Science and Technology 1

Scientific Method orderly way of solving problems Hypothesis educated guess about what might be the answer test the hypothesis by doing an experiment Controlled Experiment one of the conditions or factors that may affect the results of the experiment is manipulated while others are held constant Trials the number of times the experiment is repeated Controls factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment Variables factors that change during an experiment Independent or Experimental Variables those that the experimenter herself is changing Dependent Variables factors that change due to changes in the independent variable Conclusion a statement about the results of the experiment Not all hypotheses can be proven correct. Sometimes, the results of the experiment contradict the hypothesis. When this happens, the hypothesis is rejected. A new or modified hypothesis is formulated. Law only describes what happens Theory a hypothesis that has been tested many times under many different conditions and has been found to explain a group of observations Model a description, picture or idea about something that cannot be viewed directly Different forms of energy: 1. Mechanical Energy energy of motion (kinetic) or energy of position (potential) of everyday objects 2. Chemical Energy energy associated with chemical reactions. A chemical reaction changes one kind of matter into another 3. Thermal Energy energy that causes changes in temperature in solids, liquids, and gases. It makes the particles of an object move faster 4. Electromagnetic Energy the energy given off by the sun that travels through space in the form of waves. It includes radio waves, X-rays, infrared, ultraviolet rays, and light waves 5. Electrical Energy the flow of electrons in a conductor 6. Nuclear Energy released when the nuclei of atoms combine or split Sources of Energy 1. Fossil Fuels most common source of energy. It includes coal, oil, and natural gas. Formed from the remains of plants and animals. 2. Earths Interior The interior of the earth is very hot and steam from such sources can be used to power turbines and generate electricity.

Geothermal energy the heat energy that comes from inside the earth. 3. Living Things Biomass includes all the materials in living things, their wastes, and their remains. About 13 % of the Philippines energy requirements come from biomass. 4. Wind Windmills are being used to generate electricity. The blades of a windmill act like a turbine. Wind moves the blades, causing them to rotate. The rotation (mechanical energy) is transformed into electricity by a generator. 5. Tides Ocean tides can be used to turn turbines to generate electricity. 6. Solar Energy comes directly from the sun.It can be changed directly to electrical energy. Solar collector captures energy from the sun. The Lithosphere Lithosphere the solid part of the earth. The temperature in the earths interior increases by 1C every 60 m.  Crust the outermost layer which is 11 to 32 km thick thin in ocean basins and thick in continents  Mantle about 2880 km thick solid part is made of the mineral olivine (magnesium-iron silicate)  Core the innermost layer Outer Core believed to be liquid and is about 2200 km thick Inner Core believed to be solid and is about 1400 km thick Topsoil layer on top of the ground Erosion movement of rock and soil particles from one area to another Surface Runoff water that runs across the land surface Soil Creep soil pulled down very slowly Landslide soil suddenly pulled down Strip Cropping used to prevent the washing down of soil after slopes have been smoothed and planted. Minerals naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with a definite chemical composition Rocks contains a single mineral but the majority consists of several minerals in varying proportions 1. Igneous Rocks cooled from molten lava 2. Sedimentary Rocks formed from sediments deposited on the ocean bottom 3. Metamorphic Rocks formed when igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks change due to pressure and temperature below the earths surface

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Earthquake sudden movement of the solid part of the earth, which may be due to movement along faults and fractures or volcanic eruptions Magma molten substances that cause flowing movements or currents deep down inside the earth Sea floor spreading younger sea floors are constantly being formed beneath the oceans happens particularly around what is called the mid-ocean ridge Materials from the Earth 1. Petroleum used to make fuel, plastics, industrial chemicals and medicines usually found deep in the earth under layers of rock kind of fossil fuel because it takes millions of years to form from decayed organisms Asphalt from the heavy parts of petroleum and is used mainly for road construction 2. Geothermal Energy can be harnessed from hot springs and volcanoes The heat obtained from beneath the ground can be used to generate electricity. Problems: Release of harmful substances like arsenic in areas where geothermal energy is being harnessed. a. Mineral naturally formed solid element or compound whose atoms and molecules are arranged together in definite orderly patterns called crystals Gems the most beautiful and highly treasured crystals b. Some minerals such as limestone and marble are found in large, often visible, quantities in the ground or in mountains called quarries Quarrying using large earth-moving equipment to obtain these minerals c. Metals usually found in rocks called ores Mine a mineral deposit in the earth where metallic ores can be extracted in large quantities for commercial use Mining involves digging tunnels or pits into the earth to obtain these ores Casting involves melting the metal into a liquid state before being poured into prepared molds and allowed to cool and harden Forging involves heating metals sufficiently until they are soft enough to be hammered and beaten into the desired shape. Dies metals which are ductile and can be drawn through very hard materials Malleable metals can be flattened into sheets by special pressing machines Alloys metals mixed with other metals or substances Steel iron + carbon

Stainless steel iron mixed with varying amounts of chromium, nickel, and manganese Nonmetallic minerals extracted from metamorphic igneous or sedimentary ore deposits mostly mined and used without much processing Examples of useful nonmetallic minerals are graphite, talc, and quartz. Sand, gravel, and limestone are also classified as nonmetallic minerals. Problems to the environment: 1. Whole forests or mountains are cleared away to make way for the mine and its support facilities 2. Improper disposal of wastes causes air and water pollution Continental Drift Theory states that all the land masses of the earth were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea which eventually broke apart and drifted to their present locations Sea floor spreading the outward flow of magma to both sides Crustal plates moving slabs of the earths crust Plate Tectonics Theory the continents and oceans are like passengers on a raft or boxes being transported along a giant conveyor belt. Subduction sinking of a plate at the boundary of another plate as a result of rising magma Trench a long, narrow, steep-sided depression on the ocean floor Folding Anticline the upward fold Syncline the downward fold The upward movements result in raised curved land, forming mountains. The downward movements form valleys. Fault cracks in the surface of the earth Earthquake any movement or shaking of the ground which lasts anywhere from a few seconds to a couple of minutes Tectonic earthquakes due to the movement of tectonic plates or shifting of faults. Volcanic molten magma can also cause earthquakes as it forces its way up from under the earths crust Epicenter the point on the earths crust where an earthquake originates Tsunami a large mass of water displaced by an earthquake which can smash into nearby coastal areas

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Two terms used to convey information about an earthquake: 1. Intensity - the measure of the human reaction to the ground movement, and of the damage to the ground surface such as cracks and landslides Rossil-Forel Scale of Earthquakes Intensities scale use to measure the intensity of an earthquake. 2. Magnitude measures the energy released by an earthquake Richter Magnitude Scale Each increase of one on the scale represents an increase in ground motion by a factor of 10. Thus, an earthquake of magnitude 7 is 10 times stronger than an earthquake of magnitude 6. The Hydrosphere Hydrosphere the liquid part of the earth 1. Over 90 percent of these waters are in the oceans and seas. 2. The remaining 10 percent of the earths water is found in lakes, rivers, glaciers, under the ground, and in the atmosphere as water vapor or clouds. Only about 0.6 % of Earths water is liquid and fresh, and most of this is underground. The Water Cycle

Gully formed as rainwater continues to flow along the same path, removing more materials from it Stream a gully that grows bigger and wider River a stream that gets bigger El Nio in English, means, The Little Boy or Christ Child refers to the appearance of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean which usually arrives around Christmas time causes unusually long dry spells La Nia a condition characterized by unusually cold temperatures in the ocean waters of the Equatorial Pacific. Water Pollution: Endangering the Hydrosphere The following are proofs that indeed, our hydrosphere is in great danger. Eutrophication The growth and spread of algae and other water weeds in many bodies of water Fast Destruction of Marine Life coral reefs are being destroyed by illegal fishing practices like muro ami and dynamite fishing. The Atmosphere Atmosphere blanket of air surrounding the earth Layers of the Atmosphere 1. Troposphere layer nearest to earth; the layer where the weather occurs 2. Stratosphere lies above troposphere; contains the ozone layer 3. Mesosphere coldest zone with temperature about 80C 4. Ionosphere / Thermosphere layer of electrically charged particles 5. Exosphere boundary between the earth and outer space Weather condition of the atmosphere at any given time and place Climate the average weather over a long period of time Sea Breeze wind blowing from sea to the land Land Breeze wind blowing from land to the sea Atmospheric Gases Nitrogen 79% Oxygen 20% Other gases 1% Greenhouse effect excess carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere form a blanket around the earth which traps heat energy from the sun, causing the earths temperature to rise. Ozone layer fragile and delicate part of the atmosphere being destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons compounds used in products such as aerosol sprays and refrigerators(Freon)

Salinity salt content Buoyancy upward lift of water Continental Shelf a shallow area of the ocean near the land mass Continental Slope area of continental shelf where the ocean becomes deeper Upwelling upward movement of water Current large strong movements of water Density Current formed when saltwater meets with freshwater

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Ozone a gas that has molecules made up of three oxygen atoms. It screens the earth from the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun Rock formation Igneous rocks are hard and tough. They can either be fine, grained or glassy Examples of igneous rocks are diorite, andesite, granite, gabbro, basalt, mica, quartz, feldspar, and obsidian. Sedimentary Rocks made from continuous hardening of mineral deposits at the bottom of bodies of water Sediments fine rock particles which settle at the bottom The most common type of sedimentary rocks are conglomerate, sandstone, limestone, and shale. Metamorphic rocks Under great pressure and heat, igneous and sedimentary rocks change in texture, color, and crystal structure. The most common type of metamorphic rocks are marble, gneiss and quartzite. Soil Formation Microscopic bacteria plays an important part in turning the deposited organic matter into humus. The result is one of our most precious natural resources soil. Weathering break down of rocks Topsoil loose, porous, and usually dark top layer darker than the deeper layer because of the presence of humus Subsoil located below the topsoil and is a lighter more compact layer Soil Erosion the transfer of soil from one place to another due to natural agents like water, wind or gravity Convection Current When air molecules are heated, they acquire energy and move faster and farther apart from each other. Since the spaces between the molecules increase, the density of the air decreases. Because warm air is light, it rises. As warm air rises, it leaves behind partially empty space where there are few air molecules. Thus, a low-pressure area is created. Cold air which has molecules that are close to each other, and thus has greater density, moves in to fill this area. Then, as this mass of cold air is heated, the process repeats itself. This process is called convection. Wind moving air caused by uneven heating of the earths surface, both land and sea always blow from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure Coriolis effect influence on wind circulation by the earths rotation

Monsoons winds that blow by season toward either continents or oceans because of differences in air pressure and air temperature Amihan the first monsoon that blows from the northeast during December to February Northeast monsoon brings cold winds from Siberia and Mongolia Habagat blows from the southwest during June to September Southwest monsoon brings much rain, having absorbed much moisture from the surrounding seas before reaching the Philippines Tropical Cyclones and Typhoons Tropical cyclone called a hurricane in the western hemisphere called a typhoon in the eastern hemisphere originates in open waters where the sun heats large tracts of ocean A typhoon starts out as a low pressure area. Depression winds of less than 60 kilometers per hour Storm maximum winds between 60 and 118 kilometers per hour Typhoon maximum winds of more than 118 kilometers per hour Eye the low-pressure center around where these powerful winds rotate; calm part of the storm Storm surges huge waves caused by the action of strong winds on the surface of the sea. Global warming due to the greenhouse effect is widely believed to cause rapid change in weather patterns. Floods, landslides, and sea surges are possible to occur during a tropical cyclones. Precautionary measures must be observed during these occurrences. Our planet spins around counterclockwise on its axis at 27.6 km per minute or 1,656 kph. Rotation spinning motion of the earth around its axis We see that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west because the earth rotates from west to east in a counterclockwise direction. The earth completes its rotation every 24 hours. Earth is tilted 23.5 with the vertical as it moves around the sun. Revolution motion of a body around a fixed point or axis Ellipse earths orbit around the sun Perihelion - closest to the sun at 147 million kilometers Aphelion farthest from the sun at 152 million kilometers

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Tides effect of the gravitational pull of the moon; makes sea level rise / fall, depending on the location and time of the day Spring Tides when the sun, moon, and Earth are aligned, the tides add up, causing higher than the average high tides and lower than the average low tides. Neap tides when the moon is halfway between a new moon and a full moon, the tides due to the sun and moon almost cancel each other out. This is when we have high tides that are lower than the average high tides, and low tides that are higher than the average low tide. Lunar eclipse occurs when the earth is directly between the sun and moon the moon seems to disappear because the planets shadow blocks the moons view from observers on Earth can happen only during the full moon phase Solar eclipse occurs when the moon is directly between the sun and the earth the moon covers the sun from the view of the observers on Earth can happen only during the new moon phase The Solar System Solar system composed of the sun and all the bodies that revolve around it. Dust Cloud Theory states that the solar system is formed when a dust cloud began to rotate. Its movement grew faster and faster until the dust and gas flattened into a dish-shaped cloud which separated into eddies Ptolemaic model states that the earth is the center of the solar system Heliocentric model work of Nicolaus Copernicus which states that the sun is the center of the solar system Satellite bodies that orbit another body Planet satellites of the sun Asteroids minor planets that are either chunks of rock that failed to form together as a planet or fragments of a planet that exploded Meteor the earth a small piece of interplanetary dust, called a meteoroid, that falls on

Comets chunks of ice and dust that originates from near the edge of the solar system Halleys Comet the most famous of comets, orbits the sun approximately every 76 years Galaxies stars that exist in big groups Milky Way Galaxy consists of our star, the sun, with its family, the solar system Light-year distance light travels in one year, equal to 9.24 x 1012 kilometers. Constellations area within a set of celestial boundary lines Horizon line which makes a circle around your head The Planets Terrestrial planets small and solid planets made up of rock and metal These are the four inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) Gas giants have solid cores, but they are made up mostly of gases These are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The eight planets orbit the sun in the same directionfrom east to west. Uranus, however, appears to move in the opposite direction for some short periods. This happens when Uranus gets near Neptune. This phenomenon is called perturbation of Uranus orbit. Life and Death of Stars Blue-white star (young star) Yellow Star White Dwarf Black Dwarf (dying star)

Protostar Red Star

Supernova exploding star that may cause interference to our communication systems. Blackhole a massive star that has a gravity so strong that its radiations are bent back to itself and cannot leave the star light cannot escape from it

visible to the naked eye for a second or less as a streak of light on a clear night Meteorites fragments of asteroids

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