodology utilized, the designer should be
cautious in estimating dead loads that resist overturn-
ing, sliding and uplift. n order to remain conservative,
estimated dead load should be no more than the ac-
tual dead load in these cases. See design dead load
in Section 1606.2. To keep a structure from sliding
horizontally, the dead load must generate enough fric-
tion at the base of the structure to resist the horizontal
base shear due to wind. Otherwise, adequate anchor-
age must be provided to resist the base shear.
1604.10 Wind and seismic detailing. Reserved.
SECTION 1605
LOAD COMBINATIONS
1605.1 General. Buildings and other structures and portions
thereoI shall be designed to resist the load combinations speci-
Iied in Section 1605.2 or 1605.3 and Chapters 18 through 23.
Applicable loads shall be considered, including wind, in accor-
dance with the speciIied load combinations. Each load combi-
nation shall also be investigated with one or more oI the
variable loads set to zero.
Generally, there are two types of load combinations
specified in the code: those to be used with a strength
design or load and resistance factor design and those
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
to be used with allowable stress design. Where addi-
tional load combinations are specified in the structural
material chapters, they apply also. Note that this sec-
tion also requires that engineers consider additional
load cases where variable loads are not acting con-
currently with other variable loads. t is necessary to
explore such possibilities, since they can at times re-
sult in the most critical load effect for some parts of a
structure. According to the definition of "Loads, loads
that are not considered permanent are variable loads.
1605.2 Load combinations using strength design or load
and resistance factor design.
1605.2.1 Basic load combinations. Where strength design or
load and resistance Iactor design is used, structures and por-
tions thereoI shall resist the most critical eIIects Irom the Iol-
lowing combinations oI Iactored loads:
1.4 (DF) (Equation16-1)
1.2(D F T) 1.6(L H)
0.5 (L
r
or R) (Equation16-2)
1.2D1.6(L
r
or R) (f
1
Lor 0.8W) (Equation16-3)
1.2D1.6Wf
1
L0.5(L
r
1.2D f
1
L (Equation16-5)
0.9D1.6W1.6H (Equation16-6)
0.9D1.6H (Equation16-7)
f
1
1 Ior Iloors in places oI public assembly, Ior live loads
in excess oI 100 pounds per square Ioot (4.79 kN/m
2
),
and Ior parking garage live load, and
0.5 Ior other live loads
Exception: Where other Iactored load combinations are
speciIically required by the provisions oI this code, such
combinations shall take precedence.
This section lists the load combinations for strength
design or load and resistance factor design methods.
See the definitions in Section 1602 for an explanation
of the load notations. The basis for these load combi-
nations is Section 2.3.2 of ASCE 7. These combina-
tions of factored loads are the agreed upon strength
limit states that establish the required strength to be
provided in the structural component being designed.
n spite of the precise appearance of the load and re-
sistance factor design load combinations one should
keep in mind their probabilistic nature. The goal is to
allow a wide variety of structures to be designed eco-
nomically with an acceptably low probability that the
strength of the structure will be exceeded. Doing so
necessitates combining loads in scenarios that are
likely to occur. Dead load is a permanent load and it
appears in every combination. The load combinations
are constructed by adding the dead load to one of the
variable loads at its maximum value, which is typically
indicated by the load factor of 1.6. n addition, other
variable loads are included with load factors that are
less than 1.0. Those so-called companion loads rep -
resent arbitrary point-in-time values for those loads.
1605.2.2 Other loads. Where F
a
is to be considered in the
design, the load combinations oI Section 2.3.3 oI ASCE7 shall
be used.
Under a cooperative agreement with FEMA, ASCE
completed an extensive analysis of flood loads and
flood load combinations. The results of this study were
first included in the 1998 edition of ASCE 7. For all
buildings and structures located in designated flood
hazard areas, this section specifies that flood load
and flood load combinations using the strength design
method are to be determined in accordance with Sec-
tion 2.3.3 of ASCE 7, which states:
Load Combinations ncluding Flood Load. When a
structure is located in a flood zone (Section 5.3.1),
the following load combinations shall be
considered:
1. n V Zones or Coastal A Zones, 1.6W in com-
binations (4) and (6) shall be replaced by
1.6W + 2.0F
a
.
2. n noncoastal A Zones, 1.6W in combinations
(4) and(6) shall be replaced with .8W+1.0F
a
.
1605.3 Load combinations using allowable stress design.
1605.3.1 Basic load combinations. Where allowable stress
design (working stress design), as permitted by this code, is
used, structures and portions thereoI shall resist the most criti-
cal eIIects resulting Iromthe Iollowing combinations oI loads:
DF (Equation16-8)
DHFLT (Equation16-9)
DHF(L
r
DHF0.75(LT) 0.75 (L
r
or R)
(Equation16-11)
DHF(W) (Equation16-12)
DHF0.75(W) 0.75L0.75 (L
r
or R)
(Equation16-13)
0.6DWH (Equation16-14)
0.6DH (Equation16-15)
Exception: Crane hook loads need not be combined with
rooI live load or with more than three-Iourths oI the snow
load or one-halI oI the wind load.
See Section 1602 for an explanation of the notations.
These basic load combinations for allowable stress
design are based on Section 2.4.1 of ASCE 7. Note
that a 0.75 factor is applied where these combinations
include more than one variable load. This reduces the
combined effect of these variable loads in recognition
of the lower probability that two or more variable loads
will reach their maximum values simultaneously.
The 0.6 on dead load applies to all dead load that is
used to resist wind forces. Regardless of whether
there is a mechanical connection between elements,
if dead load is used to counteract the wind load, only
60 percent of the dead load can be used. This reduc-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
tion has been described as a safety factor on gravity
which accounts for typical overestimation of the dead
loads for gravity designs and instances where the
dead load may not be in place during the design wind
event (such as a part of a ballasted roof lost during a
design wind event). This reduction would apply to soil
and foundation self-weight as well as any other dead
load used to resist wind.
The exception for crane hook loads has been a
longstanding allowance in the alternative basic load
combinations of Section 1605.3.2 under the legacy
model codes and is now permitted in this code. t al-
lows special consideration in combining crane loads
with wind and roof live loads due to a lower probability
that these maximum loads occur simultaneously. As
noted above, these basic load combinations are
based on ASCE7 allowable stress load combinations,
but there is no corresponding exception for crane
loads under ASCE 7. n the development of the base
code (BC), this exception was added to the basic load
combinations in an attempt to provide parity with the
alternative basic load combinations. t is worth noting
that these two sets of load combinations come from
two different sources as described above and, froman
overall perspective, they never have provided parity.
Crane loads are considered live loads (see Section
1607.12).
1605.3.1.1 Load reduction.
1. Increases in allowable stress speciIied in the materials
sections oI this code or a reIerenced standard shall not be
permitted to be used with load combinations oI Sections
1605.3.1. Duration oI load increase shall be permitted in
accordance with Chapter 23.
Exception: Increases in allowable stress shall be permit-
ted in accordance with ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 pro-
vided the load reduction oI Section 1605.3.1.1 Item 1
shall not be applied.
2. Simultaneous use oI both one-third increase in allowable
stress and the 25 percent reduction in combined loads
shall not be permitted.
The load reduction specified in tem 1 of this section
was deleted by a Glitch Amendment because it has
actually already been accounted for in the load combi-
nations of Section 1605.3.1. Section 1605.3.1.1 con-
tains Florida-specific Amendments that have been
carried forward since the 2001 FBC. However, a
change to the base code deleted the language from
Section 1605.3.1.1 and incorporated the 0.75 factor
for variable loads directly in the load combinations.
This change to the base code was inadvertently not
picked up in the first printing of the 2007 FBCB. How-
ever, the code did not intend that an additional 25 per-
cent reduction be applied to variable loads when in
combination with dead loads. The 25 percent reduc-
tion is only to be used as specified in the load combi-
nations in Equations 16-11 and 16-13. This discrep-
ancy has been corrected in the Glitch Amendments to
the 2007 Florida Codes by deleting tem 1 in Section
1605.3.1.1. (tem 2 is now tem 1 and tem 3 is now
tem 2.).
This section also makes a broad statement that vir-
tually eliminates the use of the one-third stress in-
crease. However, the exception permits masonry de-
sign in accordance with AC 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402,
including the one-third stress increase provided the
load reduction for variable loads in tem 1 is not used
simultaneously. However, the load reduction for vari-
able loads has been deleted by a Glitch Amendment.
The load reduction (25%) for variable loads is ac-
counted for in the load combinations (these combina-
tions that include the 0.75 factor). Therefore, if the
stress increase in accordance with AC 530/ASCE
5/TMS 402 is used, the 0.75 factor on the loads in the
load combination should not be used. Also, allowable
stress increases that are based on load duration, such
as the load duration factor (C
D
) in the AF&PANational
Design Specification (NDS), are permitted.
1605.3.1.2 Other loads. Where F
a
is to be considered in
design, the load combinations oI Section 2.4.2 oI ASCE7 shall
be used.
The study discussed in the commentary to Section
1605.2.2 determines flood load and flood load combi-
nation factors for use with the allowable stress
method. This section specifies that flood load and
flood load combinations using the allowable stress de-
sign method are to be determined in accordance with
Section 2.4.2 of ASCE 7, which states:
Load Combinations including Flood Load. When a
structure is located in a flood zone, the following
load combinations shall be considered:
1. n V Zones or Coastal A Zones (Section
5.3.1), 1.5F
a
shall be added to other load com-
binations (5), (6) and (7), and E shall be set
equal to zero in (5) and (6).
2. n noncoastal A Zones, 0.75F
a
shall be added
to the combinations (5), (6) and (7), and E
shall be set at zero in (5) and (6).
1605.3.2 Alternative basic load combinations. In lieu oI the
basic load combinations speciIied in Section 1605.3.1, struc-
tures and portions thereoI shall be permitted to be designed Ior
the most critical eIIects resulting Irom the Iollowing combina-
tions. When using these alternative basic load combinations
that include wind loads, allowable stresses are permitted to be
increased or load combinations reduced where permitted bythe
material chapter oI this code or the reIerenced standards. For
load combinations that include the counteracting eIIects oI
dead and wind loads, only two-thirds oI the minimum dead
load likely to be in place during a design wind event shall be
used. Where wind loads are calculated in accordance with
Chapter 6 oI ASCE 7, the coeIIicient in the Iollowing equa-
tions shall be taken as 1.3. For other wind loads, shall be
taken as 1. When using these alternative load combinations to
evaluate sliding, overturning and soil bearing at the soil-struc-
ture interIace, the reduction oI Ioundation overturning Irom
Section 12.13.4 in ASCE 7 shall not be used.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
DL(L
r
DL(W) (Equation16-17)
Equation 16-18. Reserved.
DLW/2 (Equation16-19)
DL (Equation16-20)
0.9D (Equation16-21)
Exception: Crane hook loads need not be combined with
rooI live load or with more than three-Iourths oI the snow
load or one-halI oI the wind load.
These are alternative load combinations to those in
Section 1605.3.1 for use with allowable stress design.
They are based on the allowable stress load combina-
tions in the Uniform Building Code
(UBC).
Note that the dead load is limited to two-thirds of the
dead load likely to be in place during a design wind
event. Section 1604.9 requires that all elements of a
building be anchored to resist overturning, uplift and
sliding. Often, a considerable portion of this resis-
tance is provided by the dead load of a building, in-
cluding the weight of foundations and any soil directly
above them. This section requires the designer to give
consideration to the dead load used to resist wind
loads by stating that only the minimumdead load likely
to be in place during a design wind event is permitted
to be used. This, however, does not imply that certain
parts or elements of a building are not designed to re-
main in place. This criteria simply cautions the de-
signer against using dead loads that may not be in-
stalled, or in place, such as can occur where a design
includes an allowance for a planned future expansion.
The exception for crane hook loads has been a
long-standing allowance under the legacy model
codes that were also the source of these alternative
basic load combinations. t allows special consider-
ation in combining crane live loads with wind, snow
and roof live loads due to a lower probability that these
maximum loads occur simultaneously.
1605.3.2.1 Other loads. Where F, H or T are to be considered
in the design, each applicable load shall be added to the combi-
nations speciIied in Section 1605.3.2.
See the definitions in Section 1602 for an explanation
of the notation used in this section. As indicated, the
applicable loads are to be added to each of the load
combinations in Section 1605.3.2.
1605.4 Special seismic load combinations. Reserved.
1605.5 Heliports and helistops. Heliport and helistop landing
areas shall be designed Ior the Iollowing loads, combined in
accordance with Section 1605:
1. Dead load, D, plus the gross weight oI the helicopter, Dh,
plus snow load, S.
2. Dead load, D, plus two single concentrated impact loads,
L, approximately 8 Ieet (2438 mm) apart applied any-
where on the landing area (representing the helicopter`s
two main landing gear, whether skid type or wheeled
type), having a magnitude oI 0.75 times the gross weight
oI the helicopter. Both loads acting together total
one-and one halI times the gross weight oI the helicopter.
3. Dead load, D, plus a uniIormlive load, L. oI 100 psI (4.79
kN/m
2
).
Exception: Landing areas designed Ior helicopters
with gross weights not exceeding 3,000 pounds
(13.34 kN) in accordance with Items 1 and 2 shall be
permitted to be designed using a 40 psI (1.92 kN/m
2
)
uniIormlive load in Item3, provided the landing area
is identiIied with a 3,000 pound (13.34 kN) weight
limitation. This 40 psI (1.92 kN/m
2
) uniIormlive load
shall not be reduced. The landing area weight limita-
tion shall be indicated by the numeral '3 (kips)
located in the bottom right corner oI the landing area
as viewed Iromthe primary approach path. The land-
ing area weight limitation shall be a minimum oI 5
Ieet (1524 mm) in height.
Detailed requirements for helistops and heliports, in-
cluding definitions, can be found in Section 412.5 of
the code. For example Section 412.5.3 requires a
minimum landing area size of 20 feet by 20 feet (6096
mm by 6096 mm) for helicopters weighing less than
3,500 pounds (15.57 kN).
These structural design requirements serve two
purposes. First, they establish the minimumdead load
and live load criteria that are specific to the design of
the landing area and the supporting structural ele-
ments. Second, they specify how the dead and live
loads are to be utilized in the load combinations of
Section 1605.2 or 1605.3.
The first load case accounts for the gross weight of
the helicopter by considering the helicopter weight as
a dead load on the landing area to be combined with
other dead loads, as well as the design snow load.
This simulates a condition where the helicopter is
parked on the land ing area for an extended period of
time. The second load case considers other dead load
along with concentrated live loads that are based on
the weight of the helicopter plus an impact load from
landing. This intends to account for the dynamic loads
that are generated by a helicopter landing. The third
load case includes all other dead loads combined with
a uniform live load of 100 psf (4.79 kN/m
2
) on the heli-
port or helistop landing area.
The majority of helicopters used in general aviation
have gross weights less than 3,000 pounds (13 kN).
With weights comparable to those of passenger vehi-
cles and considering the size of the landing area, the
equivalent uniform load on these landing areas is ac-
tually lower than the minimum uniform live load re-
quired for a passenger vehicle parking garage. Thus,
a reduced design live load is permitted for design of
these landing areas. The exception to the use of a 100
psf (4.79 kN/m
2
) live load allows the use of a 40 psf
(1.92 kN/m
2
) live load for helicopter landing areas. n
consideration of the fact that well over half of all heli-
copters common to general aviation have gross
weights not exceeding 3,000 pounds (13 kN), a maxi-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
mum gross weight limitation of 3,000 pounds (13.34
kN) is incorporated in the exception. Since marking
the weight limitation of the landing area is standard
practice as well as an FAA recommendation, indicat-
ing the weight limitation on the landing area was in-
cluded as a requirement under the exception.
SECTION 1606
DEAD LOADS
1606.1 General. Dead loads are those loads deIined in Section
1602.1. Dead loads shall be considered permanent loads.
The nominal dead load, D, is determined in accor-
dance with Section 1606. Similar to the general sec-
tion on live loads (see Section 1607.1), this section
provides a reminder that the term "dead loads is de -
fined, establishing exactly what should be considered
a dead load. t also states that dead loads are consid-
ered permanent. This affects how dead loads are
classified (permanent versus variable), which is a
necessary distinction to make when applying the pro-
visions for load combinations.
1606.2 Design dead load. For purposes oI design, the actual
weights oI materials oI construction and Iixed service equip-
ment shall be used. In the absence oI deIinite inIormation, val-
ues used shall be subiect to the approval oI the building oIIicial.
When determining the design dead loads, the actual
weights of all materials, equipment, construction, etc.,
are to be used for the structural design. Often the ex-
act type of materials and equipment to be installed
has not yet been determined by the design teamat the
time the structural design is initiated. Where the actual
weights are not known, it is common to use an esti-
mate of the anticipated materials and equipment.
While the actual dead load itself does not vary, the es-
timate of the dead load that is used in structural com-
putations can vary. Such estimates of dead loads are
typically greater than the actual dead loads so that the
computations are conservative and a redesign of the
structure will not be necessary when the actual
weights become known. This section clarifies that the
building official must approve these estimated dead
loads.
Overestimating the actual dead load, so that the de-
sign computations are conservative, is acceptable
when considering load combinations in Section 1605
that are additive. But the same cannot be said when
using counteracting load combinations (see commen-
tary, Section 1604.9). n determining the anchorage
required to resist the overturning or uplift effects of
wind or seismic loads, resistance is typically provided
by the dead load. For example, uplift forces due to
wind cause tension to develop in hold-down connec-
tions. f the dead load used to resist the wind uplift is
overestimated, the result may be an unconservative
design. Note that Section 1605.3.2 restricts the dead
load used to counteract the effects of overturning and
uplift to be the minimum dead load likely to be in place
during a design wind event.
As a design guideline, see the unit weights of com-
mon construction materials and assemblies in Tables
C3-1 and C3-2 of ASCE 7. The unit dead loads listed
in the tables for assembled elements are usually given
in units of pounds per square foot of surface area (i.e.,
floor areas, wall areas, ceiling areas, etc.). Unit dead
loads for materials used in construction are given in
terms of density (pounds per cubic foot). The unit
weights given in the tables are generally single val-
ues, even though a range of weights may actually ex-
ist. The average unit weights given are generally suit-
able for design purposes; however, where there is
reason to believe that the actual weights of assembled
elements or construction materials may substantially
exceed the tabular values, then the situation should
be investigated and the highest values used.
SECTION 1607
LIVE LOADS
1607.1 General. Live loads are those loads deIined in Section
1602.1.
Nominal live loads are determined in accordance with
Section 1607. The live load requirements for the de-
sign of buildings and structures are based on the type
of occupancy. Live loads are transient loads that vary
with time. Generally, the design live load is that which
is believed to be near the maximum transient load for
a given occupancy.
TABLE 1607.1.
The design values of live loads for both uniform and
concentrated loads are shown in the table as a func-
tion of occupancy. The values given are conservative
and include both the sustained and variable portions
of the live load. Section 1607.3 directs the designer to
utilize the greater live loads produced by the intended
occupancy, but not less than the minimum uniformly
distributed live loads listed in Table 1607.1. t should
also be noted that the occupancy cat egory listed is
not necessarily group specific. For example, an office
building may be classified as Group B, but still contain
incidental storage areas. Depending on the type of
storage, the areas may warrant storage live loads of
either 125 or 250 psf (5.98 or 11.9 kN/m
2
) to be ap-
plied to the space in question.
Residential attic live load: Table 1607.1 specifies
minimum uniform live load in residential attics for
three distinct conditions: uninhabitable attics without
storage; uninhabitable attics with limited storage; and
habitable attics and sleeping areas. Table 1607.1(1)
summarizes the uniform live loads that apply to unin-
habitable attics based on the criteria contained in
Notes i, j and k to Table 1607.1. The process for deter-
mining which load is applicable is summarized in the
flow chart in Figure 1607.1.
One noteworthy distinction made by Note k is that
any uninhabitable attic that is served by a fixed stair
must be designed using the load of 30 psf (1.44
kN/m
2
) that is applicable to habitable attics (see Note
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
k). Since the 20 psf (0.96 kN/m
2
) load is described as
limited storage, the im plication is that the presence
of a fixed stair is conducive to larger quantities of stor-
age and warrants a greater design live load. This rec-
ognizes that the fixed stair is likely to serve an attic
with greater headroom available, providing more stor-
age capacity. For an uninhabitable attic that is ac-
cessed by means other than a fixed stair (e.g. framed
opening or pull-down stairs), it is necessary to deter-
mine whether the limited storage load applies in ac-
cordance with the criteria contained in Notes i and j.
Historically a minimum load of 10 psf (0.48 kN/m
2
)
has been viewed as appropriate where occasional ac-
cess to the attic is anticipated for maintenance pur-
poses, but significant storage is restricted by physical
constraints such as low clearance or the configuration
of truss webs. t provides a minimum degree of struc-
tural integrity, allowing for occasional access to an at-
tic space for maintenance purposes. Allowing the ap-
plication of this load to be independent of other live
loads is deemed appropriate, since it would be rare for
this load and other maximum live loads to occur at
once.
1607.2 Loads not specified. For occupancies or uses not des-
ignated in Table 1607.1, the live load shall be determined in
accordance with a method approved by the building oIIicial.
Whenever an occupancy or use of a structure cannot
be identified with the listing shown in Table 1607.1,
then the live load values used for design are required
to be determined by the design professional and sub-
ject to the approval of the building official. Aside from
the obvious intent of this requirement, however, which
is to prescribe a minimum design load value, some
caution needs to be exercised by the design profes-
sional in determining the appropriate design live load
value. For example, the table shows that heavy stor-
age areas must be designed for a uniform live load of
250 psf (11.9 kN/m
2
). This is a minimum value. Stor-
age warehouses or storage areas within manufactur-
ing facilities containing items such as automobile
parts, electrical goods, coiled steel, plumbing supplies
and bulk building materials generally have live loads
ranging between 300 and 400 psf (14.4 and 19
kN/m
2
). Similarly, storage facilities containing dry
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 pound per square foot = 47.88 Pa
Figure 1607.1
DETERMINATION OF LIVE LOAD FOR UNINHABITABLE ATTIC
TabIe 1607.1(1)
SUMMARY OF MINIMUM LIVE LOAD REQUIRED IN
UNINHABITABLE ATTICS
Description Uniform Load
Without storage 10 psf
With limited storage 20 psf
Served by fixed stair 30 psf
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1607.1
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS AND MINIMUM CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS
g
OCCUPANCY OR USE
UNIFORM
(psf)
CONCENTRATED
(Ibs.)
1. Apartments (see residential)
2. Access Iloor systems
OIIice use
Computer use
50
100
2,000
2,000
3. Armories and drill rooms 150
4. Assembly areas and theaters
Fixed seats (Iastened to Iloor)
Follow spot, proiections and control
rooms
Lobbies
Movable seats
Stages and platIorms
60
50
100
100
125
5. Balconies
On one- and two-Iamily residences
only, and not exceeding 100 sq It
100
60
6. Bowling alleys 75
7. Catwalks 40 300
8. Dance halls and ballrooms 100
9. Decks Same as
occupancy
served
h
10. Dining rooms and restaurants 100

11. Dwellings (see residential)
12. Cornices 60
13. Corridors, except as otherwise indicated 100
14. Elevator machine room grating
(on area oI 4 in
2
)
300
15. Finish light Iloor plate construction
(on area oI 1 in
2
)
200
16. Fire escapes
On single-Iamily dwellings only
100
40
17. Garages (passenger vehicles only)

Trucks and buses
40 Note a
See Section 1607.6
18. Grandstands (see stadium and arena
bleachers)

19. Gymnasiums, main Iloors and
balconies
100
20. Handrails, guards and grab bars See Section 1607.7
21. Hospitals
Corridors above Iirst Iloor
Operating rooms, laboratories
Patient rooms
80
60
40
1,000
1,000
1,000
22. Hotels (see residential)
OCCUPANCY OR USE
UNIFORM
(psf)
CONCENTRATED
(Ibs.)
23. Libraries
Reading rooms
Stack rooms
80
60
150
b
1,000
1,000
1,000
24. ManuIacturing
Heavy
Light
250
125
3,000
2,000
25. Marquees 75
26. OIIice buildings
File and computer rooms shall be
designed Ior heavier loads based
on anticipated occupancy
Lobbies and Iirst-Iloor corridors
OIIices
80
100
50
2,000
2,000
2,000
27. Penal institutions
Cell blocks
Corridors
40
100
28. Residential
One- and two-Iamily dwellings
Uninhabitable attics without storage
i
Uninhabitable attics with limited
storage
i, i, k
Habitable attics and sleeping areas
All other areas except balconies and
decks
Hotels and multiple-Iamily dwellings
Private rooms and corridors
serving them
Publ i c rooms and corridors
serving them
10
20
30
40
40
100
29. Reviewing stands, grandstands and

bleachers
Note c
30. RooIs
All rooI surIaces subiect to mainte-
nance workers
Awnings and canopies
Fabric construction supported by a
lightweight rigid skeleton
structure
All other construction
OrdinaryIlat, pitched, and curved rooIs
Primary rooI members, exposed to a
work Iloor
Single panel point oI lower chord oI
rooI trusses or any point along
primary structural members
supporting rooIs:
Over manuIacturing, storage
warehouses, and repair garages
All other occupancies
RooIs used Ior other special purposes
RooIs used Ior promenade purposes
RooIs used Ior rooI gardens or
assembly purposes
5
nonreduceable
20
20
Note 1
60
100
300
2,000
300
Note 1
(continued)
goods, paints, oil, groceries or liquor often have load-
ings that range between 200 to 300 psf (9.6 to 14.4
kN/m
2
). Another example is a heavy manufacturing fa-
cility that makes generators for the electric power in-
dustry. Some of the production areas in this type of fa-
cility require structural floors that support loads of
1,000 psf (47.9 kN/m
2
) or more, which is about seven
times the live load specified in Table 1607.1.
1607.3 Uniformlive loads. The live loads used in the design oI
buildings and other structures shall be the maximum loads
expected by the intended use or occupancy but shall in no case
be less than the minimum uniIormly distributed unit loads
required by Table 1607.1.
Studies have shown that building live loads consist of
a sustained portion based on the day-to-day use of
the facilities, and a variable portion created by un-
usual events such as remodeling, temporary storage
of materials, the extraordinary assemblage of people
for an occasional business meeting or social function
(i.e., holiday party) and similar events. The sustained
portion of the live load will likely vary during the life of a
building because of tenant changes, rearrangement
of office space and furnishings, changes in the nature
of the occupancy (i.e., number of people or type of
business), traffic patterns and so on. n light of this
variability of loadings that are apt to be imposed on a
building, the code provisions simplify the design pro-
cedure by expressing the applicable load as either a
uniformly distributed live load or a concentrated live
load on the floor area. t should be pointed out that this
section does not require the concurrent application of
uniform live load and concentrated live load. n other
words, this section requires that either the uniform
load or the concentrated load be applied, so long as
the type of load that produces the greater stress in the
structural element under consideration is utilized.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1607.1continued
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS AND
MINIMUM CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS
g
OCCUPANCY OR USE
UNIFOR
M
(psf)
CONCENTRAT
ED
(Ibs.)
31. Schools
Classrooms
First-Iloor corridors
40
80
100
1,000
1,000
1,000
32. Scuttles, skylight ribs andaccessible ceil-
ings
200
33. Sidewalks, vehicular driveways and
yards, subiect to trucking
250d 8,000e
34. Skating rinks 100
35. Stadiums and arenas
Bleachers
Fixed seats (Iastened to Iloor)
100c
60c
36. Stairs and exits

One- and two-Iamily dwellings
All other
40
100
Note I
37. Storage warehouses (shall be designed
Ior heavier loads iI required Ior antici-
pated storage)
Heavy
Light
250
125
38. Stores
Retail
First Iloor
Upper Iloors
Wholesale, all Iloors
100
75
125
1,000
1,000
1,000
39. Vehicle barriers See Section 1607.7.3
40. Walkways and elevated platIorms (other
than exitways)
60
41. Yards and terraces, pedestrians 100
For SI: 1 inch 25.4 mm, 1 square inch 645.16 mm
2
,
1 square Ioot 0.0929 m
2
,
1 pound per square Ioot 0.0479 kN/m
2
, 1 pound 0.004448 kN,
1 pound per cubic Ioot 16 kg/m
3
a. Floors in garages or portions oI buildings used Ior the storage oI motor vehi-
cles shall be designed Ior the uniIormly distributed live loads oI Table
1607.1 or the Iollowing concentrated loads: (1) Ior garages restricted to
vehicles accommodating not more than nine passengers, 3,000 pounds act-
ing on an area oI 4.5 inches by 4.5 inches; (2) Ior mechanical parking struc-
tures without slab or deck which are used Ior storing passenger vehicles
only, 2,250 pounds per wheel.
b. The loading applies to stack room Iloors that support nonmobile, dou-
ble-Iaced library bookstacks, subiect to the Iollowing limitations:
1. The nominal bookstack unit height shall not exceed 90 inches;
2. The nominal shelI depth shall not exceed 12 inches Ior each Iace; and
3. Parallel rows oI double-Iaced bookstacks shall be separated by aisles
not less than 36 inches wide.
c. Design in accordance with the ICC Standard on Bleachers, Folding and
Telescopic Seating and Grandstands.
d. Other uniIormloads in accordance with an approved method which contains
provisions Ior truck loadings shall also be considered where appropriate.
e. The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area oI 20 square inches.
I. Minimum concentrated load on stair treads (on area oI 4 square inches) is
300 pounds.
g. Reserved.
h. See Section 1604.8.3 Ior decks attached to exterior walls.
i. Attics without storage are those where the maximum clear height between
the ioist and raIter is less than 42 inches, or where there are not two or more
adiacent trusses with the same web conIiguration capable oI containing a
rectangle 42 inches high by 2 Ieet wide, or greater, located within the plane
oI the truss. For attics without storage, this live load need not be assumed to
act concurrently with any other live load requirements.
i. For attics with limited storage and constructed with trusses, this live load
need be applied only to those portions oI the bottom chord where there are
two or more adiacent trusses with the same web conIiguration capable oI
containing a rectangle 42 inches high by 2 Ieet wide or greater, located
within the plane oI the truss. The rectangle shall Iit between the top oI the
bottomchord and the bottomoI any other truss member, provided that each
oI the Iollowing criteria is met:
i. The attic area is accessible by a pull-down stairway or Iramed opening
in accordance with Section 1209.2, and
ii. The truss shall have a bottom chord pitch less than 2:12.
iii. Bottom chords oI trusses shall be designed Ior the greater oI actual
imposed dead load or 10 psI, uniIormly distributed over the entire
span.
k. Attic spaces served by a Iixed stair shall be designed to support the mini-
mum live load speciIied Ior habitable attics and sleeping rooms.
l. RooIs used Ior other special purposes shall be designed Ior appropriate
loads as approved by the building oIIicial.
1607.4 Concentrated loads. Floors and other similar surIaces
shall be designed to support the uniIormly distributed live
loads prescribed in Section 1607.3 or the concentrated load, in
pounds (kilonewtons), given in Table 1607.1, whichever pro-
duces the greater load eIIects. Unless otherwise speciIied, the
indicated concentration shall be assumed to be uniIormly dis-
tributed over an area 2.5 Ieet by 2.5 Ieet |6.25 square Ieet (0.58
m
2
)| and shall be located so as to produce the maximum load
eIIects in the structural members.
A building or portion thereof is subjected to concen-
trated floor loads commensurate with the use of the
facility. For example, in Group B, a law office may
have stacks of books and files that impose large con-
centrations of loads on the supporting structural ele-
ments. An industrial facility may have a tank full of liq-
uid material on a mezzanine that feeds a machine on
the floor below. The structural floor of a stockroom
may support heavy bins containing metal parts and so
on. The exact locations or nature of such concen-
trated loadings is not usually known at the time of the
design of the building. Furthermore, new sources of
concentrated loadings will be added during the life of
the structure, while some or all of the existing sources
will be relocated; therefore, because of the uncertain-
ties of the sources of concentrated loads as well as
their weights and locations, the code provides typical
loads to be used in the design of structural floors con-
sistent with the type of use of the facility. The minimum
concentrated loads to be used for design are con-
tained in Table 1607.1. Concentrated loads are not re-
quired to be applied simultaneously, with the uniform
live loads also specified in Table 1607.1. Concen-
trated loads are to be applied as an independent load
condition at the location that produces the greatest
stress in the structural members being designed. Roof
loads are also considered in Table 1607.1. For exam-
ple, in an office use area, the floor system is to be de-
signed for either a 2,000-pound (8897 N) concen-
trated load applied over an area 2.5 ft x 2.5 ft unless
otherwise specified (unless the anticipated actual
concentrated load is higher) applied at any location in
the office area, or the 50 psf (2.40 kN/m
2
) live load
specified in Table 1607.1, whichever results in the
greater stress in the supporting structural member.
1607.5 Partition loads. In oIIice buildings and in other build-
ings where partition locations are subiect to change, provisions
Ior partition weight shall be made, whether or not partitions are
shown on the construction documents, unless the speciIied live
load exceeds 80 psI (3.83 kN/m
2
). The partition load shall not
be less than a uniIormly distributed live load oI 15 psI (0.74
kN/m
2
).
Provision for the weight of partitions must be made in
the structural design. The weight of any built-in parti-
tions should be considered a dead load in accordance
with the definition in Section 1602. Buildings where
partitions are readily relocated must include a live load
of 15 psf (0.74 kN/m
2
) if the uniformfloor live load is 80
psf (3.83 kN/m
2
) or less. This partition allowance is in-
cluded under live loads because of its variable nature.
1607.6 Truck and bus garages. Minimum live loads Ior
garages having trucks or buses shall be as speciIied in Table
1607.6, but shall not be less than 50 psI (2.40 kN/m
2
), unless
other loads are speciIically iustiIied and approved by the build-
ing oIIicial. Actual loads shall be used where they are greater
than the loads speciIied in the table.
The uniform load specified in this section is to be ap-
plied to the garage floor in accordance with Section
1607.6.1 (also see Table 1607.6 for the specified con-
centrated loads that are to be included in the design).
The uniform and concentrated loads are to be applied
as separate load cases and not at the same time.
TABLE 1607.6
UNIFORM AND CONCENTRATED LOADS
LOADING
CLASS
a
UNIFORM
LOAD
(pounds/Iinear
foot of Iane)
CONCENTRATED LOAD
(pounds)
b
For moment
design
For shear
design
H20-44 and
HS20-44
640 18,000 26,000
H15-44 and
HS15-44
480 13,500 19,500
For SI: 1 pound per linear Ioot 0.01459 kN/m, 1 pound 0.004448 kN,
1 ton 8.90 kN.
a. An H loading class designates a two-axle truck with a semitrailer. An HS
loading class designates a tractor truck with a semitrailer. The numbers Iol-
lowing the letter classiIication indicate the gross weight in tons oI the stan-
dard truck and the year the loadings were instituted.
b. See Section 1607.6.1 Ior the loading oI multiple spans.
These are the uniform and concentrated loads that
have been established by the American Association
of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
by truck live loads (see Section 1607.6.1 for directions
regarding the application of these loads). The uniform
load in the table is in pounds per linear foot (plf) of
lane. The load is to be divided by 10 feet (3048 mm) to
get the area loading of 64 or 48 psf (3.1 or 2.3 kN/m
2
),
depending on the truck loading used.
1607.6.1 Truck and bus garage live load application. The
concentrated load and uniIormload shall be uniIormly distrib-
uted over a 10-Ioot (3048 mm) width on a line normal to the
centerline oI the lane placed within a 12-Ioot-wide (3658 mm)
lane. The loads shall be placed within their individual lanes so
as to produce the maximum stress in each structural member.
Single spans shall be designed Ior the uniIorm load in Table
1607.6 and one simultaneous concentrated load positioned to
produce the maximumeIIect. Multiple spans shall be designed
Ior the uniIorm load in Table 1607.6 on the spans and two
simultaneous concentrated loads in two spans positioned to
produce the maximum negative moment eIIect. Multiple span
design loads, Ior other eIIects, shall be the same as Ior single
spans.
This section specifies the application of live loads so
as to produce the maximum stresses. This provision
is the truck live loading that has been established by
AASHTO.
1607.7 Loads on handrails. guards. grab bars and vehicle
barriers. Handrails, guards, grab bars as designed in Chapter
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
11 and vehicle barriers shall be designed and constructed to the
structural loading conditions set Iorth in this section.
The requirements of this section are intended to pro-
vide an adequate degree of structural strength and
stability to handrails, guards, grab bars and vehicle
barriers.
1607.7.1 Handrails and guards. Handrail assemblies and
guards shall be designed to resist a load oI 50 plI (0.73 kN/m)
applied in any direction at the top and to transIer this load
through the supports to the structure. Glass handrail assemblies
and guards shall also comply with Section 2407.
Exceptions:
1. For one- and two-Iamily dwellings, only the single
concentrated load required by Section 1607.7.1.1
shall be applied.
2. In Group I-3, F, H and S occupancies, Ior areas that
are not accessible to the general public and that have
an occupant load less than 50, the minimumload shall
be 20 pounds per Ioot (0.29 kN/m).
The loading in this section is the maximumanticipated
load from use of the handrail by a crowd of people on
the stairway. The exceptions provide lower loads for
circumstances where the public does not use the
handrail. These loads, depicted in Figure 1607.7.1,
are permitted to be applied independent of other
loads.
The loads specified in this section and Section
1607.7.1.1 and 1607.7.1.2 are not ultimate loads. As
such, safety factors for allowable stress design or re-
sistance factors for LRFD will have to be applied de-
pending upon the materials used to construct the
guard or handrail system.
1607.7.1.1 Concentrated load. Handrail assemblies and
guards shall be able to resist a single concentrated load oI 200
pounds (0.89 kN), applied in any direction at any point along
the top, and have attachment devices and supporting structure
to transIer this loading to appropriate structural elements oI the
building. This load need not be assumed to act concurrently
with the loads speciIied in the preceding paragraph.
The concentrated loading in this section is not to be
applied with any other design load; it is a separate
load case. The load simulates the maximum antici-
pated load from a person grabbing or falling into the
handrail or guard.
1607.7.1.2 Components. Intermediate rails (all those except
the handrail), balusters and panel Iillers shall be designed to
withstand a horizontally applied normal load oI 50 pounds
(0.22 kN) on an area equal to 1 square Ioot (0.093 m
2
), includ-
ing openings and space between rails. Reactions due to this
loading are not required to be superimposed with those oI Sec-
tion 1607.7.1 or 1607.7.1.1.
This is a localized design load for the guard members
and is not to be applied with any other loads. t is to be
applied horizontally at a 90-degree (1.57 rad) angle
with the guard members. The number of balusters
that would resist this load are those within the 1
square foot (0.093 m
2
) area in the plane of the guard
as shown in Figure 1607.7.1.2.
1607.7.1.3 Stress increase. Where handrails and guards are
designed in accordance with the provisions Ior allowable stress
design (working stress design) exclusively Ior the loads speci-
Iied in Section 1607.7.1, the allowable stress Ior the members
and their attachments is permitted to be increased byone-third.
This section clarifies that the allowable stress design
stresses are permitted to be increased by one-third
when the handrail or guard is subjected to any one of
the design loads specified in Sections 1607.7.1
through 1607.7.1.2. This is appropriate since the de-
sign loads are the maximum anticipated loads.
1607.7.2 Grab bars. shower seats and dressing room bench
seats. Grab bars, shower seats and dressing room bench seat
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 pound = 0.454 kg, 1 pound per foot = 14.59 N/m.
Figure 1607.7.1
HANDRAIL DESIGN LOAD
systems shall be designed to resist a single concentrated load oI
250 pounds (1.11 kN) applied in any direction at any point.
These live loads provide for the normal anticipated
loads from the use of the grab bars, shower seats and
dressing-room bench seats. When grab bars are pro-
vided for use by persons with physical disabilities,
compliance with Chapter 11 is also required.
1607.7.3 Vehicle barriers. Vehicle barrier systems Ior passen-
ger cars shall be designed to resist a single load oI 6,000 pounds
(26.70 kN) applied horizontally in any direction to the barrier
system and shall have anchorage or attachment capable oI
transmitting this load to the structure. For design oI the system,
the load shall be assumed to act at a minimumheight oI 1 Ioot, 6
inches (457 mm) above the Iloor or ramp surIace on an area not
to exceed 1 square Ioot (305 mm
2
), and is not required to be
assumed to act concurrently with any handrail or guard load-
ings speciIied in the preceding paragraphs oI Section 1607.7.1.
Garages accommodating trucks and buses shall be designed in
accordance with an approved method that contains provision
Ior traIIic railings.
Vehicle barriers provide a passive restraint system in
locations where vehicles could fall to a lower level
(see definition of Vehicle bar rier in Section 1602).
The loading depicted in Figure 1607.7.3 is required for
the design of passenger car and light truck vehicle
barriers. The 6,000-pound (26.70 kN) load considers
impact. The loads are intended for use with a
one-third increase in allowable stresses when using
the allowable stress design method. For bus and
heavy truck vehicle barrier design criteria, the state
department of transportation should be contacted.
1607.8 Impact loads. The live loads speciIied in Section
1607.3 include allowance Ior impact conditions. Provisions
shall be made in the structural design Ior uses and loads that
involve unusual vibration and impact Iorces.
n cases where unordinary live loads are likely to oc-
cur in a building that imposes impact or vibratory
forces on structural elements (i.e., elevators, machin-
ery, craneways, etc.), additional stresses and deflec-
tions are produced in the structural system. Where
unusual vibration (dynamic) and impact loads are
likely to occur, the code requires that the structural de-
sign take these effects into account. Typically, the dy-
namic effects are approximated through the applica-
tion of an equivalent static load equal to the dynamic
load effects. n most cases, an equivalent static load is
sufficient. A dynamic analysis is usually not required.
1607.8.1 Elevators. Elevator loads shall be increased by 100
percent Ior impact and the structural supports shall be designed
within the limits oI deIlection prescribed by ASME A17.1.
The static load of an elevator must be increased to ac-
count for the effect of elevator motion. For example,
when an elevator comes to a stop, the load on the ele-
vator supports is significantly higher than the weight of
the elevator and the occupants. This effect increases
with the acceleration and deceleration rate of the ele-
vator. Also see Chapter 30 for additional requirements
for elevators.
1607.8.2 Machinery. For the purpose oI design, the weight oI
machinery and moving loads shall be increased as Iollows to
allowIor impact: (1) elevator machinery, 100 percent; (2) light
machinery, shaIt- or motor-driven, 20 percent; (3) reciprocat-
ing machinery or power-driven units, 50 percent; (4) hangers
Ior Iloors or balconies, 33 percent. Percentages shall be
increased where speciIied by the manuIacturer.
The specified increases for machinery loads include
the vibration of the equipment, which increases the ef-
fective load. The load increase for reciprocating ma-
chinery versus rotating shaft-driven machinery is to
account for the higher vibration. The increase for floor
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 pound per square foot = 47.88 Pa.
Figure 1607.7.1.2
COMPONENT DESIGN LOAD
or balcony hangers recognizes that these structural
systems are subject to vibration as a result of the way
they are supported.
1607.9 Reduction in live loads. Except Ior rooI uniIorm live
loads, all other minimum uniIormly distributed live loads, L
o
,
in Table 1607.1 are permitted to be reduced in accordance with
Section 1607.9.1 or 1607.9.2.
Small portions of a floor are more likely to be sub-
jected to the full uniform load than larger floor areas.
Unloaded or lightly loaded areas tend to reduce the to-
tal load on the structural members supporting those
floors. The specified uniformly distributed live loads
from Table 1607.1 are permitted to be reduced, with
some notable exceptions or limitations, in recognition
that the larger the tributary area of a structural mem-
ber, the lower the likelihood that the full live load will be
realized. The basis for the live load reduction in Sec-
tions 1607.9.1 through 1607.9.1.4 is ASCE 7. An al-
ternative of live load reduction, retained from legacy
model codes, is provided in Section 1607.9.2.
1607.9.1 General. Subiect to the limitations oI Sections
1607.9.1.1 through 1607.9.1.4, members Ior which a value oI
K
LL
A
T
is 400 square Ieet (37.16 m
2
) or more are permitted to be
designed Ior a reduced live load in accordance with the Iollow-
ing equation:
L L
K A
o
LL T

:
8
9
9
*
(
)
)
025
15
. (Equation16-24)
For SI: L L
K A
o
LL T

:
8
9
9
*
(
)
)
025
4 57
.
.
where:
L Reduced design live load per square Ioot (meter) oI
area supported by the member.
L
o
Unreduced design live load per square Ioot (meter)
oI area supported by the member (see Table 1607.1).
K
LL
Live load element Iactor (see Table 1607.9.1).
A
T
Tributary area, in square Ieet (square meters).
L shall not be less than 0.50L
o
Ior members supporting one
Iloor and L shall not be less than 0.40L
o
Ior members support-
ing two or more Iloors.
This section provides a method of reducing uniform
floor live loads that is based on the provisions of
ASCE 7. The concept is that where the design live
load is governed by the minimum live loads in Table
1607.1, the actual load on a large area of the floor is
very likely to be less than the nominal live load in the
table. Thus, the allowable reduction increases with
the tributary area of the floor that is supported by a
structural member; therefore, a girder that supports a
large tributary area would be allowed to be designed
for somewhat less live load per square foot than a
floor beamthat supports a smaller total floor area. The
following example demonstrates live load reduction
method (refer to Figure 1607.9.1):
L
o
= 50 psf
K
LL
= 2 (interior beam)
A
T
= 750 sq. ft.
L psf L
:
8
9
*
(
) 50 25
15
1500
32 5
0
. .
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 square foot = 0.0929 m
2
, 1 pound = 4.448 N.
Figure 1607.7.3
PASSENGER CAR VEHICLE BARRIER REQUIREMENTS
This method of live load reduction is based on the
use of an influence area which is the floor area over
which the influence surface for structural effects is sig-
nificantly more than zero. The live load element factor
(K
LL
) is the ratio of influence area of a member to its
tributary area. This method has been shown through
research to give a more consistent reliability for vari-
ous structural effects.
TABLE 1607.9.1
LIVE LOAD ELEMENT FACTOR,
ELEMENT
Interior columns
Exterior columns without cantilever slabs
4
4
Edge columns with cantilever slabs 3
Corner columns with cantilever slabs
Edge beams without cantilever slabs
Interior beams
2
2
2
All other members not identiIied above including:
Edge beams with cantilever slabs
Cantilever beams
Two-way slabs
Members without provisions Ior continuous shear
transIer normal to their span
1
The purpose of this table is to provide tributary area
adjustment factors, K
LL,
for determining live load re-
ductions in Section 1607.9.1. The factor converts the
tributary area of the structural member to an influ-
ence area. This "in fluence area of a struc tural mem-
ber is considered to be the adjacent floor area from
which it derives any of its load. These adjustments to
the tributary area range from1 through 4 based on the
type of structural element being designed and are
meant to reflect the element's ability to share load with
adjacent elements.
1607.9.1.1 Heavy live loads. Live loads that exceed 100 psI
(4.79 kN/m
2
) shall not be reduced.
Exceptions:
1. The live loads Ior members supporting two or more
Iloors are permitted to be reduced by a maximum oI
20 percent, but the live load shall not be less than L as
calculated in Section 1607.9.1.
2. For uses other than storage, where approved, addi-
tional live load reductions shall be permitted where
shown by the registered design proIessional that a
rational approach has been used and that such reduc-
tions are warranted.
The purpose of this section is to prohibit live load re-
ductions where the live loads exceed 100 psf (4.79
kN/m
2
). Such live loads are typically intended for stor-
age or related purposes. t is more likely that the full
live load will be realized at a given floor level for such
occupancies. Thus, reduced live loads are not al-
lowed for these conditions except as described in this
section.
n Exception 1, the loads on structural members,
such as columns and bearing walls that support two or
more floors, are allowed to be reduced by 20 percent.
Surveys have indicated that it is rare for the total live
load on any story to exceed 80 percent of the tabu-
lated uniform live loads. Conservatively, the full load
should apply to beams and girders, but a member
supporting multiple floors is allowed some live load re-
duction.
Recognizing that there are circumstances under
which live loads exceed 100 psf (4.79 kN/m
2
) in occu-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 square foot = 0.0929 m
2
, 1 pound per square foot = 47.88 Pa
Figure 1607.9.1
LIVE LOAD REDUCTION EXAMPLE
pancies other than storage, Exception 2 allows the
registered design professional to present a "ra tio nal
live load reduction proposal to be applied for mem-
bers with larger tributary areas (e.g. girders, columns,
foundations, etc.). Examples would be mechanical
rooms, electrical rooms, process mezzanines in in-
dustrial buildings, etc. These types of areas may have
very high localized uniformloads under the equipment
footprints, for instance, but the live loads to members
having larger tributary areas are much less, on
average.
1607.9.1.2 Passenger vehicle garages. The live loads shall not
be reduced in passenger vehicle garages except the live loads
Ior members supporting two or more Iloors are permitted to be
reduced by a maximumoI 20 percent, but the live load shall not
be less than L as calculated in Section 1607.9.1.
This section limits the live load reduction for passen-
ger vehicle garages to only those members that sup-
port more than two floors. Thus, floor framing mem-
bers that support only a part of one floor do not
warrant a reduction to the live load of 40 psf (1.92
kN/m
2
) that is specified in Table 1607.1. The rationale
for allowing some live load reduction for members
supporting multiple floors is similar to that given under
Section 1607.9.1.1, Exception 1.
1607.9.1.3 Special occupancies. Live loads oI 100 psI (4.79
kN/m
2
) or less shall not be reduced in public assembly occu-
pancies.
Due to the nature of public assembly occupancies, it is
very likely that those areas will be fully occupied at
times and, subsequently, there is a high probability
that the entire floor area will actually be subjected to
the full uniform live load. This section does not allow
the live load to be reduced in a public assembly occu-
pancy where the uniform live load is 100 psf (4.79
kN/m
2
) or less. This restriction is very similar to the
prohibition on live load reductions for Group A occu-
pancies under the alternative live load reduction
method (see Section 1607.9.2, tem 1).
1607.9.1.4 Special structural elements. Live loads shall not
be reduced Ior one-way slabs except as permitted in Section
1607.9.1.1. Live loads oI 100 psI (4.79 kN/m
2
) or less shall not
be reduced Ior rooI members except as speciIied in Section
1607.11.2.
One-way slabs are restricted fromlive load reductions
based on the belief that this construction lacks redun-
dancy. The live load reductions can be applied only
where the slab supports more than one floor. The ex-
planation for allowing some live load reduction for
members supporting multiple floors is similar to that
given under Section 1607.9.1.1, Exception 1. Roof
load reductions are allowed based on the provisions
of Section 1607.11.2.
1607.9.2 Alternate floor live load reduction. As an alterna-
tive to Section 1607.9.1, Iloor live loads are permitted to be
reduced in accordance with the Iollowing provisions. Such
reductions shall apply to slab systems, beams, girders, col-
umns, piers, walls and Ioundations.
1. A reduction shall not be permitted in Group A occupan-
cies.
2. A reduction shall not be permitted where the live load
exceeds 100 psI (4.79 kN/m
2
) except that the design live
load Ior members supporting two or more Iloors is per-
mitted to be reduced by 20 percent.
3. A reduction shall not be permitted in passenger vehicle
parking garages except that the live loads Ior members
supporting two or more Iloors are permitted to be
reduced by a maximum oI 20 percent.
4. For live loads not exceeding 100 psI (4.79 kN/m
2
), the
design live load Ior any structural member supporting
150 square Ieet (13.94 m
2
) or more is permitted to be
reduced in accordance with the Iollowing equation:
R0.08 (A-150) (Equation16-25)
For SI: R 0.861 (A -13.94)
Such reduction shall not exceed the smallest oI:
1. 40 percent Ior horizontal members;
2. 60 percent Ior vertical members; or
3. R as determined by the Iollowing equation.
R23.1 (1 D/L
o
) (Equation16-26)
where:
A Area oI Iloor supported by the member, square Ieet
(m
2
).
D Dead load per square Ioot (m
2
) oI area supported.
L
o
Unreduced live load per square Ioot (m
2
) oI area
supported.
R Reduction in percent.
This section includes an alternative floor live load re-
duction method that is permitted to be used instead of
the method indicated in Sections 1607.9 through
1607.9.1.4. Reductions are not permitted for Group A
occupancies or when the design live load exceeds
100 psf (except columns) because of the high proba-
bility that these uses will encounter the design live
load over large areas. This method will allow a higher
live load reduction for heavy floor systems than light
floor systems. The live load is of less consequence in
the design of the heavy floor system, where its reduc-
tion is not as significant as it would be in a light floor
system where the live load is the major factor in the
floor design.
Where reductions are permitted, they are allowed at
a rate of 8 percent per square foot of area in excess of
150 square feet (14 m
2
). This value cannot exceed 60
percent for vertical members, such as columns or
bearing walls, or 40 percent for horizontal members
such as beams or girders. Additionally, the reduction
cannot be more than the value determined by Equa-
tion 16-26.
ExampIe of an aIternative fIoor Iive Ioad reduc-
tion:
For beam G1 given in Figure 1607.9.1, determine
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
the reduced floor live load in accordance with Section
1607.9.2.
Solution: A
T
= A = 750 square feet (69 m
2
) > 150
square feet (14 m
2
); therefore, a reduction is permit-
ted.
Equation 16-25
R = (0.08)(750 150) = 48% > 40%
Equation 16-26
R = (23.1) 1
45
50
:
8
9
*
(
)
= 43.7% 40%
Use the maximum 40 percent reduction allowed for
horizontal members.
use L= 50(1-0.4) = 30 psf (144 kN/m
2
)
1607.10 Distribution of floor loads. Where uniIormIloor live
loads are involved in the design oI structural members arranged
so as to create continuity, the minimum applied loads shall be
the Iull dead loads on all spans in combination with the Iloor
live loads on spans selected to produce the greatest eIIect at
each location under consideration. It shall be permitted to
reduce Iloor live loads in accordance with Section 1607.9.
For continuous floor members loaded such that the
live loads of a building are distributed in some bays
and not in others, some of the structural elements will
be subjected to greater stresses because of partial
loading conditions as compared to full loading on all
spans. This code section requires the engineer to
consider partial loadings that produce the greatest de-
sign forces for any location in the design of continuous
floor elements.
For example, Figure 1607.10 shows a continuous
multispan girder with partial loading. The Type load-
ing condition shows that only the alternate spans have
uniform live loads, which produces:
i Maximumpositive moments at the centers of the
loaded spans (A-B, C-D, E-F) and
i Maximum negative moments at the centers of
the unloaded spans (B-C, D-E, F-G).
The Type live load distribution shows two loaded
adjacent spans with alternate spans loaded beyond
these, which produces:
i Maximum negative moment at Support D and
i Maximum girder shears.
To obtain the maximum total stresses imposed on
the girder, the dead load moments and shears must
be added to those produced by the partial live
loadings.
1607.11 Roof loads. The structural supports oI rooIs and
marquees shall be designed to resist wind loads, in addition to
the dead load oI construction and the appropriate live loads as
prescribed in this section, or as set Iorth in Table 1607.1. The
live loads acting on a sloping surIace shall be assumed to act
vertically on the horizontal proiection oI that surIace.
n addition to dead and live loads (typically during con-
struction), the roof's structural system is to be de-
signed and constructed to resist loads by wind. Roof
live loads, as defined in Section 1602.1, are typically
considered to be an allowance for maintenance of
equipment and the roof system itself. Other live loads
must be considered as appropriate, such as special
purpose roofs (see Sec tion 1607.11.2.2) or wherever
an occupancy-related live load would be applicable.
1607.11.1 Distributionof roof loads. Where uniIormrooI live
loads are reduced to less than 20 psI (0.96 kN/m
2
) in accor-
dance with Section 1607.11.2.1 and are involved in the design
oI structural members arranged so as to create continuity, the
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1607.10
PARTIAL LOADING
minimumapplied loads shall be the Iull dead loads on all spans
in combination with the rooI live loads on adiacent spans or on
alternate spans, whichever produces the greatest eIIect. See
Section 1607.11.2 Ior minimum rooI live loads.
For continuous roof construction, where live loads are
reduced to less tha 20 psf (0.96 kN/m
2
) as permitted in
Section 1607.11.2.1, partial loadings must be in-
cluded in the design of structural elements to deter-
mine the governing loading situation. For example,
Figure 1607.10 shows a continuous multispan girder
with partial loading. The Type loading condition
shows that only the alternate spans have uniform live
loads, which produces:
i Maximumpositive moments at the centers of the
loaded spans (A-B, C-D, E-F) and
i Maximum negative moments at the centers of
the unloaded spans (B-C, D-E, F-G).
The Type live load distribution shows two loaded
adjacent spans with alternate spans loaded beyond
these, which produces:
i Maximum negative moment at Support D and
i Maximum girder shears.
To obtain the maximum total stresses imposed on
the girder, the dead load moments and shears must
be added to those produced by the partial live
loadings.
1607.11.2Reductioninroof live loads. The minimumuniIormly
distributed rooI live loads, L
o
, in Table 1607.1 are permitted to be
reduced according to the Iollowing provisions.
The minimumroof live loads typically reflect loads that
occur during roof maintenance, construction or repair.
n addition to the standard roof live load of 20 psf (0.96
kN/m
2
), Table 1607.1 includes roof live loads for spe-
cial purpose roofs and fabric awnings. While this sec-
tion seems to refer to reducing any of the tabulated
uniformly distributed live loads, the actual reduction
method provided in Section 1607.11.2.1 is limited to
the 20 psf (0.96 kN/m
2
) live load. This is made evident
by the limits on Equation 16-27 of 12 } L
r
} 20.
1607.11.2.1 Flat. pitched and curved roofs. Ordinary Ilat,
pitched and curved rooIs are permitted to be designed Ior a
reduced rooI live load as speciIied in the Iollowing equation or
other controlling combinations oI loads in Section 1605,
whichever produces the greater load. In structures where spe-
cial scaIIolding is used as a work surIace Ior workers and mate-
rials during maintenance and repair operations, a lower rooI
load than speciIied in the Iollowing equation shall not be used
unless approved by the building oIIicial. Greenhouses shall be
designed Ior a minimumrooI live load oI 12 psI (0.58 kN/m
2
).
L
r
L
o
R
1
R
2
(Equation16-27)
where: 12 } L
r
} 20
For SI: L
r
L
o
R
1
R
2
where: 0.58 } L
r
} 0.96
L
r
Reduced live load per square Ioot (m
2
) oI horizontal
proiection in pounds per square Ioot (kN/m
2
).
The reduction Iactors R
1
and R
2
shall be determined as Iol-
lows:
R
1
1 Ior A
t
} 200 square Ieet
(18.58 m
2
) (Equation16-28)
R
1
1.2 0.001A
t
Ior 200 square
Ieet A
t
600 square Ieet (Equation16-29)
For SI: 1.2 0.011A
t
Ior 18.58 square meters A
t
55.74
square meters
R
1
0.6 Ior A
t
600 square Ieet
(55.74 m
2
) (Equation16-30)
where:
A
t
Tributary area (span length multiplied by eIIective
width) in square Ieet (m
2
) supported by any structural
member, and
R
2
1 Ior F}4 (Equation16-31)
R
2
1.2 0.05FIor 4 F12 (Equation16-32)
R
2
0.6 Ior Fm12 (Equation16-33)
where:
F For a sloped rooI, the number oI inches oI rise per Ioot
(Ior SI: F 0.12 l slope, with slope expressed as a per-
centage), or Ior an arch or dome, the rise-to-span ratio
multiplied by 32.
This section provides a formula for the determination
of the live load for design of flat, pitched or curved
roofs. The live load from Table 1607.1 that applies is
20 psf (0.96 kN/m
2
). Reduced roof live loads are
based on the roof slope and the tributary area of the
member being considered. The portion of the live load
reduction based on tributary area does not apply to
roof members that support small tributary areas of
less than 200 square feet (18.58 m
2
). The load can be
reduced as the tributary area increases but never to
less than 12 psf (0.58 kN/m
2
). For roof slopes between
4:12 and 12:12 live load reductions based on slope
apply. Figure 1607.11.2.1 shows the roof live load, L
r
,
determined by Equation 16-27 for increments of roof
slope. Since the relationship of variables is linear, in-
termediate values can be interpolated fromthe figure.
This section also provides for a lower roof live load
for a greenhouse, since it is not likely that loads from
maintenance or repair will exceed the specified 12 psf
(0.58 kN/m
2
).
1607.11.2.2 Special-purpose roofs. RooIs used Ior prome-
nade purposes, rooI gardens. assembly purposes or other spe-
cial purposes shall be designed Ior a minimum live load as
required in Table 1607.1. Such rooI live loads are permitted to
be reduced in accordance with 1607.9.
Roofs that are to be occupied during social events in-
cidental to the principal use of the facility are to be de-
signed for a minimum uniform live load of 60 psf (2.87
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
kN/m
2
). The promenade deck of a residential pent-
house located on the main roof of an apartment build-
ing is an example of this type of use. Where roofs are
designed to be used as roof gardens or to support
large gatherings of people as a function accompany-
ing the educational or assembly uses of a facility, the
roofs are required to be designed to a minimum live
load of 100 psf (4.79 kN/m
2
). The minimum live loads
specified in Table 1607.1 are not required to be added
to the design load requirements for special-purpose
roofs specified in this section.
1607.11.2.3 Landscaped roofs. Where rooIs are to be land-
scaped, the uniIorm design live load in the landscaped area
shall be 20 psI (0.958 kN/m
2
). The weight oI the landscaping
materials shall be considered as dead load and shall be com-
puted on the basis oI saturation oI the soil.
Those areas of a special-purpose roof that are to be
landscaped are required to be designed for a mini-
mum uniform live load of 20 psf (0.96 kN/m
2
) to ac-
commodate the occasional loads associated with the
maintenance of plantings. The weight of landscaping
materials is to be considered as dead loads in the de-
sign of the roof structure, which is to be combined with
the live load (see Section 1605 for load combinations
to be included).
1607.11.2.4 Awnings and canopies. Awnings and canopies
shall be designed Ior uniIorm live loads as required in Table
1607.1 as well as Ior wind loads as speciIied in Section 1609.
Awning and canopy structures covered with fabric
materials are to be designed to sustain a live load of 5
psf (0.240 kN/m
2
) as well as the specified wind loads
of Section 1609. The live load and wind load are to be
combined according to Section 1605. See Section
3105 for additional design load requirements for awn-
ings and canopies.
1607.12 Crane loads. The crane live load shall be the rated
capacity oI the crane. Design loads Ior the runway beams,
including connections and support brackets, oI moving bridge
cranes and monorail cranes shall include the maximum wheel
loads oI the crane and the vertical impact, lateral and longitudi-
nal Iorces induced by the moving crane.
This section provides a general description of the
crane loads that are required to be included in the de-
sign. The supporting structure for the crane is to be
designed for a combination of the maximum wheel
load, vertical impact and horizontal load as a simulta-
neous load combination. The typical arrangement for
a top-running bridge crane is shown in Figure
1607.12.
1607.12.1 Maximum wheel load. The maximum wheel loads
shall be the wheel loads produced by the weight oI the bridge,
as applicable, plus the sumoI the rated capacity and the weight
oI the trolley with the trolley positioned on its runway at the
location where the resulting load eIIect is maximum.
The maximum vertical wheel load occurs when the
trolley is moved as close as possible to the supporting
beams under consideration. This results in the great-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 pound per square foot = 47.88 Pa, 1 square foot = 0.0929 m
2
.
Figure 1607.11.2.1
ROOF LIVE LOAD FROM EQUATION 16-27
est portion of the crane weight, the design weight lifted
load and the wheel vertical impact load on the sup-
porting beams.
1607.12.2 Vertical impact force. The maximum wheel loads
oI the crane shall be increased by the percentages shown below
to determine the induced vertical impact or vibration Iorce:
Monorail cranes (powered) 25 percent
Cab-operated or remotely operated
bridge cranes (powered) 25 percent
Pendant-operated bridge cranes (powered) 10 percent
Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with
hand-geared bridge, trolleyand hoist 0 percent
Avertical impact force is necessary to account for the
impact from the starting and stopping movement of
the suspended weight from the crane. Vertical impact
is also created by the movement of the crane along
the rails.
1607.12.3 Lateral force. The lateral Iorce on crane runway
beams with electrically powered trolleys shall be calculated as
20 percent oI the sumoI the rated capacity oI the crane and the
weight oI the hoist and trolley. The lateral Iorce shall be
assumed to act horizontally at the traction surIace oI a runway
beam, in either direction perpendicular to the beam, and shall
be distributed according to the lateral stiIIness oI the runway
beam and supporting structure.
This section is necessary to define the design lateral
force on the crane supports. Lateral force at the right
angle to the crane rail is caused by the lateral move-
ment of the lifted load and from the frame action of the
crane.
1607.12.4 Longitudinal force. The longitudinal Iorce on
crane runway beams, except Ior bridge cranes with
hand-geared bridges, shall be calculated as 10 percent oI the
maximum wheel loads oI the crane. The longitudinal Iorce
shall be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surIace oI a
runway beam, in either direction parallel to the beam.
This section is needed to define the longitudinal force
on the crane supports, which is caused fromthe longi-
tudinal motion of the crane with the lifted load.
1607.13 Interior walls and partitions. Interior walls and par-
titions that exceed 6 Ieet (1829 mm) in height, including their
Iinish materials, shall have adequate strength to resist the loads
to which they are subiected but not less than a horizontal load
oI 5 psI (0.240 kN/m
2
).
Exception: Fabric partitions complying with Section
1607.13.1 shall not be required to resist the minimum hori-
zontal load oI 5 psI (0.24 kN/m
2
).
The 5 psf minimum lateral load on interior walls and
partitions that exceed 6 feet in height is required to
provide minimum provisions for the stability of such
walls against occupancy loads, such as humans and
impact from furniture or equipment, as well as resis-
tance to pressures from the HVAC system and pres-
sures that may develop during a fire.
1607.13.1 Fabric partitions. Fabric partitions that exceed 6
Ieet (1829 mm) in height, including their Iinish materials, shall
have adequate strength to resist the Iollowing load conditions:
1. A horizontal distributed load oI 5 psI (0.24 kN/m
2
)
applied to the partition Iraming. The total area used to
determine the distributed load shall be the area oI the Iab-
ric Iace between the Iraming members to which the Iab-
ric is attached. The total distributed load shall be
uniIormly applied to such Iraming members in propor-
tion to the length oI each member.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1607.12
TOP-RUNNING BRIDGE CRANE
2. A concentrated load oI 40 pounds (0.176 kN) applied to
an 8-inch diameter (203 mm) area |50.3 square inches
(32 452 mm
2
)| oI the Iabric Iace at a height oI 54 inches
(1372 mm) above the Iloor.
This section provides criteria for fabric partitions (see
definition in Section 1602.1) as an alternative to Sec-
tion 1607.13. The construction of these partitions is
unique, which makes it difficult to meet the full require-
ments of Section 1607.13. Condition 1 requires the
partition framing to be capable of resisting a minimum
lateral load. Condition 2 approximates the load of a
person leaning against the fabric using their hand as
the point of contact. This criterion is based on test
standards that are used to evaluate the tip-over resis-
tance of office furniture panel systems that are often
used to provide open plan offices.
SECTION 1608
SNOW LOADS
RESERVED
SECTION 1609
WIND LOADS
Figure 1609.
Figure 1609 is a duplication of Figure 6-1 of ASCE 7
and provides basic wind speeds based on 3-second
gusts at 33 feet (10,058 mm) above ground for Expo-
sure Category C (see Section 1609.4). These
mapped wind speeds are the minimum design wind
speeds used to design buildings and structures for
wind loads. Linear interpretation of the wind speeds is
permitted. The contours delineate a specific point or
threshold at which the wind speed changes. For ex-
ample, a building located halfway between the 120
mph and 130 mph contour would be designed for a
wind speed of 125 mph, or conservatively 130 mph
(NOT 120 mph). The contours do not represent zones
of wind speeds. The area between the 120 mph and
130 mph contour, for instance, is not the 120 mph
zone. The area between the 120 mph and 130 mph
contour, is greater than 120 mph and should be in-
creased linearly up to the 130 mph. Some jurisdictions
may choose, for simplicity, to use a single wind speed.
n this case, they would be required to use 130 mph.
The reference to the 50-year mean recurrence inter-
val (MR), used in previous maps, has been removed,
reflecting the fact that the MR is greater than 50 years
along the hurricane coastline. Nonhurricane wind
speeds are still based on a 50-year MR.
Earlier maps (earlier editions of ASCE 7 and the
model codes preceding the code) incorporated fast-
est-mile wind speed maps. Fastest mile is de fined as
the average speed of one mile of air that passes a
specific reference point. t is important to recognize
the differences in averaging times between fast-
est-mile and the new 3-second gust maps. The aver-
aging time for a 90-mph fastest-mile wind speed is (t =
3,600/V) = 40 seconds. Obviously, due to greater av-
eraging time, for a given location, the fastest-mile
wind speed will be less than the 3-second-gust wind
speed. The fact that the wind speed values are higher
does not necessarily indicate higher wind loads.
Buildings and structures resist wind loads, not wind
speeds. Wind speed, although a significant contribu-
tor, is only one of several variables and factors that af-
fect wind forces. Wind loads are also affected by at-
mospheric and aerodynamic effects. Other elements
that affect actual wind forces as wind flows across a
bluff body include shape factors (C
p
), gust effect fac-
tors (G) and the velocity pressure that is a function of
wind speed, exposure and topography, among others.
The change fromthe fastest-mile wind speed map to
a 3-second-gust map was necessary for the following
reasons. First, weather stations across the United
States no longer collect fastest-mile wind speed data.
Additionally, the perception of the general public will
be more favorable where the code wind speeds are
higher, although the design wind pressures were not
changed significantly. The map includes a more com-
plete analysis of hurricane wind speeds than previous
maps, since more data was available for sites away
from the coast. The design wind speeds do not in-
clude the effects of tornadoes. The probability of a tor-
nadic event at any particular location is so lowthat tor-
nadoes do not appear in the 50-year statistical storm
data used to formulate the inland portion of the map.
See the commentary to Section 6.5.4 in ASCE 7 for
more information.
1609.1 Applications. Buildings, structures and parts thereoI
shall be designed to withstand the minimum wind loads pre-
scribed herein. Decreases in wind loads shall not be made Ior
the eIIect oI shielding by other structures.
All exterior wall coverings and soIIits shall be capable oI
resisting the design pressures speciIied Ior walls Ior compo-
nents and cladding loads in accordance with Section 1609.1.1.
The intent of this section is to provide minimumcriteria
for the design and construction of buildings and other
structures to resist wind loads. These regulations
serve to reduce the potential for damage to property
caused by windstorms and to provide an acceptable
level of protection to building occupants. The objec-
tive also includes the prevention of damage to adja-
cent properties because of the possible detachment
of major building components (e.g., walls, roofs, etc.),
structural collapse or flying debris and for the safety of
people in the immediate vicinity.
The requirements for wind design given in this sec-
tion of the code generally reflect the wind load provi-
sions of ASCE 7. For a better understanding of the
wind load provisions of this section, it is important to
have a fundamental knowledge of the effects of
high-velocity wind forces on buildings and other struc-
tures. Wind/structure interactions can be character-
ized as follows:
When wind encounters a stationary object such as a
building, the airflow changes direction and produces
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
several effects on the building. Exterior walls and
other vertical surfaces facing the wind (windward
side) and perpendicular to its path are subjected to in-
ward (positive) pressures; however, wind does not
stop on contact with a facing surface, but flows around
and over the building. Since wind cannot negotiate
sharp corners, such as corners of walls or eaves, or
over ridges and roof corners, the airflow separates
from the downwind surfaces due to high turbulence
and localized pressures, which results in outward
(negative) pressures. This phenomena produces suc-
tion or outward pressures (negative) on the sidewalls,
leeward wall and, depending on geometry, the roof.
The basic external wind-flow effects are illustrated in
Figure 1609.1.
Figure 1609.1 shows a flat roof and the resulting
negative pressures caused by external wind. Pres-
sures may differ on sloping roofs in the direction per-
pendicular to the ridge. Roof surfaces (on the wind-
ward side) with shallow slopes are generally
subjected to outward (negative) pres suressimilar to
flat roofs. Moderately sloping roofs [up to about 28 de-
grees (0.4887 rad)] are also subjected to an overall
negative pressures. High-sloping roofs (windward
side) respond similar to walls and sustain positive
wind pressures. Sloped roof sections on the leeward
side are subjected to negative pressures, regardless
of the degree of slope. For sloped roofs where the
wind direction is parallel to the ridge, the wind pres-
sures act similarly to a flat roof where the roof is sub-
ject to outward (negative) pressures. This scenario
describes the overall effect of wind pressures on
what's called the Main Windforce-Resisting System
(MWFRS) (See Section 1609.2). Localized negative
pressures will almost always control the design of roof
component and cladding elements such as the roof
covering and roof sheathing.
Significant and widespread damage occurred to sof-
fits and wall coverings as a result of the hurricanes of
2004. As a result, the code was revised to provide
specific criteria for the determination of wind loads on
wall coverings and soffits. This modification was pri-
marily a clarification of what is intended, though often
not applied. There has previously been considerable
confusion regarding the correct determination of wind
loads on soffits. The 2004 Florida Building Code,
Building and ASCE 7 do not specifically provide de-
sign criteria for soffits, other than that all parts of the
buildings must be designed to withstand the minimum
wind loads prescribed by the code. nterpretations by
the wind engineering community in addition to recent
research support the use of wall coefficients for de-
signing soffits. This language clarifies that wall cover-
ings and soffits must be designed for components and
cladding loads using pressure coefficients specified in
ASCE 7 for walls.
1609.1.1 Determination of wind loads. Wind loads on every
building or structure shall be determined in accordance with
Chapter 6 oI ASCE7. Wind shall be assumed to come Iromany
horizontal direction and wind pressures shall be assumed to act
normal to the surIace considered.
Note: ClariIication to ASCE 7. Arrows shown on Figure
6-10 oI ASCE7 indicate that the pressure coeIIicients apply
speciIically to Direction oI MWFRS being designed.
This means that the longitudinal pressure coeIIicients are
not applicable to trusses that span in the transverse direction
and, thereIore, upliIt reactions Ior trusses that span in the
transverse direction would be determined by the pressure
coeIIicients associated with those shown Ior the transverse
direction.
Exceptions:
1. Wind tunnel tests together with applicable section 6.4
oI ASCE 7.
2. Subiect to the limitations oI Sections 1609.1.1.1,
1609.1.2, and 1609.3, the provisions oI IBHS Guide-
line for Hurricane Resistant Residential Construction
shall be permitted Ior applicable Group R-2 and R-3
buildings Ior a basic wind speed oI 140 mph (63 m/s)
or less in Exposure Bin accordance with Figure 1609
and Section 1609.4. Provisions Ior design wind
speeds oI 140 mph (63 m/s) in the Guideline shall also
be permitted Ior buildings Ior a basic wind speed oI
120 mph (54 m/s) or less in Exposure Cin accordance
with Figure 1609 and Section 1609.4 and provisions
Ior design wind speeds oI 120 mph (54 m/s) in the
Guideline shall be permitted Ior buildings Ior a basic
wind speed oI 100 mph (45 m/s) or less in Exposure C
in accordance with Figure 1609 and Section 1609.4.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1609.1
WIND PRESSURES CAUSED BY
EXTERNAL WIND FLOW
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
FIGURE 1609
STATE OF FLORIDA DEBRIS REGION & BASIC WIND SPEED
1609.1.2, and 1609.3, provisions oI ANSI/AF&PA
WFCM, Wood Frame Construction Manual for One-
and Two-Familv Dwellings shall be permitted Ior
applicable wood Irame buildings oI Group R-3 occu-
pancy Ior a basic wind speed oI 150 mph or less in
accordance with Figure 1609 and Section 1609.4.
4. Designs using NAAMM FP-1001 Specification for
Design Loads of Metal Flagpoles.
1609.1.2, and 1609.3, the provisions oI the FC&PA
Guide to Concrete Masonry Residential Construction
in High Wind Areas shall be permitted Ior applicable
concrete masonry buildings oI Group R-3 occupancy
Ior a basic wind speed oI 130 mph (58 m/s) or less in
Exposure Band 110 mph (49 m/s) or less in Exposure
C in accordance with Figure 1609 and Section
1609.4.
6. ANSI/TIA/EIA 222 shall be permitted Ior communi-
cation tower and steel antenna support structures.
1609.1.2, and 1609.3, the provisions oI the WPPC
Guide to Wood Construction in High Wind Areas
shall be permitted Ior applicable wood-Irame build-
ings oI Group R-3 occupancy Ior a basic wind speed
oI 130 mph (58 m/s) or less in Exposure B and 110
mph (49 m/s) or less in Exposure C in accordance
with Figure 1609 and Section 1609.4.
8. Designs using AASHTOLTS-4 Structural SpeciIica-
tions Ior Highway Signs, Luminaires, and TraIIic
Signals.
9. Wind loads Ior screened enclosures shall be deter-
mined in accordance with Section 2002.4.
The intent of Section 1609 is to require that buildings
and structures be designed and constructed to resist
the wind loads described in Section 6 of ASCE 7. n
Section 6 of ASCE 7, there are three methods for de-
termining wind loads on a building:
Method 1 is the simplified procedure and is only ap-
plicable to simple diaphragmbuildings that are also
defined as "low-rise" buildings.
Method 2 in ASCE 7 is the analytical procedure.
Technically, there are two analytical procedures:
rigid buildings of all heights and low-rise buildings
[with mean roof heights less than or equal to 60 feet
(18,288 mm)]. The simplified procedure in Method
1 of ASCE 7 is based on the low-rise buildings
method.
Method 3 is the wind tunnel procedure.
Section 1609.1.1 provides nine exceptions to using
the provisions of ASCE 7 for the determination of wind
loads.
Exception 1 permits the use of a wind tunnel test
with the applicable sections of ASCE 7. Awind tunnel
test should be used for site locations where channel-
ing effects from upwind structures may occur, build-
ings with unusual shapes or geometries, and build-
ings with unusual response characteristics that result
in acrosswind loading, vortex shedding, or other insta-
bilities such as galloping or flutter. While this excep-
tion references Section 6.4 of ASCE7, the wind tunnel
procedure is actually covered in Section 6.6 of ASCE
7-05.
Exception 2 permits the use of the IBHS Guidelines
for Hurricane Resistant Residential Construction for
Group R-2 and R-3 buildngs where they are located
within Exposure B as defined in Section 1609.4 and
not sited on the upper half of an isolated hill, escarp-
ment or ridge with the characteristics described in
Section 1609.1.1.1. The BHS Guidelines do permit
the use of the provisions in Exposure C with the wind
speed reductions as specified in Exception 2. The
BHS Guidelines are essentially an update of SBCC
SSTD 10-99. n the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina,
the nstitute for Business and Home Safety, in collabo-
ration with other industry groups, took the lead in up-
dating SSTD 10 so that the document could be more
easily used in those areas affected by Hurricane Ka-
trina. Since SSTD 10 was widely used in many areas
along the U.S. coast, it was adopted into the 2006
Supplement to the 2004 FBCB as a needed updated
to SSTD 10 which was based on the fastest-mile wind
speeds and wind loads determined in accordance
with the Standard Building Code. The BHS Guide-
lines contain prescriptive construction requirements
and required load capacity tables that replace the re-
quirement for structural analysis, which is intended to
provide improved design construction details to
achieve greater structural performance for single- and
multiple-family dwellings in a high-wind event. The
BHS Guidelines apply to one- and two-story residen-
tial buildings of conventional woodframe, masonry
and concrete wall construction. The Guideline is
based on the 3-second gust wind speeds so wind
speed conversions are not necessary. See the BHS
Guidelines for other detailed application limitations.
Exception 3 permits the use of the AF&PA Wood
Frame Construction Manual for One- and Two-Family
Dwellings where the building is sited within Exposure
B or Cas defined in Section 1609.4 and not on the up-
per half of an isolated hill, escarpment or ridge with
the characteristics described in Section 1609.1.1.1.
The AF&PA Wood Frame Construction Manual con-
tains prescriptive construction requirements and re-
quired load-resistance tables that replace the require-
ment for structural analysis. The tabulated engineered
and prescriptive design provisions apply to one- and
two-family wood-frame dwellings.
Exception 4 permits the use of the NAAMMstandard
for the design of metal flagpoles.
Exception 5 permits the use of the FC&PA Guide to
Concrete Masonry Construction in High Wind Areas
for concrete masonry Group R-3 buildings. This stan-
dard is based on the fastest-mile basic wind speeds.
Use of this standard will require that the wind speeds
in Figure 1609 be converted to fastest-mile wind
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
speeds in accordance with Table 1609.3.1. This pre-
scriptive document is similar in scope to the BHS
Guidelines and its use is also limited by wind speed,
exposure category, and topographic features consis-
tent with the limitations on the use of the BHS Guide-
lines.
Exception 6 permits the use of the ANSI/TIA/EIA
222 standard for communication towers and antenna
support structures. A Glitch Amendment deletes the
language requiring those structures to also meet the
wind loads of ASCE 7. The intent is that communica-
tion towers and antenna support structures meet only
ANS/TA/EA 222 for wind loads.
Exception 7 permits the use of the WPPC Guide to
Wood Construction in High Wind Areas for
wood-framed Group R-3 occupancies. This standard
is also based on the fastest-mile basic wind speeds.
Use of this standard will require that the wind speeds
in Figure 1609 be converted to fastest-mile wind
speeds in accordance with Table 1609.3.1. This pre-
scriptive document is similar in scope to the BHS
Guidelines and its use is also limited by wind speed,
exposure category, and topographic features consis-
tent with the limitations on the use of the BHS Guide-
lines.
Exception 8 permits the use of the AASHTO LTS-4
standard for wind loads on highway signs, luminaries,
and traffic signals.
Exception 9 requires wind loads on screen enclo-
sures to be determined in accordance with Section
2002.4. Section 2002.4 contains a wind load design
methodology that is specific to screen enclosures.
See the commentary to Section 2002.4.
1609.1.1.1 Applicability. The provisions oI IBHS Guideline
for Hurricane Resistant Residential Construction, the AF&PA
Wood Frame Construction Manual for One- and Two-Familv
Dwellings. High Wind Areas, the FC&PA Guide to Concrete
Masonrv Residential Construction in High Wind Areas and the
WPPC Guide to Wood Construction in High Wind Areas are
applicable only to buildings located within Exposure Bor C as
deIined in Section 1609.4. The provisions oI IBHS Guideline
for Hurricane Resistant Residential Construction, the AF&PA
Wood Frame Construction Manual for One- and Two-Familv
Dwellings. High Wind Areas. the FC&PA Guide to Concrete
Masonrv Residential Construction in High Wind Areas and the
WPPC Guide to Wood Construction in High Wind Areas shall
not apply to buildings sited on the upper halI oI an isolated hill,
ridge or escarpment meeting the Iollowing conditions:
1. The hill, ridge or escarpment is 60 Ieet (18 288 mm) or
higher iI located in Exposure B or 30 Ieet (9144 mm) or
higher iI located in Exposure C;
2. The maximum average slope oI the hill exceeds 10 per-
cent; and
3. The hill, ridge or escarpment is unobstructed upwind by
other such topographic Ieatures Ior a distance Irom the
high point oI 50 times the height oI the hill or 1 mile (1.61
km), whichever is greater.
This section places limitations on the use of the IBHS
Guidelines, the AF&PA Wood Frame Construction
Manual, the FC&PA Guide to Concrete Masonry Con-
struction in High Wind Areas, and the WPPC Guide to
Wood Construction in High Wind Areas. These stan-
dards do not take into account the wind speed up
effects of isolated hills, ridges or escarpments as is
required in ASCE 7. Additionally, these standards are
limited to buildings sited in Exposures B or C as appli-
cable. As illustrated in Figure 1609.1.1.1, the wind
speed increases when a mass of air passes over those
types of terrain features. This phenomenon is referred
to as the "wind speed-up" effect and requires the cal-
culation of the K
zt
factor in ASCE 7.
1609.1.2 Protection of openings. Glazed openings in build-
ings located in wind-borne debris regions shall be protected
Irom wind-borne debris. Glazed opening protection Ior
wind-borne debris shall meet the requirements SSTD 12,
ASTM E 1886 and ASTM E 1996, ANSI/DASMA 115 (Ior
garage doors and rolling doors) or TAS 201, 202 and 203 or
AAMA 506 reIerenced therein.:
1. Glazed openings located within 30 Ieet (9144 mm) oI
grade shall meet the requirements oI the Large Missile
Test.
2. Glazed openings located more than 30 Ieet (9144 mm)
above grade shall meet the provisions oI the Small Mis-
sile Test.
3. Storage sheds that are not designed Ior human habitation
and that have a Iloor area oI 720 square Ieet (67 m
2
) or
less are not required to comply with the mandatory wind-
borne debris impact standards oI this code.
4. Openings in sunrooms, balconies or enclosed porches
constructed under existing rooIs or decks are not
required to be protected provided the spaces are sepa-
rated Iromthe building interior bya wall and all openings
in the separating wall are protected in accordance with
Section 1609.1.2. Such spaces shall be permitted to be
designed as either partially enclosed or enclosed struc-
tures.
Exceptions:
1. Wood structural panels with a minimumthickness
oI
7
/
16
inch (11.1 mm) and a maximum span oI 8
Ieet (2438 mm) shall be permitted Ior opening pro-
tection in one- and two-story buildings. Panels
shall be precut so that they shall be attached to the
Iraming surrounding the opening containing the
product with the glazed openings. Panels shall be
predrilled as required Ior the anchorage method
and all required hardware shall be provided.
Attachment shall be designed to resist the compo-
nents and cladding loads determined in accor-
dance with the provisions oI ASCE 7, with
permanent corrosion-resistant attachment hard-
ware provided and anchors permanently installed
on the building. Attachment in accordance with
Table 1609.1.2, with permanent corrosion resis-
tant attachment hardware provided and anchors
permanently installed on the building is permitted
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Ior buildings with a mean rooI height oI 45 Ieet
(13 716 mm) or less where wind speeds do not
exceed 140 mph (63 m/s)
2. Glazing in Occupancy Category I buildings as
deIined in Section 1604.5, including greenhouses
that are occupied Ior growing plants on a produc-
tion or research basis, without public access shall
be permitted to be unprotected.
3. Glazing in Occupancy Category II, III or IVbuild-
ings located over 60 Ieet (18 288 mm) above the
ground and over 30 Ieet (9144 mm) above aggre-
gate surIace rooIs located within 1,500 Ieet (458
m) oI the building shall be permitted to be unpro-
tected.
The purpose of this section is to address risks associ-
ated with wind-borne debris in high-wind areas. See
the definitions of Wind-borne debris region and "Hur -
ricane-prone regions in Sec tion 1609.2 for an expla-
nation of where these provisions apply. Note that this
section now requires that glazing be protected from
wind-borne debris in designated wind-borne debris
regions. The 2004 FBCB permitted glazing to be as-
sumed as openings as an alternative to wind-borne
debris protection. This option of designing the build-
ing as partially enclosed in the wind-borne debris re-
gion is no longer allowed in the 2007 FBCB (revision
in the 2007 Supplement to the 2004 FBCB).
This section requires all glazing in buildings in
wind-borne debris regions to be protected fromimpact
from wind-borne debris or be impact resistant. During
a hurricane, buildings may be impacted by wind-borne
debris due to violent high velocity winds. This debris
can and has impacted glazing, causing breakage and
creating an opening within the building envelope. The
presence of openings in the building envelope can
have a significant effect on the magnitude of the total
wind pressure required to be resisted by each struc-
tural element of a building. Depending on the location
of these openings with respect to wind direction and
the amount of background porosity, external and inter-
nal pressures may act in the same direction to pro-
duce higher forces on some walls and the roof. An ex-
ample of this is shown in Figure 1609.1.2(1). n this
scenario, as the wind flows over the building, pres-
sures are developed on the external surface as
shown. ntroduction of an opening in the windward
wall causes the wind to rush into the building, exerting
internal pressures (positive) against all interior sur-
faces. This type of opening has the net effect of pro-
ducing potentially high internal pressures that will act
in the same direction as the external pressures on the
roof, side and leeward walls. Considering the high
probability of wind-borne debris during a hurricane
and the effect of an unintended opening in the building
envelope, the code requires glazing in designated re-
gions to be protected from wind-borne debris.
Another important distinction fromthe 2004 FBCB is
that the 2007 FBCBrequires all glazing in the building,
regardless of the height above grade to be protected
with an impact resistant covering or be impact resis-
tant (revision in the 2007 Supplement to the 2004
FBCB). The 2004 FBCB only required protection for
glazing in the lower 60 ft. This change recognizes that
glazing higher than 60 ft above grade may be broken
by wind-borne debris when a debris source is present.
However, if no debris source is present, Exception 3
provides some relief to providing wind-borne debris
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1609.1.1.1
WIND SPEED-UP EFFECT
protection. n Occupancy Category , , and Vbuild-
ings, glazing on a building that is located over 60 feet
above grade and over 30 feet above aggregate sur-
face roofs that are within 1500 ft in any direction are
permitted to be unprotected. While the code isn't clear
on protection requirements above 60 ft if an aggregate
surface roof is not within 1500 ft, the commentary to
ASCE 7 does give some direction. The commentary
to ASCE 7 suggests that glazing above 60 ft should
only be protected when a debris source is present,
such as an aggregate roof located within 1500 feet of
the building. However, without a declaratory state-
ment or further defining language in the code, the final
decision would rest with the authority having jurisdic-
tion. Additionally, although not specifically required by
the code, if an aggregate surfaced roof is proposed for
the new building, it too should be considered as a de-
bris source and protection required for glazing in the
building at all heights. Aggregate can be blown off the
roof and be propelled into the glazing on the leeward
side of the building.
Wind-borne debris protection can be provided by in-
stalling impact-resistant glazing or an impact-resistant
covering such as a shutter over the glazing. This sec-
tion specifies two types of missiles depending on the
location of the glazing with respect to height above
grade: the large missile test (2 by 4) to simulate large
debris below 30 feet (9144 mm) above grade and the
small missile test to simulate smaller debris above 30
feet (18,288 mm) above grade, both of which are com-
mon during very high winds. An example of small de-
bris is gravel from the surrounding area that becomes
airborne.
mpact-resistant coverings or glazing must meet the
test requirements of SSTD 12, ASTM E 1886 and
ASTM E 1996, AAMA 506 or Miami-Dade TAS
201,202 and 203. These standards specify simi-
lar-type testing with a large missile test (2 by 4), small
missile test (2 gram balls) and cyclic pressure loading
test. ASTM E 1886 and ASTM E 1996 work together
with the standard test method (E 1886) and the test
specification (E 1996), including scoping, technical re-
quirements and pass/fail criteria. The user should be
aware that the criteria for the large missile vary with
the standards and more than one missile weight is es-
tablished for the large missile test.
t is important to note that the impact protection
specified is required to prevent the building from ex-
periencing high internal pressures. f impact resistant
coverings are used for opening protection, it is not the
intent of the code that the covering prevents the un-
derlying glazing from being broken or cracked. The
covering must simply meet the test criteria for impact
resistance to prevent high internal pressures develop-
ing on the inside of the building. This was clarified by
the Florida Building Commission in Declaratory State-
ment DCA08-DEC-002 and by a Glitch Amendment
(See Glitch Amendments). This Declaratory State-
ment is reprinted below:
Question # 1: s it the intent of Section 1609.1.4
(2004 FBC, ncluding supplements through 2007),
in non-HVHZ areas, to require adequate separa-
tion of storm shutters (impact protective systems
porous and/or non-porous) from the underlying
glazing to prevent glass breakage due to missile
impacts on the stormshutter, regardless of the sep-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1609.1.2(1)
EFFECTS OF OPENINGS IN THE BUILDING ENVELOPE
aration requirements within the referenced ASTM
E1996 standard?
Answer: No. Based on current standards, break-
age is permissible, and it is the intent of the Code to
prevent internal pressurization.
in non-HVHZ areas, to require adequate separa-
tion of storm shutters (impact protective systems
porous and/or non-porous) from the underlying
glazing to prevent glass breakage due to missile
impacts on the storm shutter caused by cyclic wind
pressures, regardless of the separation require-
ments within the referenced ASTM E1996
standard?
Answer: Refer to answer in Question# 1.
(2004 FBC, ncluding supplements through 2007)
that storm shutter contact with glazing be consid-
ered synonymous with glass breakage? That is, in
order to prevent glass breakage, glass contact
must be prevented. Note: This considers both po-
rous and/or non-porous protective systems, and
contact as established through testing of a storm
shutter with the fenestration assembly or contact
as determined analytically by comparing independ-
ent storm shutter test deflections with prescribed
offsets.
a. The FBC referenced standard (ASTM
E1996), in Section 7, provides pass/fail crite-
ria for different consideration. These consid-
erations being-Porous or non-porous; in
Wind Zone 1, 2, 3, or in Wind Zone 4; tested
with or separately from fenestration assem-
bly; and enhanced or non-enhanced protec-
tion. But this standard is a little ambiguous as
to if shutter contact with the glazing consti-
tutes failure. For certain conditions, the stan-
dard describes failure as penetration of the
inner plane of the infill' but not shutter contact
with the infill(glass)
Answer: Refer to answer in Question #1.
in non-HVHZ areas, to allow glass breakage due to
shutter contact with the glass if the shutter seals the
protected opening from wind pressure?
4a. f the answer to question #4 is yes, then
please describe the defining requirement(s)
of seals the protected opening, and indi -
cate if this is equally applicable for both posi-
tive and negative wind pressure?
i. With reference to question #4a, if the
opening covering requirements for
storm shutters of HVHZ Section 2413.7
of the 2004 FBC (ie., side clear ance
and overlap of 1.5 times side clearance)
are satisfied, does this constitute seal-
ing the protected opening from wind
pressure?
ii. With reference to question #4a, are
there any special provisions for fabric
storm shutters that allow them to be
installed closed enough to the protected
glass that glass breakage can occur
frommissile impact with the fabric? The
caveat being that under positive pres-
sure the fabric presses against the bro-
ken glass to prevent internal over
pressurization (note that under negative
pressure the fabric shutter would pull
away from the broken glass and poten-
tially cause a depressurization depend-
ing on how the fabric is attached around
the per im e ter-fab ric attached only at
opposite ends will have large separation
on the unattached side that can easily
exceed the 10 percent opening limita-
tion that defines the shutter as porous).
Answer: Refer to answer to Question #1.
(2004 FBC, ncluding supplements through 2007)
in non-HVHZ areas, that storm shutter separation
from protected glazing be based on the maximum
storm shutter deflection from either positive or neg-
ative wind pressure, or missile impact.
a. Note that in ASTM E1996 (2002, 2005b, and
2006), the defl ecti on as descri bed i n
Section3, Section 5.5, and Section 8.3, is the
maximum deflection in the direction of the
glazing. Obviously missile impact deflection
will be in the direction of the glazing, but wind
pressure deflection could be (and usually is)
greater in the direction away from the glazing
9i.e. negative pressure) this is nor mally due
to the support constraints of the panel.
b. Depending on the answer to question #5
above, a unique situation can occur with
closed weaved (low or no porosity) fabric
storm shutters attached on only two opposite
edge. This type of shutter, under positive wind
pressure (and with an appropriate edge lap
over the fenestration opening), can behave as
a non-porous shutter..need ing only to be off-
set from the glazing enough to prevent glass
breakage (BOAF nformal nterpretation
#5503, and ASTM E 1996-06). Under nega-
tive wind pressure, the fabric panel will bal-
loon out (away fromthe glazing) in a parabolic
shape, potentially separating a significant dis-
tance from the protected glazing. The large
open area on the sides of the fabric panel can
easily exceed 10 percent of panel's pro jected
surface area requiring the shutter to be classi-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
fied as a porous shutter. As a porous shutter,
the panel must meet the more stringent blaz-
ing offset requirements of ASTM E1996-02 or
05b (i.e., maximum deflection + 25 percent).
Therefore the direction of the wind pressure
can have not only an effect on the glazing off-
set, but also on the shutter classification.
Answer: See answer to Question # 1.
Question # 6: Do the answers to any of the pre-
ceding questions change if reference is made to
the 2004 Florida Residential Building Code (includ-
ing supplements through 2007) (re: Sections
R301.2.1.2 and R4410.4.7).
Answer: With regard to section R301.2.1.2, the
answer is same as the answer to question #1 be-
cause the same standards apply; however, with re-
gards to section R4410.4.7, the section is specific
to the HVHZ where specific criteria exist for glass
breakage.
The 2007 FBCB introduces several changes to Ex-
ception 1 and Table 1609.1.2 (revisions in the 2006
Supplement to the 2004 FBCB). Foremost, the code
now requires permanently mounted anchorage hard-
ware when using wood structural panel shutters for
opening protection. The method previously described
by the code was essentially an emergency option for
protection of existing buildings where the building
owner does not have permanent protection in place.
While the code required the panels to be precut and
the attachment hardware provided, there were poten-
tially many logistical problems with building owners
actually installing the panels as required by the code.
t's not clear that the building owners will be suffi-
ciently instructed on (or remember at a later date) how
to attach the panels, in particular using the prescribed
minimum spacing. Additionally, it can be extremely
cumbersome to attempt to nail a sheet of plywood
over a window, particularly on the second story of a
building. Additionally, there were concerns about the
capacity of nailed connections where the nails are in-
stalled in the same hole repeatedly. n recognition of
these concerns, permanently mounted anchorage
hardware is now required for these types of impact
protective systems.
Additionally, the fastener types and required spac-
ings have been upgraded to permit a broader range of
use for wood structural panel shutters. Table 1609.1.2
now provides fastening requirements for wind speeds
up to 140 mph and for mean roof heights of 45 ft and
less. The previous version of the code only permitted
the use of this table for wind speeds of 130 mph and
mean roof heights of 33 ft.
The required capacity of masonry anchors has been
increased from490 lbs to 1500 lbs. Evaluation reports
(CC, NES, and SBCC) for masonry anchors require
a Factor of Safety (FS) of 4.0 if a special inspection is
performed on the anchor installation. Without a spe-
cial inspection, the reports require a FS of 8.0. Based
on the load conditions specified, the 490 lb required
capacity implies a FS of 2.5. Since special inspections
are not typically performed on these anchors, raising
the required capacity of the masonry anchors to 1500
lbs provides a FS more in line with the evaluation re-
ports for masonry anchors. t is important to note that
the withdrawal capacity is an ultimate load.
t is important to note that wood structural panels
can be used for protection of windows with more than
8 ft in one dimension. The span of the panel, ends that
have fasteners per Table 1609.1.2, can't ex ceed 8 ft in
length. Multiple panels can be used to cover larger
openings provided the panel span does not exceed 8
ft. See Figure 1609.1.2(2).
Exception 2 exempts low-hazard buildings from this
requirement for protecting openings against
wind-borne debris. Exception 3 is discussed above.
TABLE 1609.1.2
WIND-BORNE DEBRIS PROTECTION FASTENING
SCHEDULE FOR WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS
FASTENER
TYPE
FASTENER SPACING (inches)
1,2
PaneI
Span } 2
ft
2 foot <
paneI
Span
}4 feet
4 feet
PaneI
Span }6
feet
6 feet
PaneI
Span }8
feet
#8 Wood screw-based
anchor with 2-inch
embedment length
3
16 16 10 8
#10 Wood
screw-based anchor
with 2-inch
embedment length
3
16 16 12 9
Lag screw-based
anchor with 2-inch
embedment length
3
16 16 16 16
For SI: 1 inch 25.4 mm, 1 Ioot 305 mm.
1. This table is based on a maximumwind speed oI 140 mph (63 m/s) and mean
rooI height oI 45 Ieet (13 716 mm) or less.
2. Fasteners shall be installed at opposing ends oI the wood structural panel.
3. Where screws are attached to masonry or masonry/stucco, they shall be
attached using vibration-resistant anchors having a minimum withdrawal
capacity oI 1500 lb (6673 kN).
1609.1.2.1 Louvers. Louvers protecting intake and exhaust
ventilation ducts not assumed to be open that are located within
30 Ieet (9144 mm) oI grade shall meet requirements oI an
approved impact-resisting standard or the Large Missile Test oI
ASTM E 1996.
This provision provides direction for impact testing of
louvers that cover intake or exhaust duct openings.
Louvers often have blades or slats affixed to and cov-
ering an opening in the exterior envelope, making
them similar to certain types of porous shutters used
to protect glazed openings. The scope of ASTM E
1996 covers impact testing of exterior impact protec-
tion systems to be used in wind-borne debris regions.
The ASTM standard has been referenced for these
products in the absence of a standard that is specific
to louvers. This test requirement does not apply
where a duct penetration has been assumed to be an
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
opening in the building envelope.
Section 1609.1.2.1 is a new requirement for the im-
pact testing of louvers that cover the openings for in-
take and exhaust ducts in the coastal areas in hurri-
cane-prone regions. When a louver in an exterior wall
is either damaged or eliminated by wind-borne debris
during a high wind event, the air leakage rated
damper inside the ventilation duct may also be ex-
posed to damage.
Prior to approval of this code change, a number of
jurisdictions in hurricane prone regions were required
testing to the Dade County standard TAS 203 or TAS
201, or the large missile impact test only of ASTM E
1996 to evaluate the impact resistance of louvers.
However, the requirements for testing and the en-
forcement of such a requirement were inconsistent.
The scope of ASTME 1996 covers impact testing of
exterior building features, such as windows, glazed
curtain walls, doors and storm shutters in buildings lo-
cated in geographic regions that are prone to hurri-
canes, simulating impact by both large and small mis-
siles. For glazed openings and nonporous shutters
that protect the fenestration assembly, the impact test-
ing is followed by a cyclic loading test. There is no
specific provision in the standard for testing louvers
that cover ventilation openings, either for impact or cy-
cling loading.
The intent of this code section is not to require that
louvers comply with ASTM E 1996 in its entirety; only
the large missile impact test, excluding the cycling
loading, or an approved impact standard that may be
developed in the future that pertains specifically to
louvers.
As with most engineering questions, some judge-
ment by the test sponsor and the laboratory engineers
is necessary, based on experience and technical
knowledge to set the correct criteria for testing and
evaluation, and such decisions must be documented
in the test report for consideration by the authority
having jurisdiction.
1609.1.2.2 Impact resistant coverings.
1609.1.2.2.1 Impact resistant coverings shall be tested at 1.5
times the design pressure (positive or negative) expressed in
pounds per square Ieet as determined by the Florida Building
Code. Building Section 1609 Ior which the specimen is to be
tested.
This section basically clarifies the wind pressure test-
ing required for impact-resistant coverings. While
Section 1609.1.2 provides specifications for the im-
pact-resistant covering to meet the impact tests, it nor
the referenced standards address the coverings abil-
ity to resist wind pressures. This requirement is con-
sistent with the provisions of ASTM E 330 in requiring
that if the covering is tested, it has to be tested to 1.5
times the design pressure. f the covering is designed
using an engineering analysis, the 1.5 times the de-
sign pressure would not be necessary as the material
safety factors (or load and resistance factors if using
LRFD) would provide sufficient margins of safety.
1609.1.2.2.2 Impact resistant coverings. Impact resistant
coverings shall be labeled in accordance with the provisions oI
Section 1714.8.
See commentary to Section 1714.8.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1609.1.2(2)
WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL SHUTTER SPAN LIMITATIONS
1609.1.3 Optional exterior door component testing. Exte-
rior side-hinged door assemblies shall have the option to have
the components oI the assembly tested and rated Ior impact
resistance in accordance with the Iollowing speciIication: SDI
250.13.
This section facilitates the testing and rating of
sidehinged exterior door assemblies (entry doors) for
compliance with the impact and cyclic testing require-
ments specified in Section 1609.1.2. The basis for
testing in accordance with SD 250.13 is to provide ex-
isting manufacturers and suppliers of one and
two-step distribution channels the means to provide
code compliant products through existing channels of
distribution. One and two-step distribution manufac-
turers are the primary channel through which entry
doors are provided to the market. Through the
pre-hanging service that these suppliers provide, they
effectively become the manufacturer of the door as-
sembly and are, accordingly, responsible for the per-
formance of the finished assembly. Under currently
established mechanisms the prehanger/jobber is re-
sponsible for having each exterior door assembly
tested to demonstrate code compliance. This section
permits the manufacturers and suppliers of one and
two-step distribution channels the means to provide
code compliant products through existing channels of
distrubtion.
1609.1.4 The wind-borne debris regions requirements shall not
apply landward oI the designated contour line in Figure 1609.
A geographical boundary that coincides with the contour line
shall be established.
n accordance with Section 109(4), Chapter
2000-141, Laws of Florida, local jurisdictions with the
responsibility to enforce building codes were charged
with the responsibility to identify the location of lines
delineating wind speeds for that jurisdiction in accor-
dance with Figure 1609, by adoption of a local ordi-
nance. The wind speed lines are to be identified by
landmarks where possible.
Often, for simplicity, jurisdictions will adopt a single
wind speed for the entire jurisdiction. This section
clarifies that if that approach is taken, the wind-borne
debris regions do not apply beyond the boundaries
established by Figure 1609 regardless of the wind
speed adopted by the jurisdiction.
1609.2 Definitions. The Iollowing words and terms shall, Ior
the purposes oI Section 1609, have the meanings shown herein.
Some terms are used in the code to describe some-
thing very specific to the related subject matter while
other terms may have multiple meanings that can vary
based on the subject matter and context. To avoid
misunderstandings, it is preferable to reach a consen-
sus on the meaning of these terms. Definitions are in-
tended to facilitate the understanding of code provi-
sions and to minimize potential confusion.
This section contains definitions of terms
associated with wind load criteria. Note that these
terms are also listed in Chapter 2 with a cross refer-
ence to this section. Definitions that pertain primarily
to wind criteria are included within this section to pro-
vide convenient access to themwithout having to refer
back to Chapter 2. The use and application of all de-
fined terms, including those defined herein, as well as
undefined terms are set forth in Section 201.
HURRICANE-PRONE REGIONS. Areas vulnerable to
hurricanes deIined as:
1. The U. S. Atlantic Ocean and GulI oI Mexico coasts
where the basic wind speed is greater than 90 mph (40
m/s) and
2. Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, Virgin Islands and Ameri-
can Samoa.
This definition specifies the area wherein hurri-
cane-force winds are expected to reach. These areas
are also distinguished from nonhurricane wind speed
regions by the inclusion of a hurricane importance fac-
tor implied in the wind speed contours of Figure 1609.
The entire State of Florida is defined as a Hurri-
cane-prone Region.
WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGION. Portions oI hurri-
cane-prone regions that are within 1 mile (1.61 km) oI the
coastal mean high water line where the basic wind speed is 110
mph (48 m/s) or greater; or portions oI hurricane-prone regions
where the basic wind speed is 120 mph (53 m/s) or greater; or
Hawaii.
This definition identifies those areas that require con-
sideration of the impact of wind-borne debris on the
building envelope. See the commentary to Section
1609.1.2 for information on the effects of openings in
the building envelope.
1609.3 Basic wind speed. The basic wind speed in miles per
hour, Ior the development oI wind loads, shall be determined
IromFigure1609. The exact location oI wind speed lines shall
be established by local ordinance using recognized physical
landmarks such as maior roads, canals, rivers and lake shores
whenever possible.
n accordance with Section 109(4), Chapter
2000-141, Laws of Florida, local jurisdictions with the
responsibility to enforce building codes were charged
with the responsibility to identify the location of lines
delineating wind speeds for that jurisdiction in accor-
dance with Figure 1609, by adoption of a local ordi-
nance. The wind speed lines are to be identified by
landmarks where possible. Also see commentary on
Figure 1609
1609.3.1 Wind speed conversion. When required, the 3-sec-
ond gust basic wind speeds oI Figure 1609 shall be converted
to Iastest-mile wind speeds, J
fm
, using Table 1609.3.1 or Equa-
tion 16-34.
J
J
fm
S
( . )
.
3
10 5
105
(Equation16-34)
where:
J
3S
3-second gust basic wind speed Irom Figure 1609.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Some referenced standards contain criteria or appli-
cations that are based on the fastest-mile wind speed
data. For example, the FC&PAGuide to Concrete Ma-
sonry Construction in High Wind Areas specifies pre-
scriptive procedures that are based upon the fast-
est-mile wind speed designation as opposed to the
3-second-gust wind speed that is the basis of Figure
1609. Table 1609.3.1 provides a means by which
these standards can be used with new wind speeds
until their requirements have been updated. The con-
versions were calculated using the gust factor curve
of Figure C6-1 in the ASCE 7 commentary. t is impor-
tant to note that the conversions provide equivalent
wind speeds based on averaging times, and do not
necessarily provide equivalent wind pressures.
When using these standards such as the FC&PA
Guide, the basic wind speed is determined from Fig-
ure 1609 and converted to a fastest-mile wind speed
in accordance with this section. The fastest-mile wind
speed map is not applicable and is not permitted to be
used.
1609.4 Exposure category. For each wind direction consid-
ered, an exposure category that adequately reIlects the charac-
teristics oI ground surIace irregularities shall be determined Ior
the site at which the building or structure is to be constructed.
Account shall be taken oI variations in ground surIace rough-
ness that arise Irom natural topography and vegetation as well
as Irom constructed Ieatures.
Exception: An intermediate exposure between the expo-
sure categories deIined is permitted in a transition zone, pro-
vided that it is determined by a rational analysis method.
The concept of exposure categories provides a
means of accounting for the relative roughness of the
boundary layer. The earth's surface exerts a horizon-
tal drag force on wind due to ground obstructions that
retard the flow of air close to the ground. The reduc-
tion in the flow of air is a function of height above
ground and terrain roughness. Wind speeds increase
with height above ground, and the relationship be-
tween height above ground and wind speed is expo-
nential. The rate of increase in wind speeds with
height is a function of the terrain features. The rougher
the terrain (such as large city centers), the shallower
the slope of the wind speed profile. The smoother the
terrain (open water), the steeper the slope of the wind
speed profile.
The definitions of exposure and roughness catego-
ries are used to account for this roughness in the
boundary layer and are intended to provide an ade-
quate assessment of surface roughness for most situ-
ations. Exposure B is considered the roughest bound-
ary layer condition. Exposure D is considered the
smoothest boundary layer condition. Accordingly, cal-
culated wind loads are less for Exposure B, which has
more surface obstructions, as compared to Exposure
D, with all other variables the same. See ASCE7 com-
mentary for guidance on performing a more detailed
analysis of surface roughness.
Anew exception permits the determination of an in-
termediate exposure category in a transition zone in
accordance with a rational analysis. This transition
zone occurs as one exposure category is transitioning
to another, as shown in the Figure 1609.4. For exam-
ple, as written, the code requires Exposure Category
C to extend downwind for a distance of 1500 feet.
From that distance, Exposure B would presumably
begin. However, from a practical standpoint, Expo-
sure C does not specifically exist in its entirety for the
full 1500-foot downwind distance it is required to ex-
tend. n a practical sense, Exposure C transitions to
Exposure B for that downwind distance. The code
now permits the use of an intermediate Exposure Cat-
egory, provided it is determined by a recognized ana-
lytical method. One such method is shown in the
Commentary to ASCE 7-05.
1609.4.1 Winddirections andsectors. For each selected wind
direction at which the wind loads are to be evaluated, the expo-
sure oI the building or structure shall be determined Ior the two
upwind sectors extending 45 degrees (0.79 rad) either side oI
the selected wind direction. The exposures in these two sectors
shall be determined in accordance with Sections 1609.4.2 and
1609.4.3 and the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads
shall be used to represent winds Irom that direction.
The exposure category for each wind direction is now
determined on the basis of the worst case of two
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1609.3.1
EQUIVALENT BASIC WIND SPEEDS
a,b,c
V3S 85 90 100 105 110 120 125 130 140 145 150 160 170
VIm 71 76 85 90 95 104 109 114 123 128 133 142 152
For SI: 1 mile per hour 0.44 m/s.
a. Linear interpolation is permitted.
b. J
3S
is the 3-second gust wind speed (mph).
c. J
fm
is the Iastest mile wind speed (mph).
This table is used where any referenced standards are based on the fastest-mile wind speed. The table converts the
3-second-gust wind speed of a geographical location to the fastest-mile wind speed for use within the standards
cited in Section 1609.1.1.
45-degree sectors for either side of the wind direction
being considered. For example, in Figure 1609.4.1,
the exposure category would be determined from
Sector 1 and Sector 8, with the worst Exposure Cate-
gory determined being the Exposure Category for the
North direction. A similar analysis would occur for the
remaining three directions.
1609.4.2 Surface roughness categories. A ground surIace
roughness within each 45-degree (0.79 rad) sector shall be
determined Ior a distance upwind oI the site as deIined in Sec-
tion 1609.4.3 Irom the categories deIined below, Ior the pur-
pose oI assigning an exposure category as deIined in Section
1609.4.3.
The determination of an Exposure Category is now a
two-step process. First, the surface roughness is de-
termined. The Exposure Category is determined on
the basis of the type and length of surface roughness
present at the site. This distinction enables more pre-
cise definitions of Exposures B, C, and D. However,
the relationship between surface roughness C and
Exposure C is somewhat confusing in the 2007
FBCB. During the development of the 2007 Florida
Building Code, Building, numerous attempts were
made to modify the definitions to be more in line with
the direction of recent research and field observa-
tions. Combining these proposed revisions with
revisions to the base code resulted in some slightly
confusing language.
However, a Glitch Amendment has clarified the ap-
plication of surface roughness and exposure catego-
ries. Most of the information that was shown for Expo-
sure Chas been relocated to Surface Roughness Cin
the Glitch Amendments. The definition of Exposure C
now simply states that Exposure C applies where Ex-
posure B does not apply (the increase roof sheathing
uplift and roof-to-wall uplift loads for buildings near in-
land bodies of water is still included in the definition of
Exposure C. See Commentary on Exposure C.). The
net result is that Exposure C is the default Exposure
category (The 2001 and 2004 FBC established Expo-
sure B as the default Exposure Category). Therefore,
the designer will have to prove that Exposure B is ap-
plicable. Otherwise the applicable Exposure Category
is C. The reader is urged to review the changes that
occur as a result of the glitch amendments to the 2007
FBCB.
Surface Roughness B. Urban and suburban areas, wooded
areas or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstruc-
tions having the size oI single-Iamily dwellings or larger.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1609.4
INTERMEDIATE EXPOSURE CATEGORY
Surface Roughness C. Open terrain with scattered obstruc-
tions having heights generally less than 30 Ieet (9144 mm).
This category includes Ilat open country, grasslands, and all
water surIaces in hurricane-prone regions. This surIace
roughness shall also apply to any building located within
surIace roughness B-type terrain where the building is
within 100 Ieet horizontallyin anydirection oI open areas oI
surIace roughness C-type terrain that extends more than 600
Ieet (182.9 m) and width greater than 150 It. in the upwind
direction. Short-term (less than two year) changes in the
pre-existing terrain exposure, Ior the purposes oI develop-
ment, shall not be considered surIace roughness C. Where
development buildout will occur within three years and the
resultant condition will meet the deIinition oI surIace
roughness B, surIace roughness Bshall be regulating Ior the
purpose oI permitting. This category includes Ilat open
country, grasslands and ocean or gulI shorelines and shall
extend downwind Ior a distance oI 1500 Ieet.
Surface Roughness D. Reserved.
The code also clarified and simplified the effect of
open patches on Surface Roughness (Exposure Cat-
egories). Open areas in Surface Roughness B terrain
can have a significant effect on the design wind pres-
sures for a building. Field investigations from the hur-
ricanes of 2004 noted numerous failures, particularly
cladding, for buildings sited in what would otherwise
be called Exposure B, but adjacent to open areas
such as parking lots and fields. This is now accounted
for by requiring that buildings that are located in Sur-
face Roughness B-type terrain, but adjacent to an
open patch of Surface Roughness C terrain (parking
lot, golf course, soccer field, etc.) that extends in the
upwind direction for 600 feet and a width of at least
150 feet, be classified as Surface Roughness C.
The code also contains provisions to address
changes in the terrain resulting from development.
Typically, when a new subdivision is started, the first
few homes built are located in Surface Roughness C
terrain at the time they are built. By the time the subdi-
vision is completed, those homes are then typically in
an Surface Roughness B environment. The FBCB
recognizes this and permits the use of Surface
Roughness B provided the subdivision will be com-
pleted within 3 years, and the resulting condition of the
subdivision will be Surface Roughness B.
1609.4.3 Exposure categories. An exposure category shall be
determined in accordance with the Iollowing:
Exposure B. Exposure Bshall apply where the ground sur-
Iace roughness condition, as deIined by SurIace Roughness
B, prevails in the upwind direction Ior a distance oI at least
2,600 Ieet (792 m) or 20 times the height oI the building,
whichever is greater.
Exception: For buildings whose mean rooI height is less
than or equal to 30 Ieet (9144 mm), the upwind distance
is permitted to be reduced to 1,500 Ieet (457 m).
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1609.4.1
WIND DIRECTION AND SECTORS
Exposure C. Exposure C shall apply Ior all cases where
Exposure B does not apply. Buildings located within a dis-
tance oI 600 Ieet oI inland bodies oI water that present a
Ietch oI 1 mile (1.61 km) or more shall be classiIied as Expo-
sure C and rooI sheathing upliIt and rooI-to-wall upliIt
loads shall be increased by 20 percent.
Exposure D. This exposure category is not applicable in
Florida.
This section defines the three exposure categories
applicable to determining the design wind pressure.
Exposure categories are used along with basic wind
speed elsewhere in the code as "triggers" for other
wind limitations and requirements, such as limits
specified for the use of the conventional construction
method specified in Section 2308.
Exposure B is the most common type of exposure
category in the country. Arecent study by the National
Association of Home Builders (NAHB) indicated that
perhaps up to 80 percent of all buildings were located
in Exposure B.
While ASCE 7 defines all water surfaces in hurri-
cane-prone regions as Exposure C, new research
and studies indicate that the research used for that
language is not conservative with regard to the appli-
cation of Exposure Categories in hurricane-prone re-
gions. t is anticipated that the next edition of ASCE 7
will require the use of Exposure D for buildings adja-
cent to open bodies of water, including ocean and gulf
shorelines, in hurricane-prone regions. The modifica-
tion basically represents a compromise that will bring
the Florida Building Code closer to the changes that
are anticipated to occur in ASCE 7. For buildings lo-
cated within 600 feet of inland bodies of water that ex-
tend for at least 1 mile, roof sheathing uplift and
roof-to-wall uplift loads are required to be increased
by 20 percent. This establishes loads for these critical
elements that are more in line with Exposure Category
D loads.
1609.5 Roof systems.
1609.5.1 Roof deck. The rooI deck shall be designed to with-
stand the wind pressures determined in accordance with ASCE
7.
This section specifies the wind load criteria for the roof
deck. The roof deck is a structural component of the
building and is required to resist the applicable wind
pressures from ASCE 7. This section is referenced by
Section 1609.7.2 as the criteria for the wind design for
roof coverings.
1609.5.2 Roof coverings. RooI coverings shall comply with
Section 1609.5.1.
Exception: Rigid tile rooI coverings that are air permeable
and installed over a rooI deck complying with Section
1609.5.1 are permitted to be designed in accordance with
Section 1609.5.3.
Asphalt shingles installed over a rooI deck complying with
Section 1609.5.1 shall comply with the wind resistance
requirements oI Section 1507.2.10.
This section establishes the wind design criteria for
roof coverings. The exception references the use of
Section 1609.5.3 for air-permeable rigid tile roof cov-
erings. f the roof deck is relatively impermeable wind
pressures will act through it to the building frame sys-
tem. The roof covering may or may not be subjected to
the same wind pressures as the roof deck. f the roof
covering is also relatively impermeable and fastened
to the roof deck, the two components will react to and
resist the same wind pressures. f the roof covering is
not impermeable, the wind pressures will be able to
develop on both the top of, and underneath, the roof
covering. This venting action will ne gate some wind
pressure on the roof covering.
A Glitch Amendment deletes the references to
ASTM D 6381 and UL 2370 and simply references
Section 1507.2.10. ASTM D 6381 and UL 2390 have
essentially been replaced by ASTM D 7158.
1609.5.3 Rigid tile. Wind loads on rigid tile rooI coverings shall
be determined in accordance with the Iollowing equation:
M
a
q
h
C
L
bLL
a
|1.0 GC
p
| (Equation16-35)
For SI: M
a

q C bLL GC
h L a p
10
1000
.
,
where:
b Exposed width, Ieet (mm) oI the rooI tile.
C
L
LiIt coeIIicient. The liIt coeIIicient Ior concrete and
clay tile shall be 0.2 or shall be determined by test in
accordance with Section 1715.2.
GC
p
RooI pressure coeIIicient Ior each applicable rooI
zone determined Irom Chapter 6 oI ASCE 7. RooI
coeIIicients shall not be adiusted Ior internal pres-
sure.
L Length, Ieet (mm) oI the rooI tile.
L
a
Moment arm, Ieet (mm) Irom the axis oI rotation to
the point oI upliIt on the rooI tile. The point oI upliIt
shall be taken at 0.76L Irom the head oI the tile and
the middle oI the exposed width. For rooI tiles with
nails or screws (with or without a tail clip), the axis
oI rotation shall be taken as the head oI the tile Ior
direct deck application or as the top edge oI the bat-
ten Ior battened applications. For rooI tiles Iastened
only by a nail or screw along the side oI the tile, the
axis oI rotation shall be determined by testing. For
rooI tiles installed with battens and Iastened only by
a clip near the tail oI the tile, the moment arm shall
be determined about the top edge oI the batten with
consideration given Ior the point oI rotation oI the
tiles based on straight bond or broken bond and the
tile proIile.
M
a
Aerodynamic upliIt moment, Ieet-pounds (N-mm)
acting to raise the tail oI the tile.
q
h
Wind velocity pressure, psI (kN/m
2
) determined
Irom Section 6.5.10 oI ASCE 7.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Concrete and clay rooI tiles complying with the Iollowing
limitations shall be designed to withstand the aerodynamic
upliIt moment as determined by this section.
1. The rooI tiles shall be either loose laid on battens,
mechanically Iastened, mortar set or adhesive set.
2. The rooI tiles shall be installed on solid sheathing which
has been designed as components and cladding.
3. An underlayment shall be installed in accordance with
Chapter 15.
4. The tile shall be single lapped interlocking with a min-
imum head lap oI not less than 2 inches (51 mm).
5. The length oI the tile shall be between 1.0 and 1.75 Ieet
(305 mm and 533 mm).
6. The exposed width oI the tile shall be between 0.67 and
1.25 Ieet (204 mm and 381 mm).
7. The maximum thickness oI the tail oI the tile shall not
exceed 1.3 inches (33 mm).
8. RooI tiles using mortar set or adhesive set systems shall
have at least two-thirds oI the tile`s area Iree oI mortar or
adhesive contact.
This section prescribes the calculation for determining
the required aerodynamic uplift moment for clay or
concrete rigid tile roofs. The method consists of the
calculation of the aerodynamic uplift moment from the
wind that acts to raise the end of the tile. For this cal-
culation to be applicable, the tile, underlayment and
roof sheathing have to meet the eight limitations spec-
ified in this section. Due to their permeability, roof tiles
are not subject to the full uplift pressures that occur on
the roof. This is due to the gaps at tile joints allowing
some equalization of pressure between the inner and
outer face of the tiles, leading to reduced loads. Apro-
cedure has been developed through research for de-
termining the uplift moment on loose-laid and me-
chanically fastened roof tiles when laid over sheathing
with an underlayment. The procedure is based on
practical measurements on real tiles to determine the
effect of air being able to penetrate the roof covering.
t is important to note that this section prescribes the
required aerodynamic uplift moment that a tile is re-
quired to resist. The allowable aerodynamic uplift mo-
ment for a roof tile has to determined in accordance
with SSTD 11 or TAS 108. f the tile geometry and in-
stallation procedures do not meet the eight criteria es-
tablished in this section, a wind tunnel test in accor-
dance with SSTD 11 or TAS 108 is required to
determine the required aerodynamic uplift moment.
See Section 1715.2.
ExampIes of caIcuIation of wind pressures: The
following examples illustrate the application of the
wind criteria in Section 1609 and the ASCE 7 simpli-
fied procedure (Method ).
ExampIe 1
Given: Basic wind speed, V = 120 mph
Building mean roof height, H = 45 feet
Exposure Category = D
20-square-foot window located in an edge
strip of wall (Zone 5)
I
w
= 1.0
Find: Design component and cladding wind
pressure
Obtain the component and cladding design wind pres-
sures for a building with H = 30 feet and Exposure B,
fromFigure 6-3 of ASCE 7. The window is located in a
wall, Zone 5, an effective wind area of 20 ft
2
, and V =
120 mph. From Figure 6-3 of ASCE 7, the design
pressures are:
p = + 24.7 psf, -32.4 psf
These pressures have to be modified for mean roof
height, exposure category and importance factor us-
ing Equation 6-2 of ASCE 7. FromFigure 6-3 of ASCE
7, the height and exposure adjustment factor, for H
= 45 feet (13,716 mm) and Exposure D is 1.78.
Therefore, the design wind pressures are calculated
as:
p = (+24.7 psf) x 1.78 x 1.0 = +44 psf
p = (-32.4 psf) x 1.78 x 1.0 = -57.7 psf
ExampIe 2
See Figure 1609A.
Given: Simple diaphragm building
V = 130 mph
Exposure Category = C
Roof slope = 7:12
Building width, W = 48 feet
Building length, L = 50 feet
Wall height = 18 ft.
I
w
= 1.0
K
zt
= 1.0
Find: Horizontal MWFRS wind loads for end
zones (A and B) using the simplified
procedure.
First, the mean roof height, H, has to be determined.
From the building geometry, H is calculated as fol-
lows:
H = 18 ft +
1
/
2
(7/12)(24ft) = 25 feet
Roof slope = 7:12 e30 degrees
Horizontal MWFRS wind loads for Zones A and B are
found in Figure 6-2 of ASCE 7 for H = 30 feet and Ex-
posure B. For V = 130 and roof angle of 30 degrees,
the applicable end zone horizontal loads are:
Transverse direction (wall) Zone A
p
S30
= 30.1 psf
Transverse direction (roof) Zone B
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
p
S30
= 20.6 psf
Longitudinal direction (wall) Zone A
p
S30
= 30.1 psf
These pressures have to be modified for mean roof
height, exposure category and importance factor us-
ing Equation 6-1 of ASCE 7. The height and exposure
adjustment factor, , for H = 25 (7620 mm) feet and
Exposure C is 1.35.
Therefore, the design horizontal wind loads are as
follows:
p
s
= (30.1 psf) x 1.35 x 1.0 = 40.6 psf (Zone A)
p
s
= (20.6 psf) x 1.35 x 1.0 = 27.8 psf (Zone B)
The width of the end zones (2a) is calculated as fol-
lows in accordance with Section 1609.6.3:
The lesser of
End zone = 2 x (0.10 x 48 ft) = 9.6 ft; or
End zone = 2 x (0.40 x 18 ft) = 14.4 ft
but not less than
End zone = 2 x (0.04 x 48 ft) = 3.8 ft; or
End zone = 2 x 3 ft = 6 ft
Therefore the end zone width is = 9.6 ft l 10 ft
These loads are to be applied to the MWFRS as
shown in Commentary Figures 1609B and 1609C.
1609.6 Garage doors androlling doors. Pressures IromTable
1609.6(1) Ior wind loading actions on garage doors and rolling
doors Ior buildings designed as enclosed shall be permitted.
Table 1609.6(1) is a tabulation of the design pres-
sures for typical garage door sizes for a building with a
mean roof height of 30 feet and located in Exposure B.
Garage doors are considered components and clad-
ding. The values are based on the effective wind area
of the garage door and are based on ASCE 7. For
other heights and other exposure categories, Note 2
requires the table values to be multiplied by the ad-
justment coefficients in Table 1609.6(2).
SECTION 1610
SOIL LATERAL LOADS
1610.1 General. Basement, Ioundation and retaining walls
shall be designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil loads speciIied
in Table 1610.1 shall be used as the minimumdesign lateral soil
loads unless speciIied otherwise in a soil investigation report
approved by the building oIIicial. Basement walls and other
walls in whichhorizontal movement is restricted at the topshall
be designed Ior at-rest pressure. Retaining walls Iree to move
and rotate at the top are permitted to be designed Ior active
pressure. Design lateral pressure Iromsurcharge loads shall be
added to the lateral earth pressure load. Design lateral pressure
shall be increased iI soils with expansion potential are present
at the site.
Exception: Basement walls extending not more than 8 Ieet
(2438 mm) below grade and supporting Ilexible Iloor sys-
tems shall be permitted to be designed Ior active pressure.
Nominal loads attributable to lateral earth pressures
are determined in accordance with this section. This
section provides lateral loads for various soil types.
This section requires that foundation and retaining
walls be designed to be capable of resisting the lateral
soil loads specified by Table 1610.1 where a specific
soil investigation has not been performed. Consider-
ation must be given to additional lateral soil pressures
due to surcharge loads that result from sloping back-
fill, driveways or parking spaces that are close to a
foundation wall as well as the foundation of an adja-
cent structure.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1609.6(1)
GARAGE DOOR AND ROLLING DOOR WIND LOADS FOR A BUILDING WITH
A MEAN ROOF HEIGHT OF 30 FEET LOCATED IN EXPOSURE B (psf)
EFFECTIVE WIND
AREA Basic Wind Speed V (mph - 3 second gust)
Width
(ft)
Height
(ft) 85 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Roof Angle 0 - 10 degrees
8 8 10.5 -11.9 11.7 -13.3 14.5 -16.4 17.5 -19.9 20.9 -23.6 24.5 -27.7 28.4 -32.2 32.6 -36.9
10 10 10.1 -11.4 11.4 -12.7 14.0 -15.7 17.0 -19.0 20.2 -22.7 23.7 -26.6 27.5 -30.8 31.6 -35.4
14 14 10.0 -10.7 10.8 -12.0 13.3 -14.8 16.1 -17.9 19.2 -21.4 22.5 -25.1 26.1 -29.1 30.0 -33.4
Roof Angle > 10
9 7 11.4 -12.9 12.8 -14.5 15.8 -17.9 19.1 -21.6 22.8 -25.8 26.7 -30.2 31.0 -35.1 35.6 -40.2
16 7 10.9 -12.2 12.3 -13.7 15.2 -16.9 18.3 -20.4 21.8 -24.3 25.6 -28.5 29.7 -33.1 34.1 -38.0
For SI: 1 Square Ioot 0.929 m
2
, 1 mph 0.447 m/s, 1 psI 47.88 N/m
2
1. For eIIecctive areas or wind speeds between those given above the load may be interpolated, otherwise use the load associated with the lower eIIective area.
2. Table values shall be adiusted Ior height and exposure by multiplying by adiustment coeIIicients in Table 1609.6(2).
3. Plus and minus signs signiIy pressures acting toward and away Irom the building surIaces.
4. Negative pressures assume door has 2 Ieet oI width in building`s end zone.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1609.6(2)
ADJUSTMENT FACTOR FOR BUILDING HEIGHT AND EXPOSURE, ()
MEAN ROOF HEIGHT
(feet)
EXPOSURE
B C D
15 1.00 1.21 1.47
20 1.00 1.29 1.55
25 1.00 1.35 1.61
30 1.00 1.40 1.66
35 1.05 1.45 1.70
40 1.09 1.49 1.74
45 1.12 1.53 1.78
50 1.16 1.56 1.81
55 1.19 1.59 1.84
60 1.22 1.62 1.87
For SI: 1 Ioot 304.8 mm.
a. All table values shall be adiusted Ior other exposures and heights by multiplying by the above coeIIicients.
Figure 1609A
EXAMPLE 2 BUILDING
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1609B
HORIZONTAL MWFRS LOADS - TRANSVERSE DIRECTION
Figure 1609C
HORIZONTAL MWFRS LOADS - LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION
SECTION 1611
RAIN LOADS
1611.1 Design rain loads. Each portion oI a rooI shall be
designed to sustain the load oI rainwater that will accumulate
on it iI the primary drainage system Ior that portion is blocked
plus the uniIormload caused by water that rises above the inlet
oI the secondary drainage system at its design Ilow.
R5.2 (d
s
d
h
) (Equation16-36)
For SI: R 0.0098 (d
s
d
h
)
where:
d
h
Additional depth oI water on the undeIlected rooI
above the inlet oI secondary drainage system at its
design Ilow (i.e., the hydraulic head), in inches (mm).
d
s
Depth oI water on the undeIlected rooI up to the inlet oI
secondary drainage system when the primary drainage
systemis blocked (i.e., the static head), in inches (mm).
R Rain load on the undeIlected rooI, in psI (kN/m
2
). When
the phrase undeIlected rooI is used, deIlections Irom
loads (including dead loads) shall not be considered
when determining the amount oI rain on the rooI.
The nominal rain load, R, is determined in accordance
with this section. t represents the weight of accumu-
lated rainwater, assuming a blockage of the primary
roof drainage system. The design of the roof drainage
systems must be in accordance with Chapter 11 of the
Florida Building Code, Plumbing (FBCP). The primary
roof drainage systemcan include roof drains, leaders,
conductors and horizontal storm drains within the
structure. Drainage system design is based on a
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1610.1
SOIL LATERAL LOAD
DESCRIPTION OF BACKFILL MATERIAL
c
UNIFIED SOIL
CLASSIFICATION
DESIGN LATERAL SOIL LOAD
a
(pound per square foot per foot of
depth)
Active pressure At-rest pressure
Well-graded, clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GW 30 60
Poorly graded clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes GP 30 60
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand mixes GM 40 60
Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-and-clay mixes GC 45 60
Well-graded, clean sands; gravelly sand mixes SW 30 60
Poorly graded clean sands; sand-gravel mixes SP 30 60
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mixes SM 45 60
Sand-silt clay mix with plastic Iines SM-SC 45 100
Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixes SC 60 100
Inorganic silts and clayey silts ML 45 100
Mixture oI inorganic silt and clay ML-CL 60 100
Inorganic clays oI low to medium plasticity CL 60 100
Organic silts and silt clays, low plasticity OL Note b Note b
Inorganic clayey silts, elastic silts MH Note b Note b
Inorganic clays oI high plasticity CH Note b Note b
Organic clays and silty clays OH Note b Note b
For SI: 1 pound per square Ioot per Ioot oI depth 0.157 kPa/m, 1 Ioot 304.8 mm.
a. Design lateral soil loads are given Ior moist conditions Ior the speciIied soils at their optimumdensities. Actual Iield conditions shall govern. Submerged or satu-
rated soil pressures shall include the weight oI the buoyant soil plus the hydrostatic loads.
b. Unsuitable as backIill material.
c. The deIinition and classiIication oI soil materials shall be in accordance with ASTM D 2487.
The table lists at-rest and active soil pressures for a number of different types of moist soils. The basis of the soil
classification into the various types listed is ASTMD2487. Soils identified by Note b in Table 1610.1 have unpredict-
able characteristics. These are called expansive soils. Because of their ability to absorb water, they shrink and swell
to a higher degree than other soils. As expansive soils swell, they are capable of exerting large forces on soil-retain-
ing structures; thus, these types of soils are not to be used as backfill.
specified design rainfall intensity as well as the roof
area it drains. The criteria for sizing the components of
the drainage system are provided in Section 1106 of
the FBCP. Where the building is configured such that
water will not collect on the roof there is no require-
ment for a secondary drainage system [see Figure
1611.1(1)]. Likewise, there would be no rain load re-
quired in the design of the roof.
t is not uncommon to find that roof drains have be-
come blocked by debris, leading to ponding of rainwa-
ter where the roof construction is conducive to
retaining water. While the objective of providing roof
drainage is typically to prevent the accumulation of
water, the code also recognizes controlled drainage
systems that are engineered to retain rainwater (see
Section 1611.3). The important point is that wherever
the potential exists for the accumulation of rainwater
on a roof, whether it is intentional or otherwise, the
roof must be designed for this load. Furthermore, Sec-
tion 1101.7 of the FBCP requires the maximum depth
of water to be determined, assuming all primary roof
drainage to be blocked. The water will rise above the
primary roof drain until it reaches the elevation of the
roof edge, scuppers or another serviceable drain. At
the design rainfall intensity, this depth will be based on
the flow rate of the secondary drainage system. This
depth, referred to as the hydraulic head, can be deter-
mined from Figure 1611.1(2) for various types of
drains and flowrates. ts use is illustrated in the exam-
ple below.
Section 1107 of the FBCP specifically requires a
secondary roof drainage system where the building
construction extends above the roof at the perimeter.
This applies to parapet walls, stepped buildings or any
other construction that would allow rainwater to pond
on the roof. The sizing of a secondary drainage sys-
tem is identical to the process used for the primary
system. nstead of using a "piped sec ondary system,
designers may prefer to install scuppers to allow rain-
water to overflow the roof. Examples of both types of
secondary systems are shown in Figure 1611.1(3).
Also note that the FBCP requires a secondary system
to be completely separate and to discharge above
grade. Since the secondary system serves as an
emergency backup, requiring it to discharge above
grade provides a means of signaling that there is a
blockage of the primary drainage system.
Some roof failures have been attributed to the in-
creased loads from ponding water. This section re-
quires the roof to be capable of resisting the maximum
water depth that can occur if the primary means of
roof drainage becomes blocked. Blockages are typi-
cally caused by debris at the inlet to the primary roof
drains but they can occur anywhere along the primary
piping system, such as an under-slab pipe collapse.
Computation of rain load, R, is in accordance with
equation 16-36. The coefficient of that equation is
merely the conversion of the unit weight of water to an
equivalent unit load per inch of water depth as Figure
1611.1(4) illustrates. Two variables are considered to
determine rain load: the depth of the water on the
undeflected roof, as measured from the low point ele-
vation to the inlet elevation of the secondary drain,
and the additional depth of water at the secondary
drainage flow, respectively referred to as static head
and hydraulic head. The sum of these depths is the
design depth for computing rain load, R, as indicated
in equation 16-36. An example of the computation of
rain load is provided in the following example [also
see Figure 1611.1(5)].
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Figure 1611.1(1)
SECONDARY ROOF DRAINAGE NOT REQUIRED
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
FLOW RATE (gpm)
Depth of water above drain inIet (hydrauIic head)
(inches)
1 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 7 8
4-inch-diameter drain
6-inch-wide, open-top scupper
24-inch-wide, open-top scupper
6-inch-wide, 4-inch-high, closed-top scupper
80
100
125
18
72
18
72
18
72
170
190
230
50
200
50
200
50
200
180
270
340
*
*
*
*
*
*
380
560
90
360
90
360
90
360
540
850
*
*
*
*
*
*
1,100
140
560
140
560
140
560
1,170
*
*
*
*
*
*
194
776
177
708
194
776
321
1,284
231
924
303
1,212
393
1,572
253
1,012
343
1,372
For S: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 gallon per minute = 3.785 L/m.
Source: Factory Mutual Engineering Corp. Loss Prevention Data 1-54.
Figure 1611.1(2)
FLOW RATE, IN GALLONS PER MINUTE, OF VARIOUS ROOF DRAINS AT
VARIOUS WATER DEPTHS AT DRAIN INLETS (INCHES)
Figure 1611.1(3)
SEPARATE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROOF DRAINS
EXAMPLE
Rain Load on Roof With OverfIow Scuppers
Given:
Primary roof drain and overflowscupper shown in Fig-
ure 1611.1(5).
Static head, d
s
= 7 inches
Tributary area, A = 5,400 square feet
Rainfall rate, i = 2.5 inches/hour = 0.208333
feet/hour
Determine:
Hydraulic head, d
h
Rain load, R
Calculate required flow rate, Q, at scupper in gal-
lons per minute (gpm).
Q =Ali =5400 square feet l0.2083feet/hour
= 1125 cubic feet/hour
= 18.75 cubic feet/minute
= 140.25 gpm
Look up hydraulic head using Figure 1611.1(2)
For 6 inches wide l 6 inches high scupper find 140
gpm.
d
h
= 4 inches
Determine rain load, R
Total head = (d
s
d
h
) = 11 inches
R = 5.2 (d
s
d
h
)
R = 57.2 psf
1611.2 Ponding instability. For rooIs with a slope less than
1
/
4
inch per Ioot |1.19 degrees (0.0208 rad)|, the design calcula-
tions shall include veriIication oI adequate stiIIness to preclude
progressive deIlection in accordance with Section 8.4 oI ASCE
7.
n roofs lacking sufficient framing stiffness, a condition
known as ponding instability can oc cur where in-
creasingly larger deflections caused by the continued
accumulation of rain water are large enough to over-
load the structure and result in a roof collapse. This
must be countered by providing adequate stiffness in
order to prevent increasingly larger deflections due to
the buildup of rain water. Another means to minimize
the accumulation of rain water is to camber the roof
framing. This section requires a check for ponding in-
stability if the roof slope is less than
1
/
4
inch per foot (1 :
48) [1.19 degrees (0.0208 rad)]. A ponding instability
check is to be made assuming the primary roof drains
are blocked. The determination of ponding instability
is typically done by an iterative structural analysis
where the incremental deflection is determined and
the resulting increased rain load from the deflection is
added to the original rain load.
1611.3 Controlled drainage. RooIs equipped with hardware
to control the rate oI drainage shall be equipped with a second-
ary drainage systemat a higher elevation that limits accumula-
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm,
1 cubic foot = 0.02832 m
2
, 1 pound = 0.454 kg,
1 pound per square foot = 47.88 Pa.
Figure 1611.1(4)
EQUATION 16-36 COEFFICIENT
tion oI water on the rooI above that elevation. Such rooIs shall
be designed to sustain the load oI rainwater that will accumu-
late on them to the elevation oI the secondary drainage system
plus the uniIormload caused by water that rises above the inlet
oI the secondary drainage systemat its design Ilowdetermined
Irom Section 1611.1. Such rooIs shall also be checked Ior
ponding instability in accordance with Section 1611.2.
Controlled drainage is the limitation of the drainage
flowrate to a rate that is less than the rainfall rate such
that the depth of the water intentionally builds up on
the roof during a design rainfall. Controlled flow roof
drain systems must be designed in accordance with
Section 1110 of the Florida Building Code, Plumbing.
A secondary roof drain system is needed to limit the
buildup of water to a specific depth for roof design.
The depth of water on the roof is also to include the
depth of the water above the inlet of the secondary
drain when the design flow rate is reached. Consider-
ation of the effect of the accumulated rainwater is
identical to assuming a blockage in the primary drain-
age system as discussed under Section 1611.1.
SECTION 1612
HIGH-VELOCITY HURRICANE ZONESGENERAL
1612.1 General design requirements.
1612.1.1 Any system, method oI design or method oI construc-
tion shall admit oI a rational analysis in accordance with
well-established principles oI mechanics and sound engineer-
ing practices.
Arational analysis may result in some designs that re-
quire less capacity than minimum prescriptive re-
quirements in various sections of the code. n those
cases, the prescriptive requirements would control
the design. Most of the prescriptive requirements
were developed following the aftermath of a hurricane
where notice was taken about what worked or didn't
work.
1612.1.2 Buildings, structures and all parts thereoI shall be
designed and constructed to be oI suIIicient strength to support
the estimated or actual imposed dead, live, wind, and any other
loads, both during construction and aIter completion oI the
structure, without exceeding the allowable materials stresses
speciIied by this code.
The loads recommended for wind, live, dead are all
considered to be reasonable from the experience of
the industry and its users. However such load criteria
may not be sufficient for specific uses such as storage
warehouses, elevated floors of retail sales, industrial
processing equipment, or parking garages that are
exposed to heavier vehicles. The designer has the re-
sponsibility to estimate the maximum loads the struc-
ture will expect to sustain over its useful life.
1612.1.3 No building structure or part thereoI shall be designed
Ior live loads less than those speciIied in this Chapter or ASCE
7 with commentary, except as otherwise noted in this code.
The adoption of ASCE 7 was resisted for many years
as being too conservative and therefore too costly.
The wind pressure values prior to Hurricane Andrew
in 1992 were such that the adoption of ASCE 7 repre-
sented an increase of 15 to 20 percent. Now with the
revisions to ASCE 7, together with other increases in
safety factors, the code has experienced a significant
change.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For S: 1 inch = 25.4 mm.
Figure 1611.1(5)
RAIN LOAD EXAMPLE
1612.1.4 The live loads set Iorth herein shall be assumed to
include the ordinary impact but where loading involves
unusual impact, provision shall be made by increasing the
assumed live load.
mpact loads are often associated with storage ware-
houses, industrial operations, and vehicular loading.
However other types of impact loads may be consid-
ered such as blowout walls for chemical plants and
the accidental or planned impact of structural mem-
bers that are the primary load bearing components of
the building.
Another impact load that is required to be consid-
ered is elevator impact loads. Elevator loads are gen-
erally increased by 100 percent for impact.
1612.1.5 In the design oI Iloors, not less than the actual live
load to be imposed shall be used. Special provisions shall be
made Ior machine or apparatus loads where applicable.
This section provides a reminder for the obvious
where very heavy loads can be anticipated. Problems
in the past have occurred on ground floor slabs where
the slab tself is structural. Because of soil conditions
the choice to make a warehouse slab structural for a
use such as the storage of tile or other heavy building
material has resulted in failures when such use was
not anticipated and the design called for a lighter stor-
age use.
1612.1.6 Floor and rooI systems shall be designed and con-
structed to transIer horizontal Iorces to such parts oI the struc-
tural Irame as are designed to carry these Iorces to the
Ioundation. Where rooIs or Iloors are constructed oI individual
preIabricated units and the transIer oI Iorces to the building
Irame and Ioundation is totally or partially dependent on such
units, the units and their attachments shall be capable oI resist-
ing applied loads in both vertical and both horizontal direc-
tions. Where rooIs or Iloors are constructed oI individual
preIabricated units and the transIer oI Iorces to the building
Irame and Ioundation is wholly independent oI such units, the
units and their attachments shall be capable oI resisting applied
loads normal to the surIace, in and out.
The use of prefabricated components such as
pre-cast columns, beams, floors, exterior wall panels,
staircases, in buildings for conventional use such as
office buildings, hospitals, and parking garages is
more frequently specified. Tilt-up concrete wall sys-
tems with steel joists have always fit this category
where the stability of the building is largely dependant
on the connections. Even though such heavier build-
ings offer substantial resistance to wind loading due to
their mass, the designer must insure that the connec-
tions including steel embedments, clip angles, shear
plates be substantial and protected from corrosion
due to water intrusion.
1612.2 General design for specific occupancies and struc-
tures.
1612.2.1 Fences. Fences not exceeding 6 Ieet (1829 mm) in
height Iromgrade may be designed Ior 75 mph (33 m/s) Iastest
mile wind speed or 90 mph (40 m/s) 3-second gust.
The reduction was intended to be a cost saving provi-
sion considering that such fences are not essential
structures such as an occupied building. Compliance
with this section usually means that fence posts are
spaced farther apart for metal and wood fences. Ama-
sonry fence will simply deflect or rotate on its founda-
tion. Compliance with these provisions should mini-
mize the potential for fences to become air borne
flying debris.
1612.2.1.1 Wood fences. Wood Ience design shall be as speci-
Iied by Section 2328.
1612.2.2 Sway forces in stadiums.
1. The sway Iorce applied to seats in stadiums, grandstands,
bleachers and reviewing stands shall be not less than 24
pounds per lineal Ioot (350 N/m), applied perpendicu-
larly and along the seats.
2. Sway Iorces shall be applied simultaneously with gravity
loads.
3. Sway Iorces need not be applied simultaneously with
other lateral Iorces.
The higher demand for the construction of stadiums
has resulted in industry good practice criteria to be in-
cluded in the code. The use of easily erected bleach-
ers both temporary and permanent has also been rec-
ognized as significant load carrying structures. t is not
anticipated that such structures will be occupied dur-
ing a high wind event so that item number 3 provides
such reduction.
SECTION 1613
HIGH-VELOCITY HURRICANE ZONES
DEFLECTION
1613.1 Allowable deflections. The deIlection oI any structural
member or component when subiected to live, wind and other
superimposed loads set Iorth herein shall not exceed the Iol-
lowing:
1. Roof and ceiling or components supporting plaster
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L/360
2. Roof members or components not supporting plaster
under . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L/240
3. Floor members or components . . . . . . . . . L/360
4. Vertical members and wall members or components
consisting of or supporting material that hardens in
place, is brittle or lacks resistance to cracking caused by
bendingstrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L/360
5. Vertical members and wall members or components
not required to meet the conditions of Section 1613.1,
item4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L/180
6. Roof and vertical members, wall members and panels
of carports, canopies, marquees, patio covers, utility
sheds and similar minor structures not to be considered
living areas, where the roof projection is greater than 12
feet (3.7 m) in the direction of the span, for free-stand-
ing roofs and roofs supported by existing structures.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Existing structures supporting such roofs shall be capa-
ble of supporting the additional loading . . . . L/180
7. For Group R3 occupancies only, roof and vertical
members, wall members and panels of carports, cano-
pies, marquees, patio covers, utility sheds and similar
minor structures not to be considered living areas,
where the roof projection is 12 feet (3.7 m) or less in the
direction of the span and for free standing roofs and
roofs supported by existing structures . . . . . . L/80
8. Members supporting screens only . . . . . . . . L/80
9. Storm shutters and fold-down awnings, which in the
closed position shall provide a minimum clear separa-
tion from the glass of 1 inch (25 mm) but not to exceed
2 inches (51 mm) when the shutter or awning is at its
maximumpoint of permissible deflection . . . . L/30
10. Roofs and exterior walls of utility sheds having maxi-
mum dimensions of 10 feet (3 m) length, 10 feet (3 m)
width, and 7 feet (2.1 m) height . . . . . . . . . L/80
11. Roofs and exterior walls of storage buildings larger
than utilitysheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L/180
Deflection of building components is tied to the perfor-
mance of the building under design loading. Generally
deflection limitations are prescribed by the industry
design standards for specific materials. While such
standards apply, the specific use or end product limi-
tation will also be required for hurricane zones.
The deflection criteria is based on live load only, not
live load and dead load.
The value of L/360 has been historically perceived
as the maximum deflection which can take place with-
out cracking brittle finish materials such as plaster.
The value of L/240 is considered to be a reasonable
deflection wherein full recovery for structural systems
is realized.
The value of L/180 is recognized as acceptable
when a building is occupied without discomfort .
The value of L/80 is utilized for less important struc-
tures where cost savings is the primary focus. Still
such structures are expected to remain in place and
recover fromthe affects of a hurricane. The value also
anticipates that an infrequent loading may occur such
as a person walking on the roof. Therefore the deflec-
tion limits may be more stringent than industry stan-
dards.
The value of L/30 is utilized for awnings and shutters
as the maximum deflection without permanent set
where it is not anticipated that any foot traffic will be
imposed.
SECTION 1614
VOLUME CHANGES
1614.1 Volume change. In the design oI any building, struc-
ture or portion thereoI, consideration shall be given to the relieI
oI stresses caused by expansion, contraction and other volume
changes.
This section is a reminder to designers that conditions
of significant temperature change do occur during the
year and even between day and night. The change of
volume in a building and the resulting loading such
change can produce, often results in the cracking and
deformation of structural and non-structural compo-
nents if not properly anticipated.
Other volume changes occur such as the result of
curing of cast-in-place concrete, the shrinking of fully
adhered waterproofing systems, and the absorption
of water or moisture.
The use of sliding bearing seats, expansion joints,
limitations of continuous surfaces, control joints and
slotted connectors just a few methods employed to
address this condition.
Expansion and contraction from temperature
changes can be predicted in whole or in part from
analysis provided it the various design standards for
building materials.
SECTION 1615
MINIMUM LOADS
1615.1 Live loads. Minimum uniIormly distributed live loads
shall not be less than as set Iorth in and Table 4-1 oI ASCE 7
with commentary, except as otherwise noted in this code.
1615.2 Concentrated loads. Minimum concentrated loads
shall not be less than as set Iorth in Table 4-1 oI ASCE 7 with
commentary, except as otherwise noted.
1615.2.1 Concentrated loads on trusses. Any single panel
point oI the lower chord oI rooI trusses or anypoint oI other pri-
mary structural members supporting rooIs over manuIactur-
ing, commercial storage and warehousing, and commercial
garage Iloors shall be capable oI saIely carrying a suspended,
concentrated load oI not less than 2,000 pounds (8896 N) in
addition to dead load. For all other occupancies, a minimum
load oI 200 pounds (890 N) shall be used.
t has been the experience that users may often utilize
a structure for loading that it was not otherwise de-
signed to support. The occupants of such uses stated
in this section seem to have that potential. The 2000
pounds actually came from the load an engine block
and chain assembly could produce. However it is the
responsibility of the architect or engineer of record to
designate concentrated loads on trusses such as air
handlers, storage attics, hot water heaters, and over
head doors if such items will rely upon the trusses for
support.
The concentrated load is considered as a separate
load case from uniform live load. t is not required to
be applied concurrent with the uniform live load.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1615
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS
See TabIes 4-1 of ASCE 7 with commentary,
except as otherwise noted beIow
OCCUPANCY OR USE
LIVE LOAD
POUNDS PER
SQUARE FOOT
Assembly proiection room
100
Balconies, Exterior (see also assembly)
Serving private units oI Group R
occupancies and not Ior assembly use
60
Balconies serving occupancies 80 psI or
less
80
All other balconies
100
Cabanas and bath house
50
Path oI egress servicing occupancies 80
psI or less
80
Path oI egress servicing occupancies over
80 psI
100
Recreational Iacilities
Including bowling centers, pool rooms and
similar uses
75
Storage:
Light
Medium
Heavy
75
125
250
1,2
For SI: 1 pound per square Ioot 47.88 Pa.
1. Use actual equipment weight when greater.
2. Increase when occupancy exceeds this amount.
SECTION 1616
ROOF LIVE LOADS
1616.1 Minimum roof live loads. RooIs shall be designed Ior
a live load oI not less than 30 psI (1436 Pa), except as set Iorth
herein.
Exceptions:
1. Glass areas oI greenhouse rooIs shall be designed Ior
a live load oI not less than 15 psI (718 Pa).
2. Ordinary pitched and curved rooIs, with a slope oI
1
1
/
2
:12, or greater, where water is not directed to the
interior oI the rooI, without parapet or other edge oI
rooI drainage obstructions, may be designed Ior an
allowable live load oI not less than 20 psI (958 Pa).
3. Utility sheds shall be designed Ior a live load oI not
less than 15 psI (718 Pa).
Rain water is referred to as a live load in this section.
Thirty pounds for roof live load was selected to be the
Equivalent of 5
1
/
2
inches of rain water on the roof. t is
anticipated that emergency overflow drains or sup-
pers must be placed so that no larger build up will oc-
cur. Of course the roof structure can be designed for
larger loads and more water if the drainage system is
such that it requires it. However roofing products and
membranes may not be able to accept the additional
pressure.
Exceptions were made if the roof surface configura-
tion was such that there is no possibility of a build up of
rainwater and sufficient slope exists to shed the roof of
water quickly.
The 20 psf live load permitted in Exception 2 ac-
counts for construction, maintenance, and repair live
loads.
1616.2 Special purpose roofs. RooIs used Ior assembly, rooI
gardens, promenade or walkway purposes shall be designed
Ior a minimum live load oI 100 psI (4788 Pa). Other special
purpose rooIs shall be designed Ior appropriate loads as
directed or approved by the building oIIicial.
The creation of recreational areas over parking ga-
rages and on roofs of residential buildings has been
incorporated into design preferences. Such uses em-
ploy large landscaping features such as large trees,
deep planters, and even swimming pools. Therefore,
in addition to the 100 psf live load anticipating per-
sons, other loading must be incorporated into the de-
sign for the specific areas.
1616.3 Roof decking. RooI decking shall be designed to sup-
port the live load set Iorth in 1616.1 or a load oI 100 pounds per
Ioot (445 N) applied as a 1 Ioot (305 mm) wide strip perpendic-
ular to, and at the center oI, the span oI the decking between
supports, whichever is more critical.
Wood decking is often used for promenades and
walking surfaces. Such decking becomes unstable for
strip loading between supports as it can deflect to the
extent that is not comfortable for occupants.
SECTION 1617
ROOF DRAINAGE
1617.1 Roof drainage. Where parapets or curbs are con-
structed above the level oI the rooI, provision shall be made to
prevent rain water Irom accumulating on the rooI in excess oI
that considered in the design, in the event the rain water drains,
conductors or leaders become clogged.
1617.2 Where rooIs are not designed in accordance with Sec-
tion 1617.1, overIlowdrains or scuppers shall be placed to pre-
vent an accumulation oI more than 5 inches (927 mm) oI water
on any portion oI the rooI. In determining the load that could
result should the primary drainage systembe blocked, the loads
caused by the depth oI water (i.e., head) needed to cause the
water to Ilow out the scuppers or secondary drainage system
shall be included.
n tropical climates the preponderance of trees and
other forms of vegetation together with inadequate
maintenance results in a potential for roof drains to
become clogged and non-functional. Excessive
build-up of rain water on a roof can cause a collapse of
the entire roof assembly. Therefore the restriction of
water run-off created by the parapet walls must be
compensated for with openings in the walls or over-
flow drains sufficient in size to eliminate such build-up
of rain water.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
1617.3 Drains or scuppers installed to provide overIlow drain-
age shall be not less in aggregate area than as shown in Figure
1617.3, but not less than 4 inches (102 mm) dimension in any
direction and shall be placed in parapets not less than 2 inches
(51 mm) nor more than 4 inches (102 mm) above the lowpoint
oI the Iinished rooIing surIace and shall be located as close as
practical to required vertical leaders, conductors or down-
spouts. The rooI area to be taken in the sizing oI the scuppers is
the horizontal proiection, except that, where a building wall
extends above the rooI in such a manner as to drain into the area
considered, the one-halI oI the area oI the vertical wall shall be
added to the horizontal proiection.
Wind driven rainwater can be intercepted by a vertical
wall that intersects a roof area causing additional
amounts of water to accummulate on the roof. The
minimumarea of the wall utilized for this phenomenon
is 50 percent.
1617.4 All rooIs shall be designed with suIIicient slope or cam-
ber to assure adequate drainage aIter the long term deIlection
Iromdead load, or shall be designed to support maximumloads
including possible ponding oI water caused by deIlection.
The long-term deflection of long span roofs due to
dead load is significant. f sufficient slope or camber,
along with proper drainage is not provided, ponding
may occur. The subsequent additional deflection due
to ponding may create an overload condition and re-
sult in collapse.
1617.5 Ponding loads. RooIs shall be designed to preclude
instability Irom ponding loads.
Ponding can occur as a result of a low area on a roof
that does not drain. Such low areas may be the result
of damaged insulation below. The subsequent deflec-
tion caused by such ponding may result in additional
ponding to a point of overload and collapse.
1617.6 Each portion oI a rooI shall be designed to sustain the
loads oI all rainwater that could accumulate on it iI the primary
drainage system Ior that portion is obstructed. Ponding insta-
bility shall be considered in this situation. II the overIlow
drainage provisions contain drain lines, such lines shall be
independent oI any primary drain lines.
Because of the concerns for a collapse, a redundant
and independent drainage system is required.
SECTION 1618
SPECIAL LOAD CONSIDERATIONS
1618.1 Floors. In the design oI Iloors, consideration shall be
given to the eIIect oI known or probable concentration oI loads,
partial concentrations oI loads, partial load, vibratory, transi-
tory, impact and machine loads. Design shall be based on the
load or combination oI loads that produces the higher stresses.
Multistory or vertical shopping centers are now being
utilized frequently where the type of individual stores
can change from time to time. Such uses which can
materially affect loading should be evaluated even
though the tenant or user may already be identified.
1618.2 Below grade structures.
1618.2.1 In the design oI basements, tanks, swimming pools
and similar below grade structures, provisions shall be made
Ior the Iorces resulting Irom hydrostatic pressure and lateral
pressure oI adiacent soil.
1618.2.2 For the lateral loads oI soil on belowgrade structures,
unless substantiated by more speciIic inIormation, the angle oI
repose oI Iragmental rock and natural conIined sand shall be 30
degrees and the angle oI repose oI Iilled soil and muck shall be
15 degrees to a horizontal line.
The values in this section are conservative and may
be used for preliminary design analysis. However the
building official may request a geotechnical soil analy-
sis to confirm actual conditions and loading.
1618.2.3 For the hydrostatic pressure on any Iloor below a
ground water level, calculations shall be based on Iull hydro-
static pressure, and such Iloors shall be designed Ior live load
without hydrostatic upliIt, and hydrostatic upliIt without live
load.
Ground water table heights vary during high intensity
rain events. This may result in a temporary fluctuation
that creates uplift due to hydrostatic pressure that
could cause the floor to lift. The dead load weight of
the floor and the effect of any tension piles may be uti-
lized when determining the potential for uplift occur-
ring. The live load requirements may not be used as it
is not reasonable to assume the live load will be pres-
ent when the water table rises. Relief vents are often
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
FIGURE 1617.3
REQUIRED AREA OF OVERFLOW SCUPPERS
placed throughout the area to allow the ground water
to temporarily flood the floor thereby preserving it.
1618.2.4 Private swimming pools may be designed with an
approved hydrostatic relieI valve or other device capable oI
preventing the pool water Irom being pumped to a level lower
than the surrounding ground water but such device shall not be
credited Ior more than 2 Ieet (610 mm) oI the diIIerence oI head
between the pool bottom and the Ilood criteria.
The goal of this section is to limit to only two feet of wa-
ter head which can be assigned to a hydrostatic relief
valve. The swimming pool must be designed such that
its own weight is able to resist the uplift created by the
balance of the hydrostatic pressure. The dead load
must be multiplied by a factor of 0.6 per Section 2.4.1
of ASCE 7.
1618.3 Helistops/heliports. In addition to other design
requirements oI this chapter, heliport and helistop loading or
touchdown areas shall be designed Ior the maximum stress
induced by the Iollowing:
1. Dead load plus actual weight oI the helicopter.
2. Dead load plus two single concentrated impact loads
approximately 8 Ieet (2.4 m) apart anywhere on the
touchdown pad (representing each oI the helicopter`s
two main landing gear, whether skid type or wheeled
type), with each concentrated load covering 1 square
Ioot (0.09 m
2
) and having a minimummagnitude oI 0.75
times the gross weight oI the helicopter. Both loads act-
ing together total a minimum oI 1.5 times the gross
weight oI the helicopter.
3. The dead load plus a uniIorm live load oI 60 psI (2873
Pa).
The use of helicopters has become almost routine in
daily emergency fire/rescue responses providing in-
centives to place such facilities on top of buildings and
other structures. The design guidelines are a consen-
sus from airport designers and industry standards.
However they are still considered as minimum stan-
dards and specific users are constantly revising such
standards. Therefore the designer must select the se-
ries of aircraft the facility will wish to service and in-
clude specific recommendations from the builders of
the aircraft as well as the receiving facility. Blast walls
and other features which may be required in the fu-
ture should be also considered.
The gross weight of the helicopter must include the
weight of the maximumnumber of passengers permit-
ted in the helicopter.
1618.4 Safeguards. SaIeguards shall be required in and
around buildings and structures such as covers, railings,
stair-railings, handrails or other saIeguards as deIined in the
regulations oI the Occupational SaIety and Health Administra-
tion (OSHA) 29 CFR Part 1910 as applied to permanent struc-
tures and as speciIied herein.
1618.4.1 Open or glazed wall openings; open or glazed sides oI
balconies, landings and other walking surIaces; unenclosed
Iloor and rooI openings; rooIs used Ior other than services Ior
the building or structure and any other abrupt diIIerences in
level exceeding 30 inches (762 mm), including yard areas,
shall be provided with saIeguards not less than 42 inches (1067
mm) in height.
This value was increased from 36 inches in the 1960's
when it was changed in NFPA 101 Life Safety Code.
Therefore many older buildings still have 36 inch rail-
ings. There is no mandate to replace older railings un-
less they fall into a state of disrepair and must be re-
placed.
1618.4.2 SaIeguards may be omitted at loading docks, truck
wells and similar locations where it is apparent that the edge oI
the higher level is Ior loading, and on docks, seawalls and deco-
rative Iountains where the lower level is the water surIace.
As a practical matter it is not feasible to place safe
guard railings at every change in elevation. The omis-
sion for facilities utilized for loading docks assumes
the general public is not invited to such locations. This
is not necessarily the case for warehouse sales and
other types of sales taking place. Therefore a consid-
eration for temporary or removable railings should be
made in the event the facility might be a candidate for
the general public occupation.
Walls and landings adjacent to water do not require
railings as long as an accidental slip or fall results in a
person landing in the water and not coming in contact
with any object. The intent of the code is that water
must be deep enough to limit the potential for personal
injury by contact with a hard surface. The ability for a
person to swim is not a consideration. However each
condition should be evaluated for its own merits. n
some instances the water may be very shallow from
time to time especially in tidal zones.
1618.4.3 SaIeguards in and around buildings oI other than
Group R occupancies shall be provided with additional rails,
vertical pickets or ornamental Iiller below the top rail that will
reiect a 6-inch (152 mm) diameter obiect.
This requirement was added to the codes in the early
1960's to prevent children and larger objects from fail-
ing through the railings.
1618.4.4 SaIeguards in and around buildings oI Group Roccu-
pancies shall provide protection Ior children by providing
additional rails, vertical pickets or an ornamental Iiller below
the top rail which will reiect a 4-inch (102 mm) diameter
obiect; permitting, however, such ornamental Iillers to have
individual openings not exceeding 64 square inches (.04 m
2
) in
area.
This spacing for picket openings was reduced to 4
inches in the 1980's when a series of accidents oc-
curred with children getting through the six inch picket
space and falling below. The requirement is not
retro-active and so residential buildings with 6 inch
spacing are still considered to be safe. Buildings with
4 inch spacings are considered to be safer.
1618.4.5 Where a balustrade is used to comply with the
requirements oI this paragraph, the maximum clearance
between the bottom rail oI the balustrade and the adiacent sur-
Iace shall not exceed 2 inches (51 mm). For saIeguards on
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
stairs, the 2-inch (51 mm) clearance shall be measured Iromthe
bottomrail oI the balustrade to a line passing through the tread
nosings.
Architectural balustrades have generally been de-
fined where the pickets terminate in a bottom railing
leaving a gap or clear space between the floor surface
and the rail. This gap must not be higher that 2 inches
for the purpose of preventing objects fromdropping off
the elevated floor to the levels below. The requirement
was originally part of the OSHAcriteria involving work-
ers who might be exposed to falling objects.
This criteria is also intended for any railing that ter-
minates with a bottom edge above the floor surface.
1618.4.6 Railing.
1618.4.6.1 Railings, stair-railings and other similar saIeguards
shall be designed to resist a load oI 50 pounds per lineal Ioot
(74 kg/m) or a concentrated load oI 200 pounds (690 N)
applied in any direction at the top oI such barriers at any loca-
tion on the saIeguard, whichever condition produces the maxi-
mum stresses. The reactions and stresses caused by the above
reIerenced uniIormand concentrated loads shall be considered
not be acting simultaneously.
This requirement also was adopted from NFPA 101
Life Safety Code wherein the original concept was to
accommodate persons exiting a building in the event
of a fire and accidentally coming into contact with rail-
ings at landings as they proceed down the stairs.
1618.4.6.2 Intermediate rails, balusters and panel Iillers shall
be designed Ior a uniIormhorizontal load oI not less than 25 psI
(1197 Pa) over the gross area oI the guard, including the area oI
any openings in the guard, oI which they are a part without
restriction by deIlection. Reactions resulting Irom this loading
need not be added to the loading speciIied in Section
1618.4.6.1 in designing the main supporting members oI
guards.
This requirement was a further refinement wherein 25
pounds was considered safe for children who might
accidentally come into contact with the pickets.
1618.4.6.3 SaIety glazing will be permitted as an equal alter-
nate to pickets, iI tested by an accredited laboratory to satisIy
the resistance requirements oI this code Ior wind, live and
kinetic energy impact loading conditions. The kinetic energy
impact loading shall comply with ANSI Z97.1 using a 400
Ioot-pound (542 N) energy impact. The saIety requirements oI
the impact test shall be iudged to have been satisIactorily met iI
breakage does not occur or numerous cracks and Iissures occur
but no shear or opening through which a 3-inch (76 mm) diam-
eter sphere may Ireely pass. The glass panel shall remain within
the supporting Irame.
This item was added in the 1970's with the advent of
the use of more glass railing system. The test consid-
ered the term safety glazing as be ing a railing sys-
temwith a intermediate layer of laminated plastic. The
term safety glazing has also been utilized by the in-
dustry for tempered glass as well since such glazing is
capable of passing the impact loading test.
The fact that tempered glass can easily shatter due
to point loading has not been considered. However it
may be considered when specifying railing where it is
foreseen that it may be exposed to repeated strikes
with a sharp pointed object.
1618.4.6.4 II the posts that support the top rail oI exterior rail-
ings are substituted with glass, the assembly shall be tested to
TAS201, where the impacted glass continues to support the top
rail and all applicable loads aIter impact.
1618.4.7 Areas in all occupancies Irom which the public is
excluded requiring such protection may be provided with verti-
cal barriers having a single rail midway between a top rail and
the walking surIace.
As a practical matter workers in, industrial plants with
catwalks, platforms and loading stages can be ham-
pered if pickets and other features are required in
safety railing systems.
1618.4.8 The last sentence oI the Iirst paragraph in Section
4.4.2 oI ASCE 7 is hereby deleted.
This section of ASCE 7 is deleted as it conflicts with
the previous criteria wherein the value of 20 pounds
per linear foot is applied to handrails instead of the
higher loading of 50 pounds per linear foot called for in
Section 1618.4.6.1 above.
1618.5 Vehicle safeguard barriers. Vehicle saIeguard barri-
ers are required in parking garages whenever there is a diIIer-
ence in level exceeding 1 Ioot (305 mm).
The requirement takes into account that multilevel
parking garages have interior ramps which are adja-
cent to each other and develop a vertical separation. t
is deemed that any separation over one foot may
cause a vehicle to go out of control and therefore must
be protected.
1618.5.1 Unless separate pedestrian saIeguards are provided
vehicle saIeguard barriers shall, in addition to the requirements
oI this section, meet all other requirements oI Section 1618.4.
This means that the openings and height require-
ments for pedestrians must be incorporated into the
vehicular safeguards. f cables are used to form vehi-
cle barriers then opening requirements are more diffi-
cult to obtain.
Also the question about parking garages that serve
Group R occupancies may need interpretation. t is
has been required that vehicular railing reject 4 inch
objects when such garages serve residential units.
1618.5.2 The requirement oI Section 1618.4.3 Ior the reiection
oI a 6-inch (152 mm) diameter obiect shall be met when the
barrier is subiected to a horizontal load oI 25 psI (1197 Pa),
applied as speciIied in Section 1618.4.6.2.
This section clarifies the issue of vehicular railings
that serve as safeguards for pedestrians as well. t is
not intended that the 6 inch opening criteria be met at
the same time the railing has come in contact with a
vehicle but rather with a pedestrian.
1618.5.3 Vehicle saIeguard barriers shall be capable oI resist-
ing a minimumhorizontal ultimate load oI 10,000 pounds (44.5
kN) applied 18 inches (457 mm) above the Iloor at any point in
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
the barrier system. This load need not be applied in combina-
tion with loads speciIied in Section 1618.4.6.1 and Section
1618.4.6.2. Vehicle saIeguard barrier systems oI metal Iram-
ing, concrete or masonry may be designed by allowable stress
design Ior a concentrated horizontal load oI 7,500 pounds (33
361 N) in lieu oI the 10,000 pounds (44.5 kN) ultimate load
speciIied above.
The requirement of 10,000 pounds is based upon a
vehicle moving at less that 5 miles per hour wherein
the driver inadvertently steps on the accelerator rather
than the brake when approaching a parking stall.
Such impact capacity will not keep vehicle that is out
of control from going through the wall. t not intended
that the 10,000 lbs be applied at each location at the
same time.
The 18 inches above the floor criteria is a lower pro-
jection point for many vehicles but is not intended to
designate the actual contact point for any vehicle.
1618.6 Special requirements for cable safeguard barriers.
1618.6.1 Horizontal deIlection under design load shall not
exceed 18 inches (457 mm).
f the front end of a vehicle extends more than 18
inches, it may become too close to the edge for
containment.
1618.6.2 The design load shall be assumed to be resisted by not
more than two cables.
The stress developed in two cables is based upon the
probability that two cables may be the only ones com-
ing into contact due to the configuration of the front
end, especially for smaller vehicles.
1618.6.3 The cable system including anchors shall be pro-
tected against corrosion.
Galvanized cables are highly recommended espe-
cially near coastal areas. The practice of covering ca-
ble with plastic coatings does not allow the cable to
dry out when moisture is present. Plastic coatings are
also vulnerable to ultra violet light
1618.6.4 Cable tension under design load shall not exceed 90
percent oI the yield strength oI the cable.
The cable is stressed to initial residual tension. When
a vehicle mpacts the cable it must be designed to
carry the corresponding tensile load while keeping the
deflection to 18 inches or less at the point of impact.
1618.6.5 The uppermost cable shall be at least 42 inches (1067
mm) above the adiacent surIace. Cables shall not be spaced
more than 6 inches (152 mm) apart.
This requirement satisfies the pedestrian safeguard
requirement unless it is in a garage that serves a resi-
dential occupancy.
1618.6.6 An installation plan prepared by the structural engi-
neer oI record shall be submitted to the building oIIicial Ior his
or her approval.
The plan should show the capacity of the anchors,
and any sleeves that the cables may go through.
1618.6.7 Installation shall be witnessed by the structural engi-
neer oI record who shall certiIy the Iollowing:
1. That the installation has been in accordance with the
approved installation plan.
2. That the initial tension designated by the structural engi-
neer oI record has been provided in all cables.
3. That all anchors have been seated at a total load, includ-
ing initial tension, equal to 85 percent oI the yield
strength oI the cable, unless a positive locking device is
provided that does not require a tension iack Ior the
tensioning oI the barrier strand.
f the ends of the cable are held with wedge anchors
and grippers, the wedges must be initially set with the
same stress required to produce the design load ten-
sion. n the past some cables have been set with an
initial tension of 2000 pounds by only stressing the
wedge anchor with 2000 pounds. This condition is not
acceptable because when the vehicle hits the cable,
only 2000 pounds of resistance will be possible when
approximately 10 times or more of that value should
be attainable.
1618.6.8 Drawings shall indicate the initial tension, the
expected increase in tension under vehicular impact and the
required maximum capacity oI the strand barrier system.
1618.7 Ornamental projections. Ornamental cantilevered
proiections on the exterior oI buildings shall be designed Ior
not less than 60 psI live load (2873 Pa) or 200 pounds per lineal
Ioot (2919 N/m) applied at the outer edge, whichever is more
critical.
1618.8 Interior wall and partitions. Permanent, Iull-height
interior walls and partitions shall be designed to resist a lateral
live load not less than 5 psI (239 Pa) and iI sheathed with lath
and plaster, deIlection at this load shall not exceed L/360.
1618.9 Load combination. The saIety oI structures shall be
checked using the provisions oI 2.3 and 2.4 oI ASCE 7 with
commentary.
Exception: Increases in allowable stress shall be permitted
in accordance with ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 provided
the load reduction Iactor oI 0.75 oI combinations 4 and 6 oI
ASCE 7 Section 2.4.1 shall not be applied.
SECTION 1619
HIGH VELOCITY HURRICANE ZONES LIVE
LOAD REDUCTIONS
1619.1 Application. No reduction in assumed live loads set
Iorth in this section shall be allowed in the design oI columns,
walls, beams, girders and Ioundations, except as permitted by
the provisions oI Section 4.8 ASCE 7 with commentary.
Exceptions:
1. No reduction oI the assumed live loads shall be
allowed in the design oI any slabs, ioists or other sec-
ondary members, except as set Iorth herein.
2. No reduction in rooI live loads shall be permitted
except as set Iorth by Section 1616.1.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
1619.2 Allowable live load reductions.
1619.2.1 Permissible reduction in live loads shall be as pro-
vided in Section 4.8.1 oI ASCE 7 with commentary.
1619.2.2 Limitations on live load reduction shall be as noted in
Section 4.8.2 oI ASCE 7 with commentary.
1619.2.3 No reduction in live loads shall be permitted Ior
buildings or structures oI Group A assembly occupancy.
SECTION 1620
WIND LOADS
1620.1 Buildings and structures, and every portion thereoI,
shall be designed and constructed to meet the requirements oI
Section 6 oI ASCE 7, as more speciIically deIined in this sec-
tion, based on a 50-year mean recurrence interval.
1620.2 Wind velocity (3-second gust) used in structural calcu-
lations shall be 140 miles per hour (63 m/s) in Broward County
and 146 miles per hour (65 m/s) in Miami-Dade County.
1620.3 All buildings and structures shall be considered to be in
Exposure Category Cas deIined in Section 6.5.6.3 oI ASCE7.
1620.4 For wind Iorce calculations, rooI live loads shall not be
considered to act simultaneously with the wind load.
t is unlikely that the roof would be subjected to any oc-
cupant or construction loading during a design wind
storm.
1620.5 Utility sheds shall be designed Ior a wind load oI not
less than 15 psI (718 Pa).
SECTION 1621
OVERTURNING MOMENT AND UPLIFT
1621.1 Computations Ior overturning moment and upliIt shall
be based on ASCE 7.
1621.2 Overturning and upliIt stability oI any building, struc-
ture or part thereoI taken as a whole shall be provided, and
shall be satisIied by conIorming to the load combination
requirements oI ASCE 7.
The provisions for HVHZ overturning moment and up-
lift of Section 1620 in the 2001 FBC is replaced with
load combinations 4 and 5 of Section 2.4.1 of ASCE7.
SECTION 1622
SCREEN ENCLOSURES
1622.1 Screen enclosures.
1622.1.1 The wind loads on screen surIaces shall be per ASCE
7 based on the ratio oI solid to gross area.
1622.1.2 Design shall be based on such loads applied horizon-
tally inward and outward to the walls with a shape Iactor oI 1.3
and applied verticallyupward and downward on the rooI with a
shape Iactor oI 0.7.
1622.2 Windbreakers.
1622.2.1 Vinyl and acrylic glazed panels shall be remov-
able. Removable panels shall be identiIied as removable by a
decal. The identiIication decal shall essentially state "Remov-
able panel SHALL be removed when wind speeds exceed 75
mph (34 m/s)." Decals shall be placed such that the decal is vis-
ible when the panel is installed.
1622.2.2 Permanent Irame shall be designed per section 1620
and 1622.1.2.
SECTION 1623
LIVE LOADS POSTED AND OCCUPANCY PERMITS
1623.1 Live loads posted. The live loads in every building,
structure or part thereoI oI Group F, Mor S Storage occupancy
approved by the building oIIicial shall be shown on plates sup-
plied by the owner or his authorized agent, in that part oI each
space to which such loads apply.
The plates indicate the maximum design loading a
floor is able to carry. This is especially effective in
warehouses where the structural capacity of the floor
maybe limited.
1623.1.1 Such plates shall be oI approved durable materials
displaying letters and Iigures not less than
3
/
8
inch (9.5 mm) in
height, and shall be securely aIIixed to the structure in conspic-
uous places.
1623.1.2 Such notices shall not be removed or deIaced and
where deIaced, removed or lost, it shall be the responsibility oI
the owner to cause replacement as soon as possible.
1623.2 Occupant loads. Plans Ior proposed buildings or struc-
tures oI Group F, M or S storage occupancy areas in buildings
oI any occupancy shall show the allowable loading Ior each
portion oI the Iloor and rooI areas and certiIicates oI use and
occupancy, as deIined in Section 110 oI this code, shall not be
issued until such loads are posted as set Iorth in Section 1623.1.
1623.2.1 Change in occupant load. No change in the occu-
pancy oI any building shall be made until a certiIicate oI occu-
pancy has been issued certiIying that the building oIIicial has
approved the building as suitable Ior the loads characteristic oI
the proposed occupancy.
1623.2.2 Maximumfloor androof loads observed. It shall be
unlawIul at any time to place, or permit to be placed, on any
Iloor or rooI oI a building or structure, a load greater than that
Ior which the Iloor or rooI is approved by the building oIIicial.
SECTION 1624
FOUNDATION DESIGN
1624.1 Design procedure. The minimum area oI a Iooting or
number oI piles under a Ioundation shall be determined in the
Iollowing manner:
1624.1.1 The total load oI the column that has the largest per-
centage oI the live load to the total load shall be divided by the
allowable soil pressure or pile capacity.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
1624.1.2 The balance soil pressure or pile capacity shall be
determined by dividing the total dead load by the area oI the
Iooting or the number oI piles.
1624.1.3 The minimum area oI other Iootings or number oI
piles shall be designed on the basis oI their respective dead
loads only.
1624.1.4 In no case shall the total load oI the combined dead,
live, wind and any other loads exceed the allowable bearing
pressure oI the soil Ior capacity oI any pile upon which the
Ioundation is supported.
1624.1.5 The live load used in the above calculations may be
the total reduced live load in the member immediately above
the Ioundation.
1624.1.6 The building oIIicial may require submittal oI design
computations employed in Ioundation design.
1624.2 Wind effects. Reserved.
1624.2.1 Reserved.
SECTION 1625
LOAD TESTS
1625.1 Application. Whenever there is insuIIicient evidence
oI compliance with the provisions oI this code or evidence that
any material or any construction does not conIorm to the
requirements oI this code, or in order to substantiate claims Ior
alternate materials or methods oI construction, the building
oIIicial may require testing by an approved agency, at the
expense oI the owner or his agent, as prooI oI compliance. Test-
ing methods shall be as speciIied by this code Ior the speciIic
material.
1625.2 Testing method. Such testing shall Iollow a nationally
recognized standard test, or when there is no standard test pro-
cedure Ior the material or assembly in question, the building
oIIicial shall require the material or assembly under dead plus
live load shall deIlect not more than as set Iorth in Section
1613, and that the material or assembly shall sustain dead load
plus twice the live load Ior a period oI 24 hours, with a recovery
oI at least 80 percent or a 100 percent recovery aIter one-halI
test load.
1625.3 Alternate test methods. When elements, assemblies
or details oI structural members are such that their load-carry-
ing capacity, deIormation under load, or deIlection cannot be
calculated by rational analysis, their structural perIormance
shall be established by test in accordance with test procedures
as approved by the building oIIicial based on consideration oI
all probable conditions oI loading.
1625.4 Fatigue load testing. Where cladding assemblies
(including cladding and connections) or rooIing Iraming
assemblies (including portions oI rooI structure and connec-
tions) are such that their load-carrying capacity or deIormation
under load cannot be calculated by rational analysis, the assem-
blies may be tested to resist the Iatigue loading sequence given
by Table 1625.4.
TABLE 1625.4
FATIGUE LOADING SEQUENCE
RANGE OF TEST NUMBER OF CYCLES
0 to 0.5p
2
600
0 to 0.6p 70
0 to 1.3p 1
1. Each cycle shall have minimumduration oI 1 second and a maximumdura-
tion oI 3 seconds and must be perIormed in a continuous manner.
2. p the design wind load Ior the height and location, when the assembly will
be used. For wall and rooI components, shape Iactors given in ASCE7 shall
be used.
Assemblies shall be tested with no resultant Iailure or distress
and shall have a recovery oI at least 90 percent over maximum
deIlection.
Any cladding assembly not incorporated into the Florida
Building Code. Building aIter successIully completing the
impact test outlined in Section 1626, shall be subiect to Iatigue
loading testing and shall obtain product approval by the build-
ing oIIicial.
SECTION 1626
IMPACT TESTS FOR WIND-BORNE DEBRIS
1626.1 All parts or systems oI a building or structure envelope
such as, but not limited, to exterior walls, rooI, outside doors,
skylights, glazing and glass block shall meet impact test criteria
or be protected with an external protection device that meets
the impact test criteria. Test procedures to determine resistance
to wind-borne debris oI wall cladding, outside doors, skylights,
glazing, glass block, shutters and any other external protection
devices shall be perIormed in accordance with this section.
Exception: The Iollowing structures or portion oI struc-
tures shall not be required to meet the provisions oI this sec-
tion:
a. RooI assemblies Ior screen rooms, porches, canopies,
etc. attached to a building that do not breach the exte-
rior wall or building envelope and have no enclosed
sides other than screen.
b. SoIIits, soIIit vents and ridge vents. Size and location
oI such vents shall be detailed by the designer and
shall not compromise the integrity oI the diaphragm
boundary.
c. Vents in a garage with Iour or Iewer cars. Size and
location oI such vents shall be detailed by the designer
and shall not exceed the minimum required area by
more than 25 percent.
d. Exterior wall or rooI openings Ior wall- or
rooI-mounted HVAC equipment.
e. Openings Ior rooI-mounted personnel access rooI
hatches.
I. Storage sheds that are not designed Ior human habita-
tion and that have a Iloor area oI 720 square Ieet (67
m
2
) or less are not required to comply with the manda-
torywindborne debris impact standards oI this code.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
g. Louvers as long as they properly considered ASCE 7
in the design oI the building.
h. Buildings and structures Ior marinas, cabanas, swim-
ming pools and greenhouses.
The requirement for shutters protecting windows ex-
isted as far back as the 1935 City of Miami Building
Code. But such requirements were not made in sub-
sequent codes as shutters were deemed to be too ex-
pensive to mandate.
n the aftermath of hurricane Andrew it was recog-
nized that building envelope failures were caused in
many cases due to the opening of the envelope from
wind driven debris. This was especially through vul-
nerable glass windows, garage doors and other un-
protected wall openings.
The mandate to protect such openings with shutters
was approved as a change in the South Florida Build-
ing Code in 1993.
Astandard for absorbing impact was necessary as
many homes that had flimsy shutters had been
heavily damaged as well. The intent was that at a min-
imum, shutters would be required for new single fam-
ily homes. Such homes were rarely more than 30 feet
high. Also an approach was taken that flying debris
was not a threat above (30) thirty feet. Thus multifam-
ily high rise buildings would not be required to have
large missile impact but be resistant to small missile
impact such as roof gravel.
Of course prudent owners of high rise condomini-
ums had been installing shutters for many years prior
to 1992.
The large missile impact test was actually a test that
was being used in Australia. The rational was that the
most likely object to penetrate the window of a home
in Australia was a 9 pound 2x4 batten traveling at 34
miles hour because their homes consisted of concrete
tile roofs on space sheathing utilizing 9 pound 2x4 bat-
tens.
The window industry requested to allow impact re-
sistant windows with impact glazing as a substitute.
Therefore product approved shutters or impact glass
windows was tested to this standard with a fewmodifi-
cations.
1626.2 Large missile impact tests.
1626.2.1 This test shall be conducted on three test specimens.
This test shall be applicable to the construction units, assem-
blies and materials to be used up to and including 30 Ieet (9.1
m) in height in any and all structures.
1626.2.2 The test specimens shall consist oI the entire assem-
bled unit, including Irame and anchorage as supplied by the
manuIacturer Ior installation in the building, or as set Iorth in a
reIerenced speciIication, iI applicable. Fasteners used in
mounting the test specimen shall be identical in size and spac-
ing to what is used in Iield installations.
1626.2.3 The large missile shall be comprised oI a piece oI tim-
ber having nominal dimensions oI 2 inches by 4 inches (51 mm
by 102 m) weighing 9 pounds (4.1 kg).
1626.2.4 The large missile shall impact the surIace oI each test
specimen at a speed oI 50 Ieet per second (15.2 m/s).
1626.2.5 Each test specimen shall receive two impacts except
as noted in Sections 1626.2.5.1 and 1626.2.5.2, the Iirst within
a 5-inch (127 mm) radius circle having its center on the mid-
point oI the test specimen and the second within a 5-inch (127
mm) radius circle in a corner having its center in a location 6
inches (152 mm) away Irom any supporting members.
1626.2.5.1 For window, glass block, Iixed glass and skylight
assemblies, both impacts shall be to glass or other glazing
inIill. For test specimens with more than one light oI glass, a
single light closest to the center oI the assembly shall be
selected and impacted twice in accordance with Section
1626.2.5. II a light oI glass is suIIiciently small to cause the
5-inch (127 mm) radius circle to overlap, two separate lights
shall be impacted one time each.
1626.2.5.1.1 For window, Iixed glass and skylight assemblies
comprised oI diIIerent glass thickness, types oI glass or diIIer-
ent types oI glazing inIill, each separate thickness or type shall
be impacted twice in accordance with Section 1626.2.5.
1626.2.5.2 For doors, wall cladding and external protection
devices, both impacts shall be to the thinnest section through
the assembly. For doors, wall cladding and external protection
devices with horizontal and/or vertical bracing, both impacts
shall be within a single area that is not reinIorced and shall be in
accordance with Section 1626.2.5.
1626.2.5.2.1 For doors with glass, the glass shall be impacted
twice and the thinnest section through the assembly that is not
glass shall be impacted twice in accordance with Section
1626.2.5.
1626.2.6 In the case oI glazing, iI the three test specimens that
comprise a test successIully reiect the two missile impacts, they
shall then be subiected to the cyclic pressure loading deIined in
Table 1626.
1626.2.6.1 II external protection devices are employed to pro-
tect windows, Iixed doors or skylights, they must resist the
large missile impacts speciIied in Sections 1626.2.3 and
1626.2.4 without deIormations which result in contact with the
windows, Iixed glass, glass block, and doors or skylights they
are intended to protect.
1626.2.6.2 II external protection devices are not designed to be
air tight, Iollowing the large missile impact test, they must
resist an application oI Iorce corresponding to those listed in
Table 1625.4 (Iatigue load testing) without detaching Irom
their mountings. The acting pressure cycles shall be simulated
with loads applied through a mechanical systemattached to the
shutter specimen to apply uniIormlyaround the shutter perime-
ter a Iorce equal to the product oI the required pressure and the
area oI the shutter specimen.
1626.2.7 II air leakage through the test specimen is excessive,
tape may be used to cover any cracks and ioints through which
leakage is occurring. Tape shall not be used when there is a
probability that it may signiIicantly restrict diIIerential move-
ment between adioining members. It is also permissible to
cover both sides oI the entire specimen and mounting panel
with a single thickness oI polyethylene Iilm no thicker than
0.050 mm(2 mils). The technique oI application is important in
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
order that the Iull load is transIerred to the specimen and that
the membrane does not prevent movement or Iailure oI the
specimen. Apply the Iilmloosely with extra Iolds oI material at
each corner and at all oIIsets and recesses. When the load is
applied, there shall be no Iillet caused by tightness oI plastic
Iilm.
1626.2.8 A particular system oI construction shall be deemed
to comply with this recommended practice iI three test speci-
mens reiect the two missile impacts without penetration and
resist the cyclic pressure loading with no crack Iorming longer
than 5 inches (127 mm) and
1
/
16
inch (1.6 mm) wide through
which air can pass.
1626.2.9 II only one oI the three test specimens in a test Iails to
meet the above listed criteria, one retest oI this system oI con-
struction (another test sequence with three specimens) shall be
permitted.
mpact resistant windows which have passed this test
are deemed to comply with the requirement that such
openings be protected. The performance is such that
the glass can crack as long as the 2x4 does not pene-
trate the plane of the glass with two applications and
as long as the crack is not wide enough to let air
through. Such glass will require replacement before
the next storm.
As a result of this test criteria, the quality of windows
and doors available to building owners has greatly in-
creased because the glass is much heavier and the
frames, hinges and sashes are much stronger to ac-
commodate the extra weight.
The quality of the metal shutters is also greatly im-
proved.
1626.3 Small missile impact test.
1626.3.1 This test shall be conducted on three test specimens.
This test shall be applicable to the construction units, assem-
blies, and materials to be used above 30 Ieet (9.1 m) in height in
any and all structures.
1626.3.2 Each test specimen shall consist oI the entire assem-
bled unit, including Irame and anchorage as supplied by the
manuIacturer Ior installation in the building, or as set Iorth in a
reIerenced speciIication, iI applicable. The Iasteners used in
mounting the test specimen shall be identical in size and spac-
ing to those to be used in Iield installations.
1626.3.3 The missiles shall consist oI solid steel balls each hav-
ing a mass oI 2 grams (0.07 oz) (/-5 percent) with a
5
/
16
-in. (7.9
mm) nominal diameter.
1626.3.4 Each missile shall impact the surIace oI each test
specimen at a speed oI 130 Ieet per second (40 m/s).
1626.3.5 Each test specimen shall receive 30 small missile
impacts except as noted in Sections 1626.3.5.1 and 1626.3.5.2
delivered in groups oI 10 at a time: the Iirst 10 distributed uni-
Iormly over a 2 square Ioot (0.19 m
2
) area located at the center
oI the test specimen, the second 10 distributed uniIormly over a
2 square Ioot area (0.19 m
2
) located at the center oI the long
dimension oI the specimen near the edge, and the third 10 dis-
tributed uniIormlyover a 2 square Ioot (0.19 m
2
) area located at
a corner oI the specimen.
1626.3.5.1 For window and skylight assemblies, all impacts
shall be to glass or other glazing inIill. For test specimens with
more than one light oI glass, a single light closest to the center
oI the assembly shall be selected and impacted in accordance
with Section 1626.3.5. II a light oI glass is suIIiciently small to
cause the 5-inch (127 mm) radius circles to overlap, separate
lights may be impacted; however, there must be a total oI 30
impacts within the assembly.
1626.3.5.1.1 For window, Iixed glass and skylight assemblies
comprised oI glass with diIIerent thickness, types oI glass or
diIIerent types oI glazing inIill, each separate thickness or type
shall be impacted in accordance with Section 1626.3.5.
1626.3.5.2 For doors, wall cladding and external protection
devices, all impacts shall be to the thinnest section through the
assembly. For doors, wall cladding and external protection
devices with horizontal and/or vertical bracing, all impacts
shall be within a single area that is not reinIorced and shall be
impacted in accordance with Section 1626.3.5.
1626.3.5.2.1 For doors with glass, the glass shall be impacted
in accordance with Section 1626.3.5 and the thinnest section
through the assembly that is not glass shall be impacted in
accordance with Section 1626.3.5.
1626.3.6 In the case oI glazing, aIter completion oI the small
missile impacts, each test specimen shall then be subiected to
the cyclic pressure loading deIined in Table 1626.
1626.3.6.1 II external protection devices are employed to pro-
tect windows, doors or skylights, they must resist the small
missile impacts speciIied in Sections 1626.3.3 and 1626.3.4
without deIormations that result in contact with the windows,
glass, doors or skylights they are intended to protect.
1626.3.6.2 II external protection devices are not designed to be
air tight, Iollowing the small missile impact test, they must
resist an application oI Iorce corresponding to those listed in
Table 1625.4 (Iatigue load testing) without detaching Irom
their mountings. The acting pressure cycles shall be simulated
with loads applied through a mechanical systemattached to the
shutter specimen to apply uniIormly around the shutter perime-
ter a Iorce equal to the product oI the required pressure and the
area oI the shutter specimen.
1626.3.7 II air leakage through the test specimen is excessive,
tape may be used to cover any cracks and ioints through which
leakage is occurring. Tape shall not be used when there is a
probability that it may signiIicantly restrict diIIerential move-
ment between adioining members. It is also permissible to
cover both sides oI the entire specimen and mounting panel
with a single thickness oI polyethylene Iilm no thicker than
0.050 mm (2 mils). The technique oI application is important
Ior the Iull load to be transIerred to the specimen and to insure
the membrane does not prevent movement or Iailure oI the
specimen. Apply the Iilmloosely with extra Iolds oI material at
each corner and at all oIIsets and recesses. When the load is
applied, there shall be no Iillet caused by tightness oI plastic
Iilm.
1626.3.8 A particular system oI construction shall be deemed
to comply with this test iI three test specimens reiect the small
missile impacts without penetration and resist the cyclic pres-
sure loading with no crack Iorming longer than 5 inches (127
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
mm) and
1
/
16
inch (1.6 mm) in width through which air can
pass.
1626.3.9 II only one oI the three test specimens in a test Iails to
meet the above listed criteria, one retest oI the system(another
test sequence with three specimens) oI construction shall be
permitted.
1626.4 Construction assemblies deemed to comply with
Section 1626.
1. Exterior concrete masonry walls oI minimum nominal
8-inch (203 mm) thickness, constructed in accordance
with Chapter 21 (High-Velocity Hurricane Zones) oI this
code.
2. Exterior Irame walls or gable ends constructed in accor-
dance with Chapter 22 and Chapter 23 (High-Velocity
Hurricane Zones) oI this code, sheathed with a minimum
19
/
32
-inch (15 mm) CDexposure 1 plywood and clad with
wire lath and stucco installed in accordance with Chapter
25 oI this code.
3. Exterior Irame walls and rooIs constructed in accordance
with Chapter 22 (High-Velocity Hurricane Zones) oI this
code sheathed with a minimum 24-gage rib deck type
material and clad with an approved wall Iinish.
4. Exterior reinIorced concrete elements constructed oI
solid normal weight concrete (no voids), designed in
accordance with Chapter 19 (High-Velocity Hurricane
Zones) oI this code and having a minimum2-in. (51 mm)
thickness.
5. RooI systems constructed in accordance with Chapter 22
or Chapter 23 (High-Velocity Hurricane Zones) oI this
code, sheathed with a minimum
19
/
32
-inch (15 mm) CD
exposure 1 plywood or minimum nominal 1-inch (25
mm) wood decking and surIaced with an approved rooI
system installed in accordance with Chapter 15 oI this
code.
All connectors shall be speciIied by the building designer oI
record Ior all loads except impact.
Designers are required to submit test data to verify the
envelope of the building has been tested for impact
from wind-borne debris. The only exception to this is
the construction assemblies deemed to comply as
listed above. These assemblies have been tested for
impact from wind-borne debris.
BibIiography
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STRUCTURAL DESIGN
TABLE 1626
CYCLIC WIND PRESSURE LOADING
INWARD ACTING PRESSURE OUTWARD ACTING PRESSURE
RANGE NUMBER OF CYCLES
RANGE
NUMBER OF
CYCLES
0.2 P
MAX
to 0.5 P
MAX
2
3,500 0.3 P
MAX
to 1.0 P
MAX
50
0.0 P
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MAX
3,350
NOTES:
1. Each cycle shall have minimum duration oI 1 second and a maximum duration oI 3 seconds and must be perIormed in a continuous manner 1.
2. P
MAX
denotes maximumdesign load in accordance with ASCE7. The pressure spectrumshall be applied to each test specimen beginning with inward acting pres-
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STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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STRUCTURAL DESIGN

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SECTION 1601

Farm buildings l/180

10. Dining rooms and restaurants 100

17. Garages (passenger vehicles only)

29. Reviewing stands, grandstands and

36. Stairs and exits

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