TABLE OF CONTENT Acknowledgements 1. INTRODUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBER 2. HISTORY 3. CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBER CABLE 4. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 5.

MODES IN OPTICAL FIBER 6. OPTICAL FIBER CABLE 7. ADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER 8. DISPERSSION 9. ATTENUTION 10. LIGHT SCATTERING 11. OPTICAL SOURCES 12. OPTICAL DETECTORS 13. LIMITATION OF OPTICAL FIBER 14. APPLICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER 15. FUTURE APPLICATION 16. TELECOM WINDOWS 17. INTRODUCTION TO SDH/SONET 18. SONET/SDH RELATIONSHIP TO 10 GIGABIT ETHERNET 19. EQUIPMENT 20. NETWORK ARTHITECTURE 21. SYNCHRONIZATION 22. DWDM 23. CONCLUSION

REPORT ON:-

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS

SUBMITTED BY:-

SAMEER RAJ ECE SEVENTH SEM INDERAPRASTHA ENGG. COLLEGE

SUBMITTED TO:-

MOBILE FACULTY(ALTTC) GHAZIABAD

Acknowledgements First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my teachers who has Supported me throughout my report, with his patience and knowledge. I Attribute the level of my bachelor degree to his encouragement and effort and without him this report, too would not have been completed or written. One simply could not wish for a better or friendlier. The authors also wish to thank the other faculty members, for their valuable suggestions and directions. I am also indebted to the many countless contributors to the Internet, online optical fiber community, PDF file editors, Microsoft office for providing the numerous documents and tools I have used to produce both my report, data and figure. Department of Mobile Faculty(ALTTC) has provided the support I have needed to produce and complete my seminar report. I also thanks for my batch mates for providing constant encouragement, Support and valuable suggestions during the development of the report. Finally, I thank my parents, uncle for supporting me throughout my report through various methods.

Introduction to optical fiber

An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of very pure glass (silica) not much wider than a human hair that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers. An optical fiber junction box. The yellow cables are single mode fibers; the orange and blue cables are multi-mode fibers: 50/125 m OM2 and 50/125 m OM3 fibers respectively. Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those that only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for shortdistance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,050 meters (3,440 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with heat. Special optical fiber connectors for removable connections are also available.

HISTORY
Fiber optics, though used extensively in the modern world, is a fairly simple and old technology. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London a dozen years later. Tyndall also wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in 1870: "When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular... When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface.... The angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 4827', for flint glass it is 3841', while for diamond it is 2342'."[3][4]In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods to illuminate body cavities. Alexander Graham Bell invented a 'Photophone' to transmit voice signals over an optical beam.[6]Jun-ichiNishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, also proposed the use of optical fibers for communications in 1963, as stated in his book published in 2004 in India.[8][9]Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), making fibers a practical communication medium.[10] They proposed that the attenuation in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities that could be removed, rather than by fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly and systematically theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber, and pointed out the right material to use for such fibers silica glass with high purity. This discovery earned Kao the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.[11]The crucial attenuation limit of 20 dB/km was first achieved in 1970, by researchers Robert D. Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter C. Schultz, and Frank Zimar working for American glass maker Corning Glass Works, now Corning Incorporated. They demonstrated a fiber with 17 dB/km attenuation by dopingsilica glass with titanium. A few years later they produced a fiber with only 4 dB/km attenuation using germanium dioxide as the core dopant. Such low attenuation ushered in optical fiber

telecommunication. In 1981, General Electric produced fused quartzingots that could be drawn into fiber optic strands 25 miles (40 km) long

Construction of Optical Fiber Cable: An optical fiber is a very thin strand of silica glass in geometry quite like a human hair. In reality it is a very narrow, very long glass cylinder with special characteristics. When light enters one end of the fiber it travels (confined within the fiber) until it leaves the fiber at the other end. An optical fiber consists of two parts: the core and the cladding. The core is a narrow cylindrical strand of glass and the cladding is a tubular jacketsurrounding it. The core has a (slightly) higher refractive index than the cladding. Light travelling along the core is confined by the mirror to stay within it even when the fiber bends around a corner. A fiber optic cable has an additional coating around the cladding called thejacket. The jacket usually consists of one or more layers of polymer. Its role is to protect the core and cladding from shocks that might affect their optical or physical properties. It acts as a shock absorber. The jacket also provides protection from abrasions, solvents and other contaminants. The jacket does not have any optical properties that might affect the propagation of light within the fiber optic cable. OPTICAL FIBER APPLICATIONS
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT,[17][18] although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed systems.[19][20] Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). For short distance applications, such as a network in an office building, fiber-optic cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than electrical cables such as standard category 5 Ethernet cabling,

which typically runs at 1 Gbit/s. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables, and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment in high voltage environments, such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping (in this case, fiber tapping) is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation have also managed 69.1 Tbit/s over a single 240 km fiber (multiplexing 432 channels, equating to 171 Gbit/s per channel). Bell Labs also broke a 100 Petabit per second kilometer barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber. Index of refraction The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 kilometres (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical

value for the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.52. The core value is typically 1.62. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of thumb is that signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or to put it another way, to travel 1000 kilometers in fiber, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 12000 kilometer distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or around 1/16 of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. (Of course the fiber in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice onto the fiber). Total internal reflection

When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle

greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to spliceand work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA. Multi-mode fiber

Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a step-index multimode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle

(measured relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. Single-mode fiber Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or monomode fiber. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes

Optical fiber cables

An optical fiber cable In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resinbuffer layer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer, usually glass. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical

wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put lightabsorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.[45][46] Fiber cable can be very flexible, but traditional fiber's loss increases greatly if the fiber is bent with a radius smaller than around 30 mm. This creates a problem when the cable is bent around corners or wound around a spool, making FTTX installations more complicated. "Bendable fibers", targeted towards easier installation in home environments, have been standardized as ITU-T G.657. This type of fiber can be bent with a radius as low as 7.5 mm without adverse impact. Even more bendable fibers have been developed.[48] Bendable fiber may also be resistant to fiber hacking, in which the signal in a fiber is surreptitiously monitored by bending the fiber and detecting the leakage.[49] Another important feature of cable is cable withstanding against the horizontally applied force. It is technically called max tensile strength defining how much force can applied to the cable during the installation period.

Termination and splicing

ST connectors on multi-mode fiber. Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as FC, SC, ST, LC, or MTRJ. Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion splicing, which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For quicker fastening jobs, a "mechanical splice" is used. Fusion splicing is done with a specialized instrument that typically operates as follows: The two cable ends are fastened inside a splice enclosure that will protect the splices, and the fiber ends are stripped of their protective polymer coating (as well as the more sturdy outer jacket,

if present). The ends are cleaved (cut) with a precision cleaver to make them perpendicular, and are placed into special holders in the splicer. The splice is usually inspected via a magnified viewing screen to check the cleaves before and after the splice. The splicer uses small motors to align the end faces together, and emits a small spark between electrodes at the gap to burn off dust and moisture. Then the splicer generates a larger spark that raises the temperature above the melting point of the glass, fusing the ends together permanently. The location and energy of the spark is carefully controlled so that the molten core and cladding do not mix, and this minimizes optical loss. A splice loss estimate is measured by the splicer, by directing light through the cladding on one side and measuring the light leaking from the cladding on the other side. A splice loss under 0.1 dB is typical. The complexity of this process makes fiber splicing much more difficult than splicing copper wire. Advantage of Optical fiber:Fiber optic transmission systems a fiber optic transmitter and receiver, Connected by fiber optic cable offer a wide range of benefits not offered by traditional copper wire or coaxial cable. These include: _ Less Expensive.First, fiber optics are less expensive than copper wire. This is because many miles of optical cable are easier and less expensive to install than the same amount of copper wire or cable. _ Thinner.Fiber optics is thinner than copper wire cables, so they will fit in smaller, more crowded places. This is important for underground cable systems, like in cities, where space needs to be shared with sewer pipes, power wires, and subway systems. _ Higher Carrying Capacity.More information can also be carried over fiber optic systems. This can be especially important for computers, since a computer has to send so much information at one time. Also, more phone lines can be in one optical fiber. Many people use the same optical cable for phone conversations at the same time.

_ Less signal degradation. Information gets lost over distances an any kind of wire. But, fiber optic cables dont lose as much signal (information) as other kinds of wires and cables. _ Use Light Signals.Because fiber optics use light signals instead of electricity, the signals dont interfere with each other. This makes the signals clearer and easier to understand. _ Low Power.Optical fiber signals are created using low-power transmitters because the signal degrades less (instead of highpower electric transmitters used for copper wires). Lower power use saves money for users and providers. _ Digital Signals.Computer networks need digital information, since fiber optic cables send information digitally; they are the best thing to use for computer networks. _ Non-flammable.Since fiber optics send light instead of electricity, fiber optics are non-flammable. This means there is not a fire hazard. Fiber optics also does not cause electric shocks, because they do not carry electricity. _ Light weight.Fiber optics is easier to install and transport than copper wires. That is good news for technicians _ Flexible.Since fiber optics is more flexible, they can go around corners and into tighter places than traditional cable. This is important in computer and very big office networks. Other benefits are:_ The fiber is totally immune to virtually all kinds of interference, including lightning, and will not conduct electricity. It can there- fore come in direct contact with high voltage electrical equipment and power lines. It will also not create ground loops of any kind. _ As the basic fiber is made of glass, it will not corrode and is unaffected by most chemicals. It can be buried directly in most kinds of soil or exposed to most corrosive atmospheres in chemical plants without significant concern. _ Fiber optic cables are virtually unaffected by outdoor atmospheric conditions, allowing them to be lashed directly to telephone poles or existing electrical cables without

concern for extraneous signal pickup. _ Fiber optic cable is ideal for secure communications systems because it is very difficult to tap but very easy to monitor. In addition, there is absolutely no electrical radiation from a fiber. Advantage of optical fiber communication:_ Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is directly proportional to the carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier frequency is in the range 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz and the microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater transmission bandwidth than the conventional communication systems and the data rate or number of bits per second is increased to a greater extent in the optical fiber communication system. Further the wavelength division multiplexing operation by the data rate or information carrying capacity of optical fibers is enhanced to many orders of magnitude. _ Low transmission loss: Due to the usage of the ultra low loss fibers and the erbium doped silica fibers as optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless transmission. In the modern optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a transmission loss Of 0.002 dB/km are used. Further, using erbium doped silica fibers

over a short length in the transmission path at selective points; appropriate optical amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater spacing is more than 100 km. Since the amplification is done in the optical domain itself, the distortion produced during the strengthening of the signal is almost negligible. _ Dielectric waveguide: Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical insulator. Therefore they do not pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current lightning. It is also suitable in explosive environments. Further the optical fibers are not affected by any interference originating from power cables, railway power lines and radio waves. There is no cross talk between the fibers even though there are so many fibers in a cable because of the absence of optical interference between the fibers. _ Signal security: The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the signal cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical fiber communication provides hundred per cent signal security. _ Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are flexible, compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without damage. Further, the optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of storage,

handling, installation and transportation, maintaining comparable strength and durability. DISPERSION

Dispersion occurs when a pulse of light is spread out during transmission on the fiber. A short pulse becomes longer and ultimately joins with the pulse behind, making recovery of a reliable bit stream impossible. (In most communications systems bits of information are sent as pulses of light. 1 = light, 0 = dark. But even in analogue transmission systems where information is sent as a continuous series of changes in the signal, dispersion causes distortion.) There are many kinds of dispersion, each of which works in a different way, but the most important three are discussed below:
8.1Material dispersion (chromatic dispersion):-

Both lasers and LEDs produce a range of optical wavelengths (a band Of light) rather than a single narrow wavelength. The fiber has different refractive index characteristics at different wavelengths and therefore each wavelength will travel at a different speed in the fiber. Thus, some wavelengths arrive before others and a signal pulse disperses (or smears out).

Intermodal dispersion (Mode Dispersion):-

When using multimode fiber, the light is able to take many different paths or modes as it travels within the fiber. The distance traveled by light in each mode is different from the distance travelled in other modes. When a pulse is sent, parts of that pulse (rays or quanta) take many different modes (usually all available modes). Therefore, some components of the pulse will arrive before others. The difference between the arrival times of light taking the fastest mode versus the slowest obviously gets greater as the distance gets greater.
8.3 Waveguide dispersion:-

Waveguide dispersion is a very complex effect and is caused by the shape and index profile of the fiber core. However, this can be controlled by careful design and, in fact, waveguide dispersion can be used to counteract material dispersion. Dispersion in different fibers: Mode dispersion > .material dispersion >waveguide dispersion. ATTENUATION

Figure:-6. Fiber Infrared Absorption Spectrum. The lower curve shows the characteristics of a single-mode fiber made from a glass containing about 4% of germanium dioxide (GeO2) dopant in the core. The upper curve is for modern graded index multimodefibre. Attenuation in multimode fiber is higher than in singlemode because higher levels of dopant are used. The peak at around 1400 nm is due to the effects of traces of water in the glass.

Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam with respect to distance

travelled through a transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending losses. Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po). Optical input power is the power injected into the fiber from an optical source. Optical output power is the power received at the fiber end or optical detector.

Each mechanism of loss is influenced by fiber-material properties and fiber structure. However, loss is also present at fiber connections i.e. connector, splice, and coupler losses.
Absorption loss:-

Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors: _ Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material _ The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties _ The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing molecules or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the glass fiber. Intrinsic Absorption.- Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fibermaterial properties. If an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption. Extrinsic Absorption.- Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, OH ions are introduced into the fiber during fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these metal ions from one energy level to another.

Light scattering:Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured. During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the average density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the fiber interacts with the density areas as shown in Light is then partially scattered in all direction.

Figure: - 7(Scattering process)

In commercial fibers operating between 700-nm and 1600-nm wavelength, the main source of loss is called Rayleigh scattering.. As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases. If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the scattering mechanism is called Mie scattering. Bending loss:As light travels along the fiber, it is reflected from the interface between the core and cladding whenever it strays from the path straight down the Center. When the fiber is bent, the light only stays in the fiber because of this reflection. But the reflection only works if the angle of incidence is relatively low. If you bend the fiber too much the light escapes. The amount of allowable bending is specific to particular cables because it depends on the difference in refractive index, between core and cladding. The bigger the difference in refractive index, the tighter the allowable bend radius. There is a tradeoff here because there are many other reasons that we would like to keep this difference as small as

possible. Two types of losses are there.microbend loss or macro bend loss. Micro bends losses are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is cabled. Micro bend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fiber. External forces are also a source of micro bends.

Figure:-8 Bending loss

Optical Sources:There are two kinds of devices that are used as light sources: Lasers and LEDs. LED: - LED is just a forward biased p-n junction. There is a recombination of holes and electrons. This recombination requires energy possessed is the unbound free electron is transferred to another state. In all semiconductor p-n junctions some of this energy will be given off as heat and some in the form of photons .In silicon and germanium greater percentage is given up in the form of heat and the emitted light is insufficient. In other material, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or gallium phosphide (GaP) , the number of photos of light energy emitted is sufficient to create a very visible light source. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of energy is called electroluminescence.
Operation of LEDs:-

The wavelength of light emitted by the LED is inversely proportional to the band gap energy. The higher the energy the shorter the wavelength. The formula relating electron energy to wavelength is given below.

The materials of which the LED is made determine the wavelength of light emitted. The following table shows energies and wavelengths for commonly used materials in semiconductor LEDs and lasers.

means that a p-n junction is formed by a single crystal such that the material on one side of the junction differs from that on the other side of the junction. In the modernGaAs diode lasers, a hetero junction is formed between GaAs andGaAlAs. This type of p-n junction diode laser or LED is used at 800 m wavelength. At longer wavelengths, InP-InGaAsPheterojunction
Heterojunctions (Practical LEDs):- Heterojunction

Figure: Hetrojunction LED

diodes are used. Generally heterojunction LEDs have minimum threshold current density (10 A/mm2), high output power (10 mW) even with low operating current (<500 mA) high coherence and high monochromaticity, high stability and longer life. _ Low Cost _ Low Power _ Relatively Wide Spectrum Produced _ Incoherent Light _ Digital Modulation _ Analogue Modulation Lasers:LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Lasers produce far and away the best kind of light for optical communication. Ideal laser light is singlewavelength only. This is related to the molecular characteristics of the material being used in the laser. It is formed in parallel beams and is in a single phase. That is, it is coherent. _ Lasers can be modulated (controlled) very precisely (the record is a pulse length of 0.5 femto seconds. _ Lasers can produce relatively high power. Indeed some types of laser can produce kilowatts of power. In communication applications, semiconductor lasers of power up to about 20 mill watts are available. This is many times greater power than LEDs can generate. Other semiconductor lasers (such as those used in pumps for optical amplifiers) have outputs of up to 250 mill watts. _ Because laser light is produced in parallel beams, a high percentage (50% to 80%) can be transferred into the fiber.
11.2.1 Principle of the LASER:-

Characteristics of LEDs:-

1.An electron within an atom (or a molecule or an ion) starts in a low energy stable state often called the ground state.

2. Energy is supplied from outside and is absorbed by the atomic structure whereupon the electron enters an excited (higher energy) state. 3. A photon arrives with energy close to the same amount of energy as the electron needs to give up reaching a stable state. (This is just another way of saying that the wavelength of the arriving photon is very close to the wavelength at which the excited electron will emit its own photon.)

Figure:-Principle of operation of laser

Figure: Spontaneous Emission

4. The arriving photon triggers a resonance with the excited atom. As a result the excited electron leaves its excited state and transitions to a more stable state giving up the energy difference in the form of a photon._ The critical characteristic here is that when a new photon is emitted it has identical wavelength, phase and direction characteristics as the exciting photon. Note: The photon that triggered (stimulated) the emission itself is not absorbed and continues along its original path accompanied by the

newly emitted photon. Optical Detectors:The predominant types of light detector used in communications systems rely on the principle of ionization in a semiconductor material. When discussing photo detectors there are four important parameters: Detector Responsivity:-This is the ratio of output current to input optical power. Hence this is the efficiency of the device. Spectral Response Range:-This is the range of wavelengths over which the device will operate. Response Time:-This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond to variations in the input light intensity. Noise Characteristics:Photoconductors:-

Photoconductors are the simplest conceivable optical detector. The device consists of a piece of (undoped) semiconductor material with electrical contacts attached. A voltage is applied across the contacts. When a photon arrives in the semiconductor it is absorbed and an electron/hole pair is created. Under the influence of the electric field between the two contacts the electron and the hole each migrate toward one of the contacts. Wave length depends on amount of light falling .

Figure: Photoconductor detector

Photodiodes:-

Photodiodes convert light directly to electric current. An ideal (p-i-n) diode can convert one photon to one electron of current
P-N Diodes:-

The principle involved in a PIN diode is simply the principle of the LED in reverse. That is, light is absorbed at a p-n junction rather than emitted. The big problem here is that the depletion zone in a p-n junction is extremely thin. But current produced is insufficient and devices are not fast enough for current communications.

P-I-N Diodes:Figure:- Silicon P-I-N Diode Schematic

The answer to the problem created by the extreme thinness of a p-n junction is to make it thicker! The junction is extended by the addition of a very lightly doped layer called the intrinsic zone between the p and n doped zones. Thus the device is called a p-i-n diode rather than a p-n diode. The wide intrinsic (i) layer has only a very small amount of dopant and acts as a very wide depletion layer. There are a number of improvements here: _ It increases the chances of an entering photon being absorbed because the volume of absorbent material is significantly increased. _ Because it makes the junction wider it reduces the capacitance across the junction. The lower the capacitance of the junction the faster the device response. Increasing the width of the depletion layer favors current carriage by the drift process which is faster than the diffusion process. The result is that the Addition of the i layer increases the responsivity and decreases the response time of the detector to around a few tens of picoseconds.

Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs):-

APDs amplify the signal during the detection process. They use a similar principle to that of photomultiplier tubes used in nuclear radiation detection.
Methodology of Conduction in APDs:-

1. A single photon acting on the device releases a single electron. 2. This electron is accelerated through an electric field until it strikes a

target material
Figure:-Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

3. This collision with the target causes impact ionization which releases multiple electrons. 4. These electrons are then themselves accelerated through the field until they strike another target. 5. This releases more electrons and the process is repeated until the electrons finally hit a collector element. APDs develop a very high electric field in the intrinsic region as well as to impart more energy to photoelectrons to produce new electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. This impact ionization leads to avalanche breakdown in the reverse biased diode. So the APDs have high sensitivity and high responsivity over p-i-n diodes due to the avalanche multiplication.

Limitations of Optical Fiber:1. The terminating equipment is still costly as compared to copper wire. 2. Delicate so has to be handled carefully. 3. Communication is not totally in optical domain, so repeated electric to optical to electrical conversion is needed. 4. Optical amplifiers, splitters, MUX-DEMUX are still in development stages. 5. Tapping is not possible. Specialized equipment is needed to tap a fiber. 6. Optical fiber splicing is a specialized technique and needs expertly trained manpower. 7. The splicing and testing equipments are very expensive as compared to copper equipments. 8. Bending Cables 9. Gamma Radiation 10. Electrical Fields 11. Sharks Eat the Cable 12. Gophers (and Termites) Really Do Eat the Cable Applications of Optical Fiber:Due to the advantages of fiber optic over the traditional connectivity networks, networks are being changed to the new technology of fiber optic. Here is some applications use fiber optics for the communication: _ Long Haul telecommunication systems on land and at sea to carry many simultaneous telephone calls (or other signals) over long distances. These include ocean spanning submarine cables and national backbone networks for telephone and computer data transmission. _ Interoffice trunks that carry many telephone conversations

simultaneously between local and regional switching facilities. _ Connections between the telephone N/W and antennas for mobile telephone service. _ Links among computers and high resolution video-terminals used for such purposes as computer aided design. _ Transmission of signals within ships and aircraft. _ Local area Networks operating at high speeds or over large areas, and backbone systems connecting slower local area Networks. _ High speed interconnections between computer and peripherals devices, or between computers, or even within segments of single large _ Cable TV,CCTV ,Optical Fiber Sensors, X-ray Imaging ,Night Vision Other uses of optical fibers _ Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light Some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building . _ Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art, and artificial Christmas trees. _ Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics i.e. an endoscope, which is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes are used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. _ Inspectroscopy, optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. _ Aspectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of

and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels. Future Applications of Optical Fiber Communication:Today, however, lower costs and higher production volumes mean that fiber optics can now make sense in areas where it didn't before, including relatively short distances. _ Fiber technologies provide higher bandwidth, higher speed, and increased reliability over existing DSL technology, which uses Copper wires for communication. _ In future it will be possible to have Wave length Band in Radio compare to FM band (where synchronizing is done through frequency).In Wavelength band Channels will have Different wavelengths (earlier, it was once just one wavelength of light traveling through the fiber, today it is more like 160 wavelengths traveling at once.).So as research is going on number of wavelength per fiber is increasing. _ In cars, fiber optics is replacing copper as a lighter alternative for entertainment systems, CD players, and global positioning systems. _ Research is going on to integrate semiconductor devices, including a transistor, inside micro structured optical fibers. Then it will be possible to manipulate signals inside optical fibers. After these developments there will be not any need of electronic switching devices at both ends of fiber. So signal will never leave fiber. This results in faster cheaper and more efficient operation. _ INTEL has developed new technology to connect PC USB to Optical Fiber. So direct communication can be achieved between users through Optical Fiber
Advancement in Fiber Optics: Advancement in Communications: -

_ In the research world, fiber is enabling the creation of clocks that are more accurate than ever before, By combining a laser with an optical fiber, these clocks allow scientists to measure time more accurately than they've been able to previously, enabling better,

more precise. _ By using Fiber optics it is possible to prepare more reflective and shining cloths. _ Room Lighting may improve. Now you can imagine a home with cheerful splashes of natural sunlight in every room at once. Lighting Colourwili be changed. So, by using some almost invisible optical fibers to an outside light source, they could bring natural, outside light to a space that needs. _ This is new way to get sunlight into a place that wouldn't otherwise have it. Such as a dark, interior room. _ Fiber-optic light bulbs have already been developed, and may be an additional way to tap into fiber optics for household lighting. Telecom Windows Optical fiber communications typically operate in a wavelength region corresponding to one of the following telecom windows:
y

The first window at 800900 nm was originally used. GaAs/AlGaAs-based laser diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) served as transmitters, and silicon photodiodes were suitable for the receivers. However, the fiber losses are relatively high in this region, and fiber amplifiers are not well developed for this spectral region. Therefore, the first telecom window is suitable only for short-distance transmission. The second telecom window utilizes wavelengths around 1.3 m, where the loss of silica fibers is much lower and the fibers' chromatic dispersion is very weak, so that dispersive broadening is minimized. This window was originally used for long-haul transmission. However, fiber amplifiers for 1.3 m (based on, e.g. on praseodymium-doped glass) are not as good as their 1.5- m counterparts based on erbium. Also, low dispersion is not

necessarily ideal for long-haul transmission, as it can increase the effect of optical nonlinearities.
y

The third telecom window, which is now very widely used, utilizes wavelengths around 1.5 m. The losses of silica fibers are lowest in this region, and erbium-doped fiber amplifiers are available which offer very high performance. Fiber dispersion is usually anomalous but can be tailored with great flexibility ( dispersionshifted fibers).

The second and third telecom windows are further subdivided into the following wavelength bands: Band Description O band original E band extended S band short wavelengths Wavelength range 12601360 nm 13601460 nm 14601530 nm

C band conventional (erbium window) 15301565 nm L band long wavelengths U band ultralong wavelengths 15651625 nm 16251675 nm

The second and third telecom windows were originally separated by a pronounced loss peak around 1.4 m, but they can effectively be joined with advanced fibers with low OH content which do not exhibit this peak.

INTRODUCTION TO SDH ( SYNCHRONUS DIGITAL HIEARCHY) Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or lightemitting diodes (LEDs). Lower data rates can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The method was developed to replace the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting larger amounts of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without synchronization problems. SONET and SDH, which are essentially the same, were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications (e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different sources, but they were primarily designed to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded in PCMformat.The primary difficulty in doing this prior to SONET/SDH was that the synchronization sources of these various circuits were different. This meant that each circuit was actually operating at a slightly different rate and with different phase. SONET/SDH allowed for the simultaneous transport of many different circuits of differing origin within a single framing protocol. SONET/SDH is not itself a communications protocol per se, but a transport protocol. Due to SONET/SDH's essential protocol neutrality and transportoriented features, SONET/SDH was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames. It quickly evolved mapping structures and concatenated payload containers to transport ATM connections. In other words, for ATM (and eventually other protocols such as Ethernet), the internal complex structure previously used to transport circuit-oriented connections was removed and replaced with a large and concatenated frame (such as OC-3c) into which ATM cells, IP packets, or Ethernet frames are placed.

Racks of Alcatel STM-16 SDH add-drop multiplexers Both SDH and SONET are widely used today: SONET in the United States and Canada, and SDH in the rest of the world. Although the SONET standards were developed before SDH, it is considered a variation of SDH because of SDH's greater worldwide market penetration. The SDH standard was originally defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), and is formalized as International Telecommunications Union (ITU) standards G.707, G.783, G.784, and G.803. The SONET standard was defined by Telcordia and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard T1.105. Difference from PDH Synchronous networking differs from Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) in that the exact rates that are used to transport the data on SONET/SDH are tightly synchronized across the entire network, using atomic clocks. This synchronization system allows entire inter-country networks to operate synchronously, greatly reducing the amount of buffering required between elements in the network. Both SONET and SDH can be used to encapsulate earlier digital transmission standards, such as the PDH standard, or they can be used to directly support either Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or so-called packet over SONET/SDH (POS) networking. As such, it is inaccurate to think of SDH or SONET as communications protocols in and of themselves; they are generic, all-purpose transport containers for moving both voice and data. The basic format of a SONET/SDH signal allows it to carry many different services in its virtual container (VC), because it is bandwidth-flexible.

Protocol overview SONET and SDH often use different terms to describe identical features or functions. This can cause confusion and exaggerate their differences. With a few exceptions, SDH can be thought of as a superset of SONET. The protocol is an extremely heavily-multiplexed structure, with the header interleaved between the data in a complex way. This permits the encapsulated data to have its own frame rate and be able to "float around" relative to the SDH/SONET frame structure and rate. This interleaving permits a very low latency for the encapsulated data. Data passing through equipment can be delayed by at most 32 microseconds (s), compared to a frame rate of 125 s; many competing protocols buffer the data during such transits for at least one frame or packet before sending it on. Extra padding is allowed for the multiplexed data to move within the overall framing, as the data is clocked at a different rate than the frame rate. The protocol is made more complex by the decision to permit this padding at most levels of the multiplexing structure, but it improves all-around performance. The basic unit of transmission The basic unit of framing in SDH is a STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1), which operates at 155.52 megabits per second (Mbit/s). SONET refers to this basic unit as an STS-3c (Synchronous Transport Signal 3, concatenated) or OC-3c, depending on whether the signal is carried electrically (STS) or optically (OC), but its high-level functionality, frame size, and bit-rate are the same as STM-1. SONET offers an additional basic unit of transmission, the STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal 1) or OC-1, operating at 51.84 Mbit/s exactly one third of an STM-1/STS-3c/OC-3c carrier. This speed is dictated by the bandwidth requirements for PCM-encoded telephonic

voice signals: at this rate, an STS-1/OC-1 circuit can carry the bandwidth equivalent of a standard DS-3 channel, which can carry 672 64-Kbit/s voice channels.[3] In SONET, the STS-3c/OC-3c signal is composed of three multiplexed STS-1 signals; the STS-3C/OC-3c may be carried on an OC-3 signal. Some manufacturers also support the SDH equivalent of the STS-1/OC-1, known as STM-0. Framing In packet-oriented data transmission, such as Ethernet, a packet frame usually consists of a header and a payload. The header is transmitted first, followed by the payload (and possibly a trailer, such as a CRC). In synchronous optical networking, this is modified slightly. The header is termed the overhead, and instead of being transmitted before the payload, is interleaved with it during transmission. Part of the overhead is transmitted, then part of the payload, then the next part of the overhead, then the next part of the payload, until the entire frame has been transmitted. In the case of an STS-1, the frame is 810 octets in size, while the STM1/STS-3c frame is 2,430 octets in size. For STS-1, the frame is transmitted as three octets of overhead, followed by 87 octets of payload. This is repeated nine times, until 810 octets have been transmitted, taking 125 s. In the case of an STS-3c/STM-1, which operates three times faster than an STS-1, nine octets of overhead are transmitted, followed by 261 octets of payload. This is also repeated nine times until 2,430 octets have been transmitted, also taking 125 s. For both SONET and SDH, this is often represented by displaying the frame graphically: as a block of 90 columns and nine rows for STS-1, and 270 columns and nine rows for STM1/STS-3c. This representation aligns all the overhead columns, so the overhead appears as a contiguous block, as does the payload.

The internal structure of the overhead and payload within the frame differs slightly between SONET and SDH, and different terms are used in the standards to describe these structures. Their standards are extremely similar in implementation, making it easy to interoperate between SDH and SONET at any given bandwidth. In practice, the terms STS-1 and OC-1 are sometimes used interchangeably, though the OC designation refers to the signal in its optical form. It is therefore incorrect to say that an OC-3 contains 3 OC1s: an OC-3 can be said to contain 3 STS-1s.

SDH frame An STM-1 frame. The first nine columns contain the overhead and the pointers. For the sake of simplicity, the frame is shown as a rectangular structure of 270 columns and nine rows but the protocol does not transmit the bytes in this order.For the sake of simplicity, the frame is shown as a rectangular structure of 270 columns and nine rows. The first three rows and nine columns contain regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the last five rows and nine columns contain multiplex section overhead (MSOH). The fourth row from the top contains pointers. The STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1) frame is the basic transmission format for SDHthe first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy. The STM-1 frame is transmitted in exactly 125 s, therefore, there are 8,000 frames per second on a 155.52 Mbit/s OC-3 fiber-optic circuit.[nb 1] The STM-1 frame consists of overhead and pointers plus

information payload. The first nine columns of each frame make up the Section Overhead and Administrative Unit Pointers, and the last 261 columns make up the Information Payload. The pointers (H1, H2, H3 bytes) identify administrative units (AU) within the information payload. Thus, an OC-3 circuit can carry 150.336 Mbit/s of payload, after accounting for the overhead.[nb 2] Carried within the information payload, which has its own frame structure of nine rows and 261 columns, are administrative units identified by pointers. Also within the administrative unit are one or more virtual containers (VCs). VCs contain path overhead and VC payload. The first column is for path overhead; it is followed by the payload container, which can itself carry other containers. Administrative units can have any phase alignment within the STM frame, and this alignment is indicated by the pointer in row four. The section overhead (SOH) of a STM-1 signal is divided into two parts: the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex section overhead (MSOH). The overheads contain information from the transmission system itself, which is used for a wide range of management functions, such as monitoring transmission quality, detecting failures, managing alarms, data communication channels, service channels, etc. The STM frame is continuous and is transmitted in a serial fashion: byte-by-byte, row-by-row. SONET/SDH and relationship to 10 Gigabit Ethernet Another type of high-speed data networking circuit is 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE). The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance created two 10 Gigabit Ethernet variants: a local area variant (LAN PHY) with a line rate of 10.3125 Gbit/s, and a wide area variant (WAN PHY) with the same line

rate as OC-192/STM-64 (9,953,280 Kbit/s). The WAN PHY variant encapsulates Ethernet data using a lightweight SDH/SONET frame, so as to be compatible at a low level with equipment designed to carry SDH/SONET signals, whereas the LAN PHY variant encapsulates Ethernet data using 64B/66B line coding. However, 10 Gigabit Ethernet does not explicitly provide any interoperability at the bitstream level with other SDH/SONET systems. This differs from WDM system transponders, including both coarse and dense wavelength-division multiplexing systems (CWDM and DWDM) that currently support OC-192 SONET signals, which can normally support thin-SONETframed 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

SONET/SDH data rates SONET/SDH Designations and bandwidths SONET Optical Carrier Level OC-1 OC-3 OC-12 OC-24 OC-48 SONET Frame Format STS-1 STS-3 STS-12 STS-24 STS-48 SDH level and Payload Line Rate bandwidth(Kbit/s) (Kbit/s) Frame Format STM-0 STM-1 STM-4 STM-16 50,112 150,336 601,344 1,202,688 2,405,376 51,840 155,520 622,080 1,244,160 2,488,320

OC-192 OC-768

STS-192 STS-768

STM-64

9,621,504

9,953,280 39,813,120

STM-256 38,486,016

User throughput must also deduct path overhead from the payload bandwidth, but path-overhead bandwidth is variable based on the types of cross-connects built across the optical system. Note that the data-rate progression starts at 155 Mbit/s and increases by multiples of four. The only exception is OC-24, which is standardized in ANSI T1.105, but not a SDH standard rate in ITU-T G.707. Other rates, such as OC-9, OC-18, OC-36, OC-96, and OC-1536, are defined but not commonly deployed; most are considered orphaned rates.The next logical rate of 160 Gbit/s OC-3072/STM-1024 has not yet been standardized, due to the cost of high-rate transceivers and the ability to more cheaply multiplex wavelengths at 10 and 40 Gbit/s.

Summary of transmission rates Equipment With advances in SONET and SDH chipsets, the traditional categories of network elements are no longer distinct. Nevertheless, as network architectures have remained relatively constant, even newer equipment (including multi-service provisioning platforms) can be examined in light of the architectures they will support. Thus, there is value in viewing new, as well as traditional, equipment in terms of the older categories.

Regenerator Traditional regenerators terminate the section overhead, but not the line or path. Regenerators extend long-haul routes in a way similar to most regenerators, by converting an optical signal that has already traveled a long distance into electrical format and then retransmitting a regenerated high-power signal. Since the late 1990s, regenerators have been largely replaced by optical amplifiers. Also, some of the functionality of regenerators has been absorbed by the transponders of wavelength-division multiplexing systems. Add-drop multiplexer

Add-drop multiplexers (ADMs) are the most common type of network elements. Traditional ADMs were designed to support one of the network architectures, though new generation systems can often support several architectures, sometimes simultaneously. ADMs traditionally have a high-speed side (where the full line rate signal is supported), and a low-speed side, which can consist of electrical as well as optical interfaces. The low-speed side takes in low-speed signals, which are multiplexed by the network element and sent out from the high-speed side, or vice-versa. Digital cross connect system

Recent digital cross connect systems (DCSs or DXCs) support numerous high-speed signals, and allow for cross-connection of DS1s, DS3s and even STS-3s/12c and so on, from any input to any output. Advanced

DCSs can support numerous subtending rings simultane

Schematic diagram of hybrid communication network Network architectures SONET and SDH have a limited number of architectures defined. These architectures allow for efficient bandwidth usage as well as protection (i.e. the ability to transmit traffic even when part of the network has failed), and are fundamental to the worldwide deployment of SONET and SDH for moving digital traffic. Every SDH/SONET connection on the optical Physical layer uses two optical fibers, regardless of the transmission speed.

Linear Automatic Protection Switching Linear Automatic Protection Switching (APS), also known as 1+1, involves four fibers: two working fibers (one in each direction), and two protection fibers. Switching is based on the line state, and may be unidirectional (with each direction switching independently), or bidirectional (where the network elements at each end negotiate so that both directions are generally carried on the same pair of fibers).

Unidirectional path-switched ring

In unidirectional path-switched rings (UPSRs), two redundant (pathlevel) copies of protected traffic are sent in either direction around a ring. A selector at the egress node determines which copy has the highest quality, and uses that copy, thus coping if one copy deteriorates due to a broken fiber or other failure. UPSRs tend to sit nearer to the edge of a network, and as such are sometimes called collector rings. Because the same data is sent around the ring in both directions, the total capacity of an UPSR is equal to the line rate N of the OC-N ring.[16] For example, in an OC-3 ring with 3 STS-1s used to transport 3 DS-3s from ingress node A to the egress node D, 100 percent of the ring bandwidth (N=3) would be consumed by nodes A and D. Any other nodes on the ring could only act as pass-through nodes. The SDH equivalent of UPSR is subnetwork connection protection (SNCP); SNCP does not impose a ring topology, but may also be used in mesh topologies.

Bidirectional line-switched ring

Bidirectional line-switched ring (BLSR) comes in two varieties: twofiber BLSR and four-fiber BLSR. BLSRs switch at the line layer. Unlike UPSR, BLSR does not send redundant copies from ingress to egress. Rather, the ring nodes adjacent to the failure reroute the traffic "the long way" around the ring. BLSRs trade cost and complexity for bandwidth efficiency, as well as the ability to support "extra traffic" that can be preempted when a protection switching event occurs. BLSRs can operate within a metropolitan region or, often, will move traffic between municipalities. Because a BLSR does not send redundant copies from ingress to egress, the total bandwidth that a BLSR can support is not limited to the line rate N of the OC-N ring, and can actually be larger than N depending upon the traffic pattern on the ring. In the best case, all traffic is between adjacent nodes. The worst case is when all traffic on the ring egresses from a single node, i.e., the BLSR is serving as a collector ring. In this case, the bandwidth that the ring can support is equal to the line rate N of the OC-N ring. This is why BLSRs are seldom, if ever, deployed in collector rings, but often deployed in

inter-office rings. The SDH equivalent of BLSR is called Multiplex Section-Shared Protection Ring (MS-SPRING).\ Synchronization Clock sources used for synchronization in telecommunications networks are rated by quality, commonly called a stratum. Typically, a network element uses the highest quality stratum available to it, which can be determined by monitoring the synchronization status messages (SSM) of selected clock sources. Synchronization sources available to a network element are: Local external timing This is generated by an atomic Caesium clock or a satellite-derived clock by a device in the same central office as the network element. The interface is often a DS1, with sync-status messages supplied by the clock and placed into the DS1 overhead. Line-derived timing A network element can choose (or be configured) to derive its timing from the line-level, by monitoring the S1 sync-status bytes to ensure quality. Holdover As a last resort, in the absence of higher quality timing, a network element can go into a holdover mode until higher-quality external timing becomes available again. In this mode, the network element uses its own timing circuits as a reference.

Timing loops A timing loop occurs when network elements in a network are each deriving their timing from other network elements, without any of them being a "master" timing source. This network loop will eventually see its own timing "float away" from any external networks, causing mysterious bit errorsand ultimately, in the worst cases, massive loss of traffic. The source of these kinds of errors can be hard to diagnose. In general, a network that has been properly configured should never find itself in a timing loop, but some classes of silent failures could nevertheless cause this issue.

Fig. clock supply hierarchy structure

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) Term Definition Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) with typical channel spacing of 100 GHz for 40 channels and 50 GHz for 80 channels. Each channel contains a TDM (time division multiplex) signal. And each of up to 80 channels can carry 2.5 Gbps for a total of 200 billion bits per second by the optical fiber. These signals use the 3rd transmission window, called the C-Band, meaning the light beam wavelengths are between 1530nm to 1565nm. (nm = a nanometers or a billionth of a meter) A basic Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing contains five main components: 1. DWDM Terminal Multiplexer: This device contains a one wavelength converting transponder for each wavelength carried. It receives an input optical signal, converts it to an electrical signal and then retransmits it as an optical signal (a process abbreviated as O/E/O) using a 1550 nm laser beam. The MUX (multiplexer) takes a number of 1550 nm optical signals and places them on a single optical fiber. This terminal multiplexer may also contain an EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier) to amplify the optical signal. 2. Intermediate Line Repeater: These are amplifiers placed every 80 to 100 kilometers to compensate for loss of optical power; amplification is done by an EDFA, usually consisting of several amplifier stages. 3. Intermediate Optical Terminal, or Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer: This is a remote site amplifier placed where the

signal may have traveled up to 140 kilometers; diagnostics and telemetry signals are extracted or inserted. 4. DWDM Terminal Demultiplexer: This device breaks the multiwave signal back into individual signals; these may be sent to O/E/O output transponders before being relayed to their intended destinations, i.e. client-layer systems. 5. Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC): This channel carries information about the multi-wave optical signal and may provide data about conditions at the site of the intermediate line repeater (component 2 above). DWDM is sometimes called wave division multiplexing (WDM) and WDM is growing denser as the technology evolves. Thus, the two terms are often used synonymously.

CONCLUSION
Fiber optic transmission has found a vast array of applications in computer systems. Some design considerations depend largely on the application. For certain terminal to terminal application, crucial factors including maximising transmission speed and distance and minimising fiber and splice loss. By contrast, connector loss becomes important in local area networks that operate within buildings. In other systems, it is important to minimise the cost of cable, with the intention of reducing the cost of terminal equipment. These system considerations make design and construction of practical fiber optic systems a difficult task. Guidelines appropriate for one system is usually not suitable for another system. There are a number of essential points about fiber optics that have been mentioned throughout this report. As we move towards a more sophisticated and modern future, the uses of fiber optics are going to grow in all computer systems as well as telecommunication networks. Modern information systems handle ever-increasing data loads which strain the data throughput ability of information systems. Designers have made significant progress in increasing processor speeds, however progress in the design of high-speed interconnection networks has lagged so much so that the most significant bottleneck in today's information systems is the low speed of communications between integrated chips. These low speed communications networks consume increasing amounts of power in an effort to keep up with the faster processors. The slow communications speed is brought on by the small bandwidth available to existing communications networks based on the propagation of electrical signals through metallic lines.

Optical interconnections offer several advantages over metallic interconnections, they include: higher bandwidth; higher interconnection densities; lower crosstalk; crosstalk which is independent of data rate; inherent parallelism; immunity from electromagnetic interference and ground loops; the ability to exploit the third dimension; lower clock and signal skew; and a higher fan-in/fan-out capability. These advantages mean that optical interconnections have the potential to exhibit higher data rate communication, higher densities of interconnections with lower crosstalk, and lower power consumption. The shortest interconnections however, will remain electrical ones, due in part to the inverse relationship between electrical interconnection length and power consumption, and to a length independent minimum latency time inherent to optical interconnections caused by the time delays required for electrical to optical to electrical conversion.