The Madras Anti-Hindi Agitation, 1965: Political Protest and its Effects on Language Policy in India Author(s): Duncan

B. Forrester Source: Pacific Affairs, Vol. 39, No. 1/2 (Spring - Summer, 1966), pp. 19-36 Published by: Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2755179 . Accessed: 07/06/2011 07:58
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ubc. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Pacific Affairs.

http://www.jstor.org

The Madras Anti-Hindi Agitation, 1965: Political Protest itsEffects and on Language in Policy India
DuncanB. Forrester
.J Constitution India, markedthe end of the periodin which English of
ANUARY 26,

of i965, thefifteenth anniversary thecomingintoforceof the

rather thanHindi could,according theterms the Constitution, used to of be for all official purposes.'In spiteof many efforts assure the non-Hindito speakingpeople of India thatthe change-over Hindi would not be preto cipitate and thattheirlegitimate interests would be safeguarded, therewas much alarm in the non-Hindiareas,leading to bitter agitation and violent protest, particularly the Stateof Madras.No agitation similarintensity in of and scale had everbefore beenknownin Madras,and it demonstrated deepseated dissatisfaction with the language policyof the Government India of and the mountingstrength some new politicalforces. of This articleconon centrates theagitation Madras Stateand theresponse it on the part in to of Indian policy-makers. purposeis to throwsome lighton thedynamics Its
1 The paper is based on personalobservation the agitation Madras city;on conversaof in tionswith individuals involvedon both sides of the dispute;and on a carefulanalysisof the Indian pressduringthe relevant period,particularly Hindu (Madras) whichgave a very The full coverage the events. of Amongotherstudieswhichshouldbe consulted further for details of the courseof eventsare RobertL. Hardgrave, Jr.,"The Riots in Tamilnad: Problems and Prospects India's Language Crisis," of Asian Survey, Vol. V, No. 8, August,i965, pp. 399-407, and Michael Brecher, Successionin India, London, i966, pp. i51-67. Hardgravegives an accountof the agitation seen fromMadurai but is not much concerned as with the reconsiderationof languagepolicy by government and the complicated chain reactionin state and nationalpolitics.These subjectsare taken up in more detail by Brecherwhose studyof the decision-making processis illuminating spiteof one or two doubtful in judgements. Thus, he repeatsthe tale that the constitutional provisions making Hindi the official language were approvedby only one vote in the Constituent Assembly I949 (p. I52). This is without in foundation, although is truethatDr. Ambedkar it reported thatat a meeting the Congress of members the Assembly was decided by a majority one that the partyshould support of it of the provisions to relating Hindi when thesecome to be debated(See Hugh Tinker,India and Pakistan:A PoliticalAnalysis, New York, i963, p. I33; A. K. Majumdar,The Problemof Hindi: A Study,Bombay,i965, pp. 35-57; Granville Austin, The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation,Oxford,i966, ch. I2, esp. pp. 299-300). It is also misleading Brecher of to suggest thatthe agitation began with the self-immolation two DMK workers(p. I56). of The student agitation was alreadyunderway on January And to cite "foreign 25. observers" as sayingthattherewere 5oo deathsin the courseof the agitation to give currency comis to unsubstantiated rumors. pletely I9

in are or According thei96i Census,3i652 languages dialects spoken to wererecorded of I33.4 million India.Out ofa total population 439million,
2 8

A Pacific flairs public of between opinion official and ofprotest the and process adjustment India. policy modern in and is agitation India nonewthing hasexercised in considerLanguage leaders National policy independence. since over ableinfluence national may all which complicate consideraemotions the often havedeplored intense series concessions of policy, a long but topopuof tion questionslanguage of agitation who further among those has to laragitation tended encourage Most previous lantheir particular threatens interests. policy feel some that states; up concerned setting oflinguistic the the however, guage agitation, of official lanthe it differedthat involved question the in Madras agitation extent the was to minor and guage be usedbygovernment only a very to of ofTamilbutthefuture Not in status Tamil question. theprotection of was language in doubt. Hindias itsofficial in with Tamilians a nation Hindihadbeen language the for suitable official as suggested themost of Nehru Report I928. The bythe after Indian Union independence Motilal shall of Union beHindi language the lays that official Constitutiondown the to of Union be duty the in Devanagari andfurther, "Itshall the that script it serve to it language, develop sothat may of Hindi promote spread the the culture of of as a medium expression all theelements thecomposite for of with interfering without byassimilating its India, tosecure enrichment and and other used style, itsgenius forms, andexpression inHindustani the the for or necessarydesirable, its whenever and languages India bydrawing, of languages."2 on and primarily Sanskrit secondarily other on vocabulary, for second official language a peas was English, however, tocontinue the LanAn so if years riod fifteen andlonger Parliamentdecided. Official of inI955 of Constitution to under terms the appointed the guage Commission although language Hindi supported as thesoleofficial review situation the infavour English. of dissented and members Bengal Madras from lanIn practice, thestate the and in governments legislatures, regional texts authoritative areoften purposes, although for guage nowused most is usedmore than English still is Parliament, still English. theUnion in In Administration an rarely make appearance. Hindiandregional languages and is at the in almost entirelyEnglish, English the levels been has higher English remains between states. main for "link language" communication the for eduthe and generally medium higher the of language commerce is still a English remains All India, subjects. over in scientific cation, particularly India, in north particularly in areas, although some "prestige language," is feeling. anti-English there strong

Constitution India, Article of 351. takenfrom India-A Reference Annual: 1965. Figures

20

TheMadras Anti-Hindi Agitation, i965

moreHindi speakers as speakers Hindi. There are thusconsiderably of than speakers anyother of of singlelanguagein India but theyare stilla minority the total population.Tamil-the language of Madras State-is spoken by 30.6millionand, if the principal cognateDravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam,Kannada) are takentogether, thereare I02.7 millionwho speak a Dravidian ratherthan an Indo-European language. Very few Indians have English as theirmothertongue but of the 30 million who know two languages "a littlemore than eleven million"4know English while9.36millionhave Hindi as a secondlanguage.Only a tinyminority of a littleunder threepercentknow English and even where knowledgeof English is highest,5 nowhereexceeds fivepercent. it This small minority, however, fairly is evenlyspreadthroughout country the whereasthereare large areas of India outsidethe "Hindi heartland"where the numberof Hindi speakers very is low indeed.6 This even spread of the English-knowing elite is one argumentcommonlyused in favourof the retention English,for it is argued that alof thoughso few speak English,it alone is capable of serving a "link lanas guage" which can guaranteethe politicalunityof India. But probably the moreeffective argument theprotagonists Englishis thattheimposition of of of Hindi would give a major advantagein termsof job and educational possibilities thosewho haveHindi as their to mother tongue. The Constitution down what is in effect program the developlaid a for mentof Hindi and the replacement Englishwithinfifteen of years-an inbrief credibly periodfora linguistic revolution complicated. pursuance so In of this aim the Chief Ministers the various statesadopted in i961 the of "Three-language Formula," accordingto which both English and Hindi were to be used as link languagesand taughtin schoolsthroughout India indefinitely, whiletheregional languagewas to be themediumin education and stateand local administration. effect In this meant two languagesfor the Hindi-speaking statesand threeforthe others. ambitious An Tamilian, forinstance, would have to learnthree languagesand three entirely different and some Indian children scripts would face the task of learningfourlanguages: theirmothertongue,the regionallanguage,English,and Hindi.7 The Three-language Formula therefore imposesa greateducational burden, on particularly thepeopleof thenon-Hindistates. Furthermore, is a policy it and not a statute, and themoreardentprotagonists Hindi have been inof
4These and the following are figures cited fromthe Census of India, i96i by the Secreof The tary theEducation Commission. Hindu,July i965. 6, 5 Bengal: 4.6%; Kerala: 4.4%; Punjab: 4.2%; and Madras: 4.I%. Cf. S. Mohan Kumaramangalam: India'sLanguageCrisis, Madras,1965,pp. 8o-8i 6 Mysore:i.28%; Andhra: I.2I%; Kerala:0.2i%; Madras: 0.20%. Citedin The Hindu, July I 965. 6, 7 See R. B. Le Page, The NationalLanguage Question:Linguistic Problemsof Newly Independent States,London, 1964, p. 57.

21

Affairs Pacific not should toEnglish that Constitution's years' fifteen protection sisting the as as be English should eliminatedquickly possible. and be extended, that they speakers because seemed alarmed non-Hindi the seriously Such moves Jawaof advantage theHindispeakers theNorth. on an toconfer unfair on be would never imposed the Hindi in harlal Nehru's assurance I959 that did byShastri and their areas non-Hindi without consent itsreaffirmation fears rest. to not such put XVII of the laid The programmeHindi-ization downin Chapter of carried and not in elaborate wasnot, could havebeen, detail Constitution Act Languages in years. Accordinglyi963 an Official in through fifteen states. and Centre inthe andthe both administration, courts atthe inpolitics, as the may, from language English that Section oftheActstates "the 3 for to purto in day, appointed continuebeused, addition Hindi," allofficial This not, halt in Parliament. does ofcourse, the and transactions poses for a (but makes possible notobligatory) it merely of process Hindi-ization, and felt it short speakers that fell down that of process non-Hindi slowing it Accordingly force verbal guarantee. ofgiving statutory to Mr.Nehru's even which became more of states, the failed calm fears thenon-Hindi to hadur had was trustedNehru been. as Shastri, not deTheDravidian of South, Tamil, particularly arehighly languages the with in with classical literature comparable that Sanlanguages a veloped has which revival Tamilculture of Thiscentury seena major has skrit. of Tamillanguage all effort the itself manifested in an intensive topurify self-confihas renaissance led to a growing Sanskritic influence. Cultural and Tamilian identity, a deepening of a dence, newawareness a distinct anda of of northern. Anti-Brahminism rejection trasuspicion all things ardent havefound exthe ditional Hinduism an import from North as domthe against industrial There have protests beenwidespread ponents. of has inance the North, an attitude Tamilchauvinism been and of in first their political expression theold found Thesefeelings generated. toBrahmin alternative rule only which viewed British as the Justice Party, Naicker's E. then Self-Respect dominance; in theeccentricV. Ramaswamy in Munnetra or and Kazhagam DMK Movement; finally theDravida a party influential among particularly Federation), Progressive (Dravidian committed setting of tothe up which recently explicitly students, wasuntil India.8 state anindependent Dravidian insouth Both itself hitherto seldom has expressed in violence. Tamilnationalism
8 Usefulbackground material to be foundin P. D. Devanandan,The Dravida Kazhagam, is The DravidianMovement, Bombay,i965; RobertL. Bangalore,i960; RobertL. Hardgrave, Vol. XXXVII, PacificAffairs, Hardgrave, "The DMK and the Politicsof Tamil Nationalism," No. 4, x964-65; and Lloyd I. Rudolph,"Urban Life and PopulistRadialism:DravidianPoliVol. XX, No. 3, May i96i, pp. 283-97. of ticsin Madras,"Journal Asian Studies,

used the making possible continued ofEnglish (No. i9 of i963) waspassed,

Lal Nehruin May,i964. His successor, Baacutewiththedeath Pandit of

22

The MadrasAnti-Hindi Agitation, i965 havehad a someIndia under British in independent theTamilians the and on of reputation hard for what privileged position, partly account their work, the after labour, as partly because standwhich madethem has much sought than higher of havebeensomewhat ardofeducation knowledge English and Tamilians have secured largeshareof apa elsewhere consequently and of and Perhaps because this, pointments government in service education.9 Tamil linguistic turned against English, has happened as feeling never has in other so being threat Tamil,is the a to parts India.English, farfrom of interests. ActoolTamilians for advancement protection their and of use the as little pressure replace to English themecordingly there beenvery has diumof higher and it required onlythe suggeseducation Tamilnad, in adverse tionthat by a English tobe replaced Hinditoprovoke violently was masses. but reaction, particularly amongstudents also amongtheilliterate by wouldbe completely unaffected a change Thosewhose personal interests as be to of official language couldeasily persuaded see 'Hindi imperialism' ecothe partof a larger plotby theNorthto dominate Southculturally, indeedthe lawyers, businessmen, and nomically, politically. and Students, see interests tiedto thecontinuance as Madrasmiddle classgenerally, their and and,moreparof English thelanguage government thecourts as of comCommission ticularly, themedium theUnionPublicService as for and start petitive examinations. Northerners Southerners fromthe same handiof a point English; introductionHindiwouldimpose serious in the mother tongue. caponthose whom isnotthe for it In The DMK has grown in in considerably influence recent years. I957 it wonthirteen oftwohundred five Legislative and seats theMadras in out to in seats. its Assembly; i962 itincreased strength fifty The DMK alsocontowns. In and of important trols MadrasCorporation a number other the volte-faces, but policy and strategy DMK has made someremarkable the ithasbeen in against Hindi. consistently involved protests deeply in aroused oncemoretheold fears In latei964 twothings particular of to "Hindi imperialism." Alarmat official pressure replaceEnglishwith as Hindi as speedily possible 26, grewas Republic Day, January i965, the Official Neither LanguagesAct i963, nor Mr. Nehru's approached. were reiterated himand byother leaders, of by assurances I959, frequently wouldnotbe grievously the adequateto convince Souththatits position for of exwhentheconstitutional weakened protection thestatus English moves introduce to Hindi as an alternative mepired. And well-publicized in examination i965 seemed to for Services diumtoEnglish theUnionPublic
9 From I948-I962 Madras State filleda higherproportion places in the Indian Adminof examinations than any other state. Madras produced istrative Servicesthroughcompetitive of Next came U.P. with i6.5 percent, 23.3 percent the total entry. Punjab with i2 percent, Note thatduringthatperiodthe area of the stateshrunk and Delhi with7.8 percent. through In of to rearrangement boundaries. spiteof this,Madras continues be a leader in the number ofplacessecured. The Hindu,April8, I963. See

23

Pacific Affairs
themthat confirm worstfearsof theTamilians.Nothingcould convince the and ignoranceof Hindi would not prove a seriousbar to appointment promotion government in serviceand that fromi965 the Hindi-speakers in wouldnotholda highly privileged position India. The DMK seized upon thesefearsas a veryconvenient weapon against the Tamilnad CongressParty,which has made hardlya cheep of protest thatthere was no ground againsttheofficial languagepolicyand has insisted Conference, held at Tiruchirapalli on foralarm.A Madras StateAnti-Hindi by January i965, was largelyinspired DMK, but was also attendedby I7, by representatives most of the otheroppositionpartiesand supported of Warm popular supportencouraged some wealthyTamilian industrialists. the Conference declareRepublic Day a "Day of Mourning"in protest to of for In Janagainsttheexpiry constitutional protection English.10 theshort oppositionmemberspressed the uary session of the Madras legislature, Government hard as possibleon the languageissue but the Madras Govas ernment to of made it clearthatit was not concerned seek an alteration the or nationallanguagepolicyand thatit would permitno "mourning" antiposition was that Hindi agitationon Republic Day. The Government 26, mournnothing substantive would be changedon January and to observe to ingon sucha national festival wouldbe tantamount subversion.1' betweenthe CongressGovernment of The stagewas now set forconflict party. But the Madras and a popularmovement by the chiefopposition led wereanticipated none. by scaleand thedevelopment theconflict of The DMK announcedon January i965, thatit would defythe gov24, on ernment ban on demonstrations RepublicDay. The agitation, however, the startedunexpectedly followingday and was mainlythe work of stuin were offices Madurai werestonedand some students dents.The Congress In injuredin a police lathi chargeand in brawlswith Congressworkers. of Madras,Hindi bookswereburnton thebeach and a largegathering stuto amendment to dentsmarched theSecretariat demanda constitutional prothe 26, tecting positionof English.In the earlymorningof January C. N. otherDMK leaders were arAnnadurai and about a hundredand fifty and processions the meetings planned rested. a consequence, mourning As continued and did among students by theparty not take place but agitation thepoliceused teargas at Pachaiyappa's College in Madras. On January 27, the in the earlymorning, police raidedhostelsat a numberof collegesin studentleaders.It is alleged that therewas a good Madras and arrested which inflamedthe situdeal of indiscriminate beating-upof students, southof Madras,the police In ation considerably.'2 AnnamalaiUniversity,
10 The Hindu, January i965 and S. Mohan Kumaramangalam, cit.,pp. 84-86. op. i8, 11 The Hindu, January and 24, i965. 23 12 This statement based on eye-witness againstpolice excesseslater accounts.Protests is and at came from leasttwo collegeprincipals somedoctors.
#it 24

Agitation, i965 Anti-Hindi TheMadras

burnedthemwas killed.Two DMK supporters opened fireand a student one novel to India-and a further hunselvesto death-a mode of protest All dred and tenDMK leaderswere arrested. collegeswere closedby order evento meeta delegation refused and of theGovernment theChiefMinister calling for a quicker Prime MinisterShastri'sstatements of students.13 did to change-over Hindi and sternmeasuresagainstthe agitators not imgave no hintof a changeof policy The PrimeMinister provethe situation. on in and his earlier remark a speechat Santiniketan December23, i964 that languageof India "seems to seek to retain Englishforall timeas theofficial 29 On still proposition" rankled.14 January there to me a deeplyhumiliating DMK supand in was another deathin policefiring Palayamkottai another timeusing against"Hindi imperialism"-this in porter killedhimself protest was relwas now over,and there wave of theagitation bug poison.The first calmin MadrasStateforabouta week. ativebutuneasy of On February8 the collegesreopenedbut the vast majority the stuNo force. withincreased resumed and theagitation dentsremained strike on it and activeDMK supporters; seemedto longerwas it limitedto students have become a popular movementand now advantage was sometimes conditions settleold scoresagainstthe police. In to takenof the disturbed therewas a completehartal (general strike),trainswere stopCoimbatore io On werepolice/athi-charges. February the ped, and in manyplacesthere people were killed and twenty-five police firedin sevenplaces,twenty-four were burntalive by an enragedmob in injured.Two police sub-inspectors once again therewas police firingin several Tiruppur.On the eleventh, once to places.The Prime Ministerbroadcast the nation,reaffirming more the of that therewould be no imposition Hindi. T. T. Krishnamachari, Union Ministerof Finance and himselfa Tamilian, broadcastin Tamil suchas himas was unnecessary Tamilian ministers thattheagitation saying the selfand C. Subramaniam(Minister Food) would look after interests of same timein Delhi that of theSouth.Ironically enough, was at almostthe it Subramaniam and a juniorminister fromMadras,0. V. Alagesan,handed againstthe Governin theirresignations the Prime Ministerin protest to in broadcast. ment's as languagepolicy expressed thePrimeMinister's Madras State. On FebruaryI2 therewas completehartal throughout in Twentypeople were killed in police firing eleven places. The situation into was now obviously of control and police and troopswere brought out Fifteenpeople were shotdead Madras in large numbersfromotherstates. deathsin the courseof totalof sixty-six on FebruaryI3, makingan official theagitation."5 After another again on March long closurecollegesreopened but 8. For a week attempts weremade to resumetheagitation, by March I5
13 14 28, The Hindu, January I965. The Hindu, December24, I964. 15 Rumours The Hindu,February i965. 25, higher. putthetotalconsiderably

25

Pacific Affairs most colleges were working normally. agitation runitscourse, The had but shock the the and scars remained. The agitation demonstrated levelof communication a poor between government people. and Neither Government the ofMadras theGovnor ernment Indiaseem haveassessed of to the correctly intensitypopular of feeling the on language inthe issue South. noserious So was attempt made prior the to agitation tomodify language either the or it policy topresentin a more favourable tothepeople Madras theother light of and non-Hindi states. obvious The on ofgovernmentan agitation this unpreparedness for scale demonstratesitwastaken surprise; the that and extremely by vacillatinganduncertain handling the of developing shows inadequacy crisis the of official understanding state public ofthe of opinion. Language policy discussedthe was in at Chief Ministers' meetingDecember i964,but does seem any it not that warning washeard. Madras note The Chief on Minister, hisreturn this from meeting, that interests said the of Tamilnad would suffer.16 not Southern ministers central inthe Government until agitation wellunder kept quiet the was and the way, even All-India Congress President, Kumaraswamy a of Tamilians, Kamaraj, Tamilian the wasapparently aback hesitatedshow hand. taken and to his Congress party channels conveyed warning theimpending no of and explosion Congressmen no made effortavert byconciliatory to it statements ormodification of policy. It would seem theMadras that Government believed theagitation that wasbeing whipped bythe up DMK andhadnosubstantial popular base.'7 and Prompt tough action against core the leadership theDMK could of therefore beexpectednipthe to trouble the in bud, possibly and permanently cripple chief the opposition in the party process. a policy Such explains the Madras Government's to allowanydemonstrations on Rerefusal at all public the Day, mass arrests DMK leaders, early of the morning arrests and in college beatings-up hostels, the and Chief Minister's refusal meet to with the leaders the of student agitation. TheMadras Government's to the attemptsdealwith situation radical by measures the three were during first days based fundamental on misunderstandingthe of intensity scale popular and of dissatisfaction, andcontributed a great toinflame masses the deal the of people. When became it obvious that the Government's calculations wide the initial were of mark, followed there a second inwhich stage rather improbable ofthe explanations forces work at were bandied around official in quarters. was suggested theLeft It that of Wing theCommunist (which very Party is in weak Tamilnad) bewas hind agitation, that the or some wealthy mill-owners, or dissident college
The Hindu, DecemberI6, I964. reStatements the ChiefMinister by and variousministers the Legislative in Assembly, ported The Hindu,January and 24, i965. in 23
17

16

26

TheMadras Anti-Hindi Agitation, 1965 had teachers, instigated trouble.'8nostage itadmitted the the At was that agitation arose from relatively a spontaneous outburst popular of resentment. TheUnion Government apparently believed the that whole was agitation based "misunderstanding"official on The ofthe language policy.19 attempts ofLal Bahadur Shastri, L. Nanda(HomeMinister), T. T. KrishG. and namachariexplain Government's made to the stand little, any, if impression onpublic opinion Madras, in which demanding was concessions, clarinot fications. these Had statements made been earlier, might helped they have toeasethesituation byFebruary theagitation become mass ii but had a movement considerable with impetus, deeply distrustful Government ofthe on account police of behaviour theearly in stages. When Government the ofMadras the and Government ofIndia decided better that communication wasnecessary already late. itwas too Only decisive action clear unor and equivocal promisesmodify could to policy have mended situationlate the so inthe day. Why communication between was In so poor government people? and theory, legislatures Parliament Delhishould state and in convey popular feeling theGovernment. in both to But Madras DelhitheCongress and had Party overwhelming majorities party and discipline to bottle tends up criticism theCongress from benches. Congress andMLAsarerelucMPs tant challenge to government onissues even where feeling strong their is in constituencies. debate language In the on policy Parliament Febin on ruary for i8, instance, Congress from no MP Madras spoke, during and the Budget Session theMadras of Legislative Assembly starting March on i, hardlycritical washeard a note from Congress MLAs. Both Delhi in in and Madras Opposition very the was vocal, itis small divided there but and and is little suggest government carefullyopposition to that listens to criticism; toooften, radical criticismdismissed subversive Congress is as and governments notaboveattemptingintimidate are to unwelcome opponents. it Again, is generally that inthe true Congress governments states more are responsivethe to central organs the of party topublic than opinion within their state. own Many governments state aremore creaturesthe the of Congress Parliamentary than thestate Board of legislature, more and answerabletotheCongress Command Delhithan localopinion. High in to The state government,particularlyChief and the Minister, principal is the channelfor conveying information conditions about within state Delhi. the to
18Statement the ChiefMinister, of reported The Hindu, February I965. ChiefMinin 7, isterto Tamilnad Congress Committee, The Hindu, June2i, i965. See also The Hindu, FebruaryI4, i965. cf. Brecher: cit.,p. I59. op. 19Mr. Nanda feltthe agitation was "based on grossmisunderstanding." Hindu, JanThe uary 28, I965. Lal BahadurShastrisuggested thatthosewho opposedHindi mustunderstand thatwhatgovernment doing was in pursuance the Directive was of Principles the Constituof tion.Ibid. See also the Madras ChiefMinister's statement Vellorereported The Hindu, at in January i965. 26,

27

Pacific Aflairs
But in thisinstance, in many as others, state showed the government itself incapable presenting accurate of an picture thesituation Delhi. to of WhentheUnionGovernment realized that had beendrastically it misinformed abouthappenings Madras, madelittle in it to the effort remedy situation. top-ranking No minister sent Madras investigate, was to to except T. T. Krishnamachari, himself Tamilian. a Mrs.IndiraGandhicameon February on herowninitiative, herinvestigations reports and were I2, and realistic balanced. and she This boldaction reminded peoplethat is one of thefewpolitical leaders India trusted thewholenation, it was in and by certainly forgotten a successor Shastri to be selected. not when Delhi to had is, of course, within Hindi area and it is easyfortheprotagonists the of Hindi to bring It direct pressure bearon theUnionGovernment.is far to lesseasyin present and circumstances theCentre assess extent infor to the tensity feeling areasremote of in was from Delhi. But no serious attempt madeat anystage do this. to The tragedy theMadras of agitation a tragedy common modern is too in India.It is only after violence runitscourse communication nehas that and gotiation become possible. outbreak violent The of protest a signthat is communication broken has down. ifcommunication But is resumed a concesas sionto violence, violence of becomes normal a and efficacious instrument political pressure.20 Thereis no doubt that initial the impetus muchoftheleadership and of theagitation camefrom DMK party. it is alsotrue the But that strong feeling on thelanguage issuewas notlimited DMK supporters. to DMK attempted manipulate to already existing emotions head up a broadaland liance anti-Congress buttheagitation of forces, quickly passed ofDMK out control there muchto suggest DMK leaders and is that ultimately became extremely alarmed whatwas happening. by Other parties notgiveas did active lead as DMK, although veteran Rajagopalachari, leader a the C. the oftheconservative Swatantra Party, forlongbeenassailing official had the language policy and gave activesupport the agitation. Swatantra to The Party such, as however, notcommitted anypolicy thelanguage was to on issue and fewother Swatantra members seemto havebeenactive leaders in thedisturbances. LeftCommunists accused instigating The were of trouble, butthis is party as weakin Madras itis strong Kerala, there ceras in and is tainly little suchstories. in Muchofthesupport theagitation, some for and of theleadership, non-party. number publicfigures, was of A particularly

20 On political protest India see MyronWeiner,The Politicsof Scarcity, in Bombay,i963, especially chaps. I, 7, & 8. Also David H. Bayley,"The Pedagogyof Democracy:Coercive Public Protest India," American in PoliticalScienceReview,Vol. LVI, No. 3, September i962, pp. 663ff;and RichardLambert,"Some Consequences Segmentation India," Economic of in Development Cultural and Change, Vol. i2, No. 4, July i964, pp. 406-24.

28

The MadrasAnti-Hindi 1965 Agitation,

and were publicly sympathetic.21 Finance forthe agieducationists lawyers, tation came frommany sourcesand studentgroups were able to collect certainly considerable sums fromthe public. Certainwealthyindustrialists Brecher although probably the from beginning the exagsupported agitation the mill-owners . . financed stu. gerates when he says"some anti-Congress writer dents'agitation."22 impression The gained at the timeby the present orbehindthe student amountof finance was thattherewas no substantial was leftto raise what fundsit ganizationand that each unit and district needed. It is also clearthatthe agitation quicklydevelopedits own impetusand out The DMK instipassed completely of control. organization and finally action,the gated the protest;as a resultof harshpolice and government among stumovement and almostuniversal agitation becamea spontaneous was lost. This in itself dents; finally, mob took over and all restraint the was highlyunusual,forMadras does not boast a large numberof goondas or professional as mobsters does Bengal. In otherpartsof India politicaldisThis is, however, veryrare in startamong students. turbances frequently and for has Madras State,wheretheUniversity a reputation good discipline little have in generalheld alooffrom and allowedpoliticians politics students has influence colleges.The DMK, however, developeda greatappeal for in as partly becauseMadras stustudents, partly a resultof Tamil chauvinism, threat their to prospects. to dentsseea change-over Hindi as a serious Anti-Hindi The Organizationwas rudimentary. appeals of the January in and of the DMK for mourningand protest Conference Tiruchirapalli founda readyecho amongstudents. a student to organization guide the But DMK 27, agitation onlysprangup on January by whichtimethe principal leaderswere alreadybehind bars. This was called the Tamilnad Students' Anti-HindiAgitationCouncil,and althoughbased on Madras City it very contacts with most of the collegesin the state.In the rapidlyestablished Many-but not allof were formed. majority collegesActionCommittees of the student with DMK, and DMK was not leadershad no connection refusal able to dominate organization is demonstrated the students' by the as to return classesand call offtheagitation to by even whenrequested thetop leadersof DMK. Beforethe end of the agitation the police had effectively infiltrated temporarily as and brokenup suchorganization therewas, but by thistimematters passedoutofcontrol anycase. had in For the first therewas littleviolence.The stufew days of the agitation burnt Hindi books, dents abstained from classes, took out processions, hoistedblack flags, and tarredHindi signboards, chalkedup slogans.There
21 For example, Sir A. L. Mudaliar, Vice-Chancellor Dr. C. P. of Madras University; of and some leading members of Aiyer,Vice-Chancellor AnnamalaiUniversity; Ramaswamy the bar. 22Brecher, cit.,p. i59. op.

29

It to Why were "normal constitutional channels" little so utilized? isfair no in that saythat general oneinIndia believes constitutional is as pressure like effectiveviolence thethreat it.Andthis as or of agitation, so many in listens others India, illustrates againthat once government to violence the more than In beginning Govreadily toless drastic forms protest. the of ernmentMadras not of was willing talk, alone to let negotiate, student with But leaders. in anycasethere little is scope constitutional parfor protest, ticularly "Section (prohibiting when I44" processions meetings) in and is or force during National a innocuous methods Emergency. normally Even ofprotest become illegal ifusednonetheless, to escalate and, tend quickly into violence. Strong action taken the was by government a number against ofpopular Tamil newspapers periodicals. and Whether justifiable cirinthe cumstancesnot, or such actions effectivelya normal gag outlet protest. for to and Petitions, deputations, resolutions generally were thought be ineffecand tive, there a gooddealofevidence support a feeling. is to such Within theLegislative Assembly, opposition theofficial to language policy was neither adequately voiced carefully bythegovernment, itis nor noted and significant very people that few suggested itwould helpful sumthat be to the mon Assembly the during agitation. in under in Language policy Indiahasbeen forged heatandreshaped tothe pressure. nowconsider response official We the of policymakers Madrasagitation. Although attention beenfocussed Madras, is our has on it toremember the Hindi that pressure from diimportant came other against and as interests rectionswell, that to are favourableHindi very strongly entrenched around seat the the of Union Government inDelhi. aimofthe The was Parliament the and Government agitation toinfluence ofIndia,23 where ofHindiareinfluential. theprotagonists Government wastherefore policy to The subject countervailing pressures. stronger, immediate, more and insistent had a of come from supporters pressure for number years the of to had Hindi;concessionsthis pressure gradually detonated unprecean and dented in were explosion Madras; nowpolicy-makers caught the in that dilemma both awkward inaction anyconceivable change and policy to were bound leadtostrong adverse reaction the in North inthe or South. In the the of the beginning accepted position both Government ofIndia andtheGovernment there neither ofMadras that was was possibility nor
23 This instance does not fit well into the pattern sketched out by RichardLambert, op. cit. Unlikemanyotherinstances, agitation was not limitedby stateor regionalboundaries this for and thusit seriously threatened a timenational political equilibrium.

initiative.

Pacific Aflairs wasa little stone-throwing andfighting, no large-scale but violence until the had tactics. after police resorted strong-arm The state-wide to hartal the but to the onFebruary wasinresponsea callfrom students, itmarks I2 of passing the of agitation ofstudent out control the and mob's seizing the

30

TheMadras Anti-Hindi 1965 Agitation,

needofa change policy. meeting theChief of A of Ministers thevarious of in states Delhi,on December i964, announced English I3, that wouldcontinue until non-Hindi the states no wereready a change.24 seems for It that minister seriously questioned line,and Mr. Bhaktavatsalam, Chief this the Minister Madras, his return of on from Delhi gave an assurance the that interests Tamilnad of wouldin no waysuffer. Whenit became clear that opposition mounting intensity, was in Unionand MadrasStateministers repeatedly suggested suspicions theofficial that of policy werebasedsimply on "misunderstandings."25 might Butone wellsuggest most themisthat of understanding on thepartofgovernment, was which tookno steps curb to rash and extreme pro-Hindi statements people in power,obviously by miscalculated strength feeling theSouth, the in and madeno effort of to modify it policyor present in a favourable lightpriorto the agitation. The Madras to few Government seemed regard agitation thefirst the in daysas a providential opportunitycrush opposition refused to the and any kind of negotiation. M. Bhaktavatsalam first Mr. at refused meetstuto dent leaders, suggestingwas a matter policeaction it for rather thandiscussion." This,of course, a exacerbated feelings greatdeal and thestudents quickly confidence thegoodintentions theGovernment Madras. lost in of of The first of wavering cameon February whentheChiefMinister sign i, announced whenHindibecame medium theUPSC examinations, that a for places wouldbe allocated thevarious to states according a quotasystem.27 to Thisfailed assuage to student feeling, anyconceivable since quotawouldreducethenumber places of filled from Madras. clear A that indication he was now bending before storm cameon February whenBhaktavatsalam the 9, saidhe was nowseeking constitutional amendment secure placeof to the a a Later amendment the as of English.28 he publicly rejected inadequate draft Official Languages Act whichattempted secure position English to the of untilthree-quarters non-Hindi of the states askedforHindi.Bhaktavatsauntil legislatures all states lamwanted to of the askedfor its English remain The of therefore replacement.29 Government Madras boxedthecompass. At thebeginning said theagitation arosefrom they entirely baseless but fears, before end they of wereaskingfornothing short indefinite the constituthe tionalprotection English-exactly demandbehindthe agitation. for But thechanges and weretoo late and too reluctant, at no timedid the Government the hold initiative. Madras It was obvious that the long before agitation the Union Cabinet was
The Hindu,DecemberI4, I964. See n. i9 above. 26 "The ChiefMinister said it was purelya questionof law and orderand therewas no needforhim to meetthestudents." Hindu,January i965. The i8, 27 The Hindu, February i965. 2, 28 Ibid.,February and II, i965. IO 29 Ibid., February i9, i965.
24 25

3'

Pacific Affairs on divided language Ministers outopenly both came deeply on sides. policy. the Mr.Chagla, Education Minister, Mr.C. Subramaniam, and Minister for alarm Food, expressed at "Hindi-ization," theHomeMinister, L. while G. and Prime Minister himself called a speeding-up Nanda, the had for ofthe Nor change-over toHindi. were ministers more more united on junior any the issue. wastherefore for Government It difficultthe to ofIndia present a united inface trouble. late January Prime front of as As 7 the Minister was still of speaking accelerating "Hindi-ization" threatening action and stern Nanda(likeBhaktavatsalam) proclaiming no against was that agitators, change policy either of was desirable possible, or while Subramaniam, C. and Chagla, 0. V. Alagesan, Minister State Petroleum Chemiof for and cals, were working a compromise would for which concede ofthe some demands theagitators. theendofJanuary, of From Union Sanjeeva Reddy, Minister Steel Mines, Telugu, for and a identified himself this with group, as didmost ministers theSouth from except Finance the Minister, T. T. who aloof. Krishnamachari (a Tamilian Brahmin), held Individual ministers widely made divergent statements Hindias a on medium competitive for or the examinations, quotasuggestion, on and methods protecting intereststheSouth. of the of conNandaandShastri on tinued affirm the to that agitation based misunderstanding was until Mrs. Indira Gandhi that had announced she found and widespread well-grounded fears Madras in State.30 the When Prime Minister broadcast February on ii, he explained oldpolicy reaffirmed more the and once Nehru's assurances that no Hindi would beimposed. hegave hint a change policy not But of of oranyconcession the on part theGovernment.3' Krishnamachari of T. T. broadcastthe in same inTamil. the vein If agitation ever based had been on events now that "misunderstandings," showed explanations not were enough. The same after Cabinet at the of evening, a stormy meeting which text the Prime was Minister's broadcast considered,Subramaniam C. handed his in and resignation,hewasquickly joined 0. V. Alagesan. by It wasthis dramatic which action forced Cabinet consider posthe to the sibilitymodifying of on language policy. Although FebruaryLal Bahadur I3 that must reaffirmedHindi become official eventually the language India of andrejected constitutional amendment method pacifying South, as a of the thereafter the heseemed favour to amending Official Languages togive Act Mr.Nehru's assurances force. statutory On theunderstanding some that to them suchaction would taken, be satisfactory Subramaniam Alaand withdrew resignationsFebruary Butthis no means their on i6. gesan by ended dissension the the within Cabinet, amendment Official for ofthe Languages wasnotacceptable a number influential Act to of ministers. There
30 Speechat Patnareported The Hindu,February i965. in 20, al Ibid., February i2, i965.

32

1965 Agitation, TheMadras Anti-Hindi

of As withinParliament. soon as the possibility an alterawas no consensus the quarters, Hindi lobby in tionof languagepolicywas mentioned official MPs swung into action.On Februaryi6, fifty-five fromeight statesmade change,and on Februaryi9 MPs of public theirdisapproval any statutory and Gujarat went on recordagainstchange,while one fromMaharashtra on hundredand six CongressMPs requestedthe Prime Minister February a Madras maintained strange MPs from Congress 25 notto amendtheAct.32 silence.None of themspokein the debateon thelanguageissue in theLok met Sabha on FebruaryiS, althougha delegationof Madras MPs finally statutory assuredthatsatisfactory Shastrion March I2 and were apparently On March 22 the Prime Ministercalled an would be given.33 guarantees to meetingof the leadersof the variouspartiesin Parliament inconclusive appear to have been made to discussthe language issue. Strenuousefforts for on of discussed the floor Parliament, not stoptheissuebeingthoroughly only Congressbut most of the otherpartiesdid not wish to make public seemedunableto playa conParliament on divisions thismatter. their bitter the role structive in resolving crisis. Partyfoundthelanguagequestionveryhot to handle,and The Congress in forthisreasonit had not been considered any detailat the annual session 6-io. When January at Committee Durgapurfrom of theAll-IndiaCongress becameobvious.The Condeep rifts the events forced issue upon theparty, of ChiefMinister Madras,joined with K. gressPresident, Kamaraj, former and of Sanjeeva ReddyfromAndhra,Nijalingappa,ChiefMinister Mysore, intooffice whichhad put Shastri These men werethecoreofthe"Syndicate" in to greatinfluence nationalpolitics.On February and continued exercise Kamaraj called for of the CongressWorkingCommittee, 22, at a meeting Ram, of Languages Act but MorarjiDesai, Jagjivan amendment theOfficial finally opposedhim.The WorkingCommittee and Ram Subhag vehemently be that recommended thepace of Hindi-ization sloweddown,thatthethreethatNehru's assurances in enforced all states, be strictly language formula be held in all the regionallanthat examinations be reaffirmed, competitive be guages, and that places in the public services allocated accordingto a metwiththe of On 24 quota system. February theChiefMinisters thestates these and proposals.5 Unionministers endorsed Strong But thisdid not mean thatthe issue was now closedand settled. at opposedto any concession all groupsin the Northwere bitterly pressure Formulawas in factnot strictly to thenon-Hindiareas.The Three-language and the proposalthat it enforced eitherin Madras or in the Hindi states,
32 Ibid., February and 20, i965. i2 33Ibid., March i3, i965. " Ibid., February i965. i, 35Ibid., February have been labelled by Brecheras 23, 24 and 25, i965. Such meetings meetings "The GrandCouncilof the Republic." of policy.34 language his about to of Ghosh WestBengal express concern Atulya

33

Pacific Aflairs should "strictly be enforced" rather confession faith was of thana callfor a action. Madrasgovernment No couldin present circumstances the make studyof Hindi in schoolscompulsory survive. and The proposals for changes thesystem recruitmentthepublic in of to services in theopinare, ion ofmany, impracticable probably and undesirable well.The onlyreal as concession theSouthwas theunderstanding theOfficial to that Languages Actwouldbe amended givestatutory to Nehru's to assurances the on force in language issue. Butthisproposal ran immediately intostrong opposition Parliament. early In of April, sub-committeethe Cabinet, a of consisting G. L. Nanda, A. K. Sen, Satyanarayana Sinha,MahavirTyagi,M. C. to Chagla, S. K. Patilwas setup to givedetailed and considerationthelanguageissue.None of thesub-committee's members the camefrom South, butneverthelessseemed find extremely to reachagreement. it It to it hard finally reported totheCabinet 24 May,recommending proposals back on the ofS. K. Patilthat remain jointlinklanguages as Hindiand English should untilthe majority the non-Hindi of states askedforthe replacement of English. The sub-committee unhappy was aboutthequotasystem the and use suggested ofso many a mediafor UPSC examinations. it produced But draft amendment theOfficial of Nehru's asLanguages Act,incorporating surances explicitly. The issuethen went backtothemeeting theCongress of ComWorking mittee theChiefMinisters June This meeting whatBrecher and on i. of calls"The Grand Council theRepublic" of approved elaborate an resolution on language policy, general in reaffirming earlier their decisions strict on enforcement theThree-language of Formula, encouragement Hindi and of regional languages, theuseofregional and languages wellas English as and Hindias media UPSC examinations.37 for The question legislation however, open, of was, still although June on i5 a draft Official Languages(Amendment) was made publicpermitBill tingtheuse of English inter-state state-Union in and communications, and attempting guarantee placeof English administration as long to the in for as this was desired non-Hindi by states. Bill,together a resolution The with on language policy, admitted theSpeaker August butwithwas by on 25 drawn after bitter argument August thereason on 28, givenbeingthat, in viewofthePunjabi Suba agitation theKashmir and crisis, time the was infor opportune thediscussion so delicate issue.And thatwas thelast of an thathas beenheardof Bill and resolution. the considerable To relief of many, wholeissuewas shelved the indefinitely India turned atwhile her tention theconflict Pakistan, to with followed thedeathof Mr. Shastri by andtheselection a newPrime of Minister.
The Hindu, May 25, I965. session,for a conop. Ibid., June3, i965. cf. Brecher, cit.,p. i64: "It was an historic I this on reached." wouldquestion judgement. sensus languagewas finally
36 37

34

i965 Anti-Hindi Agitation, TheMadras

of of showed many the up controversy The treatmentthelanguage dea He leadership. wasnot bold, and of strengths weaknessesMr.Shastri's of Nehru, decision-maker. attheheight hispowers, cisive, independent and and incisive in bud trouble the bysome been tonipthe able might have well and slowly undramatically, to preferredproceed action. spectacular Shastri parties all attitudes allowing interested to have and out sounding opposing of onthe reflection dangers a oneof for their say plenty time sober full and which and course He a sided settlement. wasseeking consensus a middle on influence the But to would satisfy parties thedispute.38 hispersonal all of to the seemed play part a refprocess decision-making wasminimal-he ofcollective machinery complicated else. eree than rather anything Andthe the to made hard determine locus it death Nehru of set leadership uponthe a bitter, seen, long, off, sparked as we have The ofresponsibility.agitation leadership, the between Congress and inconclusive of consultations series of The and Chief Ministers, others. result the the Parliament, Cabinet, state a and course," that consensus was that allthis toreveal there no"middle was was the with Hencetherelief which issue shelved. could be obtained. not had but into nothing, ithadbrought beTheagitation apparently achieved in with and movement Madras student ingan influential well-organized from contactsmost in non-Hindi On Mayii, i965, a delegation states. other C. Council Shastri, Submet Agitation this Tamilnad Students' Anti-Hindi student strikes Sporadic in 0. and ramaniam,V. Alagesan, Chagla Delhi.39 met were bythe anda threatened in of resumptiontheagitation August An leaders. of ofa number student Government large arrest the by Madras on met Council" inBangalore JanStudents' Agitation "All-India Anti-Hindi the tomake English amendment for uary i966,andcalled a constitutional 7, in studentsMadras official There among trouble sole language.40 wasa little of held around i966. Republic 26 January, A conferencestudents in Day, on Agitation Council FebAnti-Hindi Students' Madras theTamilnad by on in Thanjavur June conference by ruary i966, wasfollowed a two-day 2, Andhra, from also i8 andi9 which attended byrepresentativesMysore, was to against and WestBengal, which called uponstudents campaign and in i967 Elections.4' Congressthe General section student a has alienatedconsiderable ofthe Theagitation certainly much willaffect rethis votes from Congress Buthow Party. population the of in State not is the to mains be seen. Certainly position Congress Madras of as handling theagitation nowas secure onceit was.Bhaktavatsalam's in in he still Had wasmost injudicious. Kamaraj been power Madras could
The Hindu, March28, i965. 39 Ibid., May I2, I965. 40 Ibid.,January i966. 8, 41 Ibid., Juneig and 20, I966.
38

of satisfied themaintenance thestatus with quo. The Southwas hardly

35

Affairs Pacific probably kept peace have the through extraordinary tocapture his ability the confidencethose of whodisagree him.Butas it was,theagitation with threatened popular in Madras which the base on Kamaraj's amazing national influence ultimately He hasmade rests. great efforts theagitasince tion restore position Madras, hewillcertainly much to the in and devote attention securing to another Congress victory thestate in which would restore prestige hisparty ensure own the of and on national his position the stage. straw the One in wind which tends suggest the to that agitation may have little on influencevoting the was by-election inDharmapuri Legislative gress candidate a seatwhich previously heldby an indewon had been pendent, a leadofmore with than thousand over DMK opten votes his Theagitation asyet tonosignificant ofpolicy, has led change although it hascertainly taught Government theCongress to tread the and Party delicately. hasalsorevealed serious It the weakness thesystem collective of of and leadership "decision compromise" after death Nehru. of by set the up It was probably alsoa factor theselection Mrs.Indira in of Gandhi Lal as Bahadur's successor. intervention crisis shown to be a Her in the had her leader courage independence wonher confidence nonof and and the ofthe Hindi areas, which Shastri never Thelanguage had had. is to question sure bean issue the in forthcoming elections Congress, byIndira general but led Gandhi Kamaraj, in a relatively position thenon-Hindi and is in strong states may and wellwipe atleast part, reputation ineptitude out, in the for which highlightedtheagitation. further was by No action resolve to the underlying dispute likely is before elections, even the and afterwards it is probable the that forces remain evenly will so balanced the that question of official language require begradually will to adjusted a long over period of time rather solved than overnightan ukase by from Union the Government. TheMadras agitationover, notforgotten. thelanguage of is but But crisis which wasoneexpression it remainschronic a affliction ofIndian politics.
Madras Christian College
42

Assembly constituency. Polling tookplaceon Aprilio, i965, and theCon-

ponent.42

April I2, Ibid.,

i965.

36