LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1169e1179

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Review

Dielectric properties of foods: Reported data in the 21st Century and their potential applications
M.E. Sosa-Morales a, b, *, L. Valerio-Junco b, A. Lpez-Malo b, H.S. Garca a
a b

Unidad de Investigacin y Desarrollo de Alimentos, Instituto Tecnolgico de Veracruz, M.A. de Quevedo 2779, Col. Formando Hogar, Veracruz, Ver. 91897, Mexico Departamento de Ingeniera Qumica y de Alimentos, Universidad de las Amricas Puebla, Ex-Hacienda Santa Catarina Mrtir, Cholula, Pue. 72820, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 14 December 2009 Received in revised form 27 March 2010 Accepted 29 March 2010 Keywords: Dielectric properties of foods Dielectric constant Loss factor

a b s t r a c t
Dielectric properties (DP) are the main parameters that provide information about how materials interact with electromagnetic energy during dielectric heating. These properties have gained great importance and applications for foods that are subjected to novel microwave (MW) or radio frequency (RF) heating treatments. The knowledge of the DP of a determined foodstuff is fundamental in order to understand and model the response of the material to the electromagnetic eld, at certain desired frequencies and temperatures. Through the last years, many potential applications of electromagnetic heating for foods have emerged and been published in the literature; however, new uses or research in food products to be treated with MW or RF may be limited due to lack of DP data. This review provides an overall introduction and denition of the DP, factors that affect them, methods for their determination, as it also includes reported DP data for foods after the year 2000. DP values were grouped depending on the nature of foods, such as: 1) fruits and vegetables, 2) our, dough and bread, 3) nuts, 4) coffee grains, 5) meats, sh and seafood, 6) dairy products, 7) eggs and egg products and 8) liquid uids. We consider that this paper is a useful reference that contains current and valuable information on the DP of foods, which can be available and used for further developments employing MW or RF heating food technologies. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The dielectric properties of foods and biological products have become valuable parameters in food engineering and technology (Ier & Baysal, 2004). The interest in the dielectric properties of agricultural materials and food products has centered primarily to predict heating rates describing the behaviour of food materials when subjected to high-frequency elds in dielectric heating applications, or so called novel thermal treatments (Venkatesh & Raghavan, 2004). The inuence of the dielectric properties on food heating by absorption of energy through radio frequency or microwave frequencies, has been known for some time, and many potential applications have been explored (Metaxas & Meredith, 1993). For instance, some electroheating processes have been recently applied in the industry, while microwave heating is commercially employed and is also widely used in households (Marra, Zhang, & Lyng, 2008). The distribution of electromagnetic energy in radio frequency (RF) and microwave (MW) heating systems is controlled by
* Corresponding author. Departamento de Ingeniera Qumica y de Alimentos, Universidad de las Americas Puebla, Ex-Hacienda Santa Catarina Martir, Cholula, Pue. 72820, Mexico. Tel.: 52 222 229 2126; fax: 52 222 229 2727. E-mail address: mariae.sosa@udlap.mx (M.E. Sosa-Morales). 0023-6438/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2010.03.017

Maxwells equations. From an engineering viewpoint, dielectric properties are the most important physical properties associated with RF and MW heating, since the dielectric behaviour of foods affects their heating characteristics. It is critical to have available data of the dielectric properties of materials in product and process development and, especially, in modern design of dielectric heating systems to meet desired process requirements. The need for such knowledge becomes even more evident with the advance of computer modeling tools, used in the design of RF and MW application systems and heating processes (Tang, 2005). Fortunately, many studies on the dielectric properties of agricultural and biological materials have been reported for different frequency ranges, temperatures, and moisture contents. In order to have current data available, the objective of this review article is to offer a compilation of recent information (from the year 2000 until present), related to the dielectric properties of different foods, in order to make available experimental data as a useful reference for further research and applications.

2. Denition of dielectric properties Knowledge of the dielectric properties of foods is essential in research, modeling and development of thermal treatments based

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on radio frequency (RF) and microwave (MW) energy. These properties provide information about the interaction between the foodstuff and electric elds (Ikediala, Tang, Drake, & Neven, 2000).

2.2. Other properties related to dielectric parameters: penetration depth and electrical conductivity Food materials are, in general, poor electrical conductors as they have the ability to store and dissipate electric energy when exposed to an electromagnetic eld (Bufer, 1993). The penetration depth (dp) is usually dened as the depth into a sample where the microwave and RF power has dropped to 1/e (e 2.718) or 36.8% of its transmitted value. The penetration depth is a function of 30 r and 300 : r

2.1. Permittivity, dielectric constant and loss factor The dielectric properties of materials that are of interest in most applications can be dened in terms of their relative permittivity. Permittivity is a complex quantity generally used to describe the dielectric properties that inuence reection of electromagnetic waves at interfaces and the attenuation of the wave energy within materials. The relative complex permittivity, 3r , describes permittivity related to free space and it is represented as:

l 30 dp 0 00 2p3

p (4)

3r

30r

j300 r

(1)

where l0 is the free space microwave wavelength (for 2.45 GHz, l0 12.2 cm). Other expression to calculate the dp is

factor, respectively and j 1. The real part, the dielectric constant (30 ), describes the ability of r a material to store energy when it is subjected to an electric eld and inuences the electric eld distribution and the phase of waves travelling through the material. The imaginary part, the loss factor (300 ), inuences both energy absorption and attenuation, and r describes the ability to dissipate energy in response to an applied electric eld or various polarization mechanisms, which commonly results in heat generation (Ikediala et al., 2000; Mudgett, 1986). The amount of thermal energy converted in the food is proportional to the value of the loss factor (Tang, 2005). Mechanisms that contribute to the dielectric loss factor include dipole, electronic, ionic and Maxwell-Wagner responses (Metaxas & Meredith, 1993). At RF and microwave frequencies (RF of 1e50 MHz and microwave frequencies of 915 and 2450 MHz), ionic conductivity and dipole rotation are predominant loss mechanisms (Ryynnen, 1995):

where 30 r

and 300 are commonly called the dielectric constant and loss r p

dp

c s q  2pf 230 1 300 =30 2 1

(5)

300 300 300 300 s d d

s 30 u

(2)

where subscripts d and s stand for contributions due to dipole rotation and ionic conduction, respectively; s is the ionic conductivity in S m1 of the material, u is the angular frequency of the waves in Hz and 30 is the permittivity of free space or vacuum (8.854 1012 F m1). Besides, Maxwell-Wagner polarization arises from a charge build-up at the interface between components in heterogeneous systems. The Maxwell-Wagner polarization effect peaks at about 0.1 MHz (Metaxas & Meredith, 1993), but in general, its contribution is small compared to that of ionic conductivity. For foods with low moisture content, bound water plays a major role in dielectric heating in the frequency range from 20 to 30,000 MHz (Wang, Wig, Tang, & Hallberg, 2003). Dielectric materials, such as food products, convert electric energy at RF and microwave frequencies into heat. The increase in temperature of a material due to dielectric heating can be calculated as:

where c is the speed of light in free space (3 108 m/s) and f is the frequency (Hz). Common food products have 300 < 25, which r implies a dp of 0.6e1.0 cm (Venkatesh & Raghavan, 2004). According to Tang, Wang, and Chan (2003) and Wang, Wig, et al. (2003), the penetration of microwaves at 915 and 2450 MHz in foods with high moisture content at room temperature is typically between 0.3 and 7 cm, depending on the salt content and frequency. After obtaining the dielectric properties, the penetration depths of electromagnetic energy in selected materials can be calculated. Given xed dielectric properties, the penetration depth of a material is inversely proportional to frequency (f), as Eq. (5) states. Deeper penetration corresponds to lower frequencies, and that higher frequencies result in greater surface heating. Thus, the penetration depth of RF energy in foods can be as large as one order of magnitude compared with MW; for example, at 27.12 MHz a six times greater penetration depth in mangoes was calculated compared to microwave energy at 1800 MHz at 20  C (SosaMorales et al., 2009).

3. Methods for determining dielectric properties There are several techniques to measure the dielectric properties of the materials. Ier and Baysal (2004) cited different measurements techniques, and their main characteristics are summarized in Table 1. In general, the choice of measurement equipment depends on the material, the required frequency range and accuracy, and both availability and costs of equipments (Nelson & Kraszewski, 1990). The three most popular methods for measuring dielectric properties of foods and commodities are: open-ended coaxial probe, transmission line and, resonant cavity method. The probe method is based on a coaxial line ending abruptly at the tip that is in contact with the material being tested (Fig. 1). This method offers broadband measurements while minimizes sample disturbance. The measured reection coefcient is related to the sample permittivity (Sheen & Woodhead, 1999). The probe method is the easiest to use because it does not require a particular sample shape or special containers (Feng, Tang, Cavalieri, & Plumb, 2001; Ikediala et al., 2000; Nelson, 2003; Wang, Tang, et al., 2003). The transmission line method involves placing a sample inside an enclosed transmission line (Fig. 1). The cross-section of the transmission line must be precisely lled with the sample. This method is usually more accurate and sensitive than the probe

rCp

dT 55:63 1012 fE2 300 dt

(3)

where Cp is the specic heat of the material in J kg1  C1, r is the density of the material in kg/m3, E is the rms electric eld intensity in V m1, f is the frequency in Hz, dT/dt is the time rate of temperature increase in  C s1. It is clear from Eq. (3) that the rise in temperature is proportional to the loss factor of the material, in addition to electric eld intensity, frequency and treatment time (Komarov, Wang, & Tang, 2005; Nelson, 1996).

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Non-destructive, high Rapid and high accuracy temperatures can be used measurement, small sample

Broadband frequency A large at, thin, parallel- Expensive data are not provided and faced sample and special analysis may be complex calibration are required

Antennas are used to direct a microwave beam at or through the material. A vector network analyzer measures the reection and transmission coefcients Solids

method, but it is difcult to implement and time consuming. In contrast, the resonant cavity method uses a single-mode cavity. The sample of known geometry is placed in the cavity, the changes in reected power of the cavity and the frequency of resonance are used to compute the dielectric property of the sample. The cavity method can be accurate and is especially suited for samples with a very low dielectric loss factor; however, this method provides dielectric properties at only one xed frequency (Engelder & Bufer, 1991). 4. Factors inuencing dielectric properties of foods Several important factors are involved in the dielectric properties values determined for a given material. Some of these factors are related to the nature of the material (composition, structure), while others are associated with the conditions when electroheating is applied (temperature, frequency), and others are involved with the age or maturity stage of the food material. 4.1. Composition The dielectric properties of materials are dependent on their chemical composition. In foods, water is generally the predominant component. Moreover, the inuence of water, or the content of salt and other minerals depends to a large extent on the manner in which they are bound or restricted in their movement by other food components. This complicates the prediction of the dielectric properties of a mixture, based on data for each ingredient. The organic constituents of foods are dielectrically inert (30 < 3 and r 300 < 0:1) and, compared to aqueous ionic uids or water, may be r considered transparent to energy (Mudgett, 1986). Microwave heating is greatly affected by the presence of water in foods (Mudgett, 1986; Nelson & Kraszewski, 1990; Von Hippel, 1954). Water is the major absorber of microwave energy in foods, and consequently, the higher the moisture content, the better the heating. In its pure form, water is a classic example of a polar dielectric (Venkatesh & Raghavan, 2004). In general, higher moisture content results in higher dielectric constant and loss factor of the food (Komarov et al., 2005). High temperatures can, however, increase the mobility of bound water, by reducing this critical moisture level (Tang, 2005). Because of the reduced loss factor with decreasing moisture content, dehydrated foods have less ability to convert electromagnetic energy into thermal energy. Conversely, during a microwave drying process, the wet part of the product is able to convert more microwave energy into thermal energy compared to the dry part, which tends to uniform the uneven moisture distribution commonly experienced in hot air drying processes, where the core has higher moisture content than the surface. This phenomenon could signicantly reduce drying times (Feng et al., 2001). Ionic components have signicant effects in the dielectric properties. Increasing in salt content (from 0.8 to 2.8%, wet basis) resulted in an augment for loss factor of mashed potatoes, while dielectric constant was not affected by the salt content (Guan, Cheng, Wang, & Tang, 2004). 4.2. Density Physical structure also affects the dielectric properties of materials (Ryynnen, 1995). The amount of mass per unit of volume (density) has certain effect on the interaction of the electromagnetic eld and the involved mass (Nelson, 1992). For example, bulk density and moisture content affect the dielectric properties of coffee grain, lower permittivities were observed at lower density, while higher permittivity values were achieved for larger bulk

Short pulses of terahertz radiation within a generation and detection scheme, which is sensitive to the effect on both amplitude and phase of the radiation.

Time domain spectroscopy

Free space

Microwave range 1 MHze100 GHz

10 MHze10 GHz

Homogeneous

Cavity resonator

Sample is introduced in a cavity (a high Q resonant structure), which affects the center frequency and quality factor of the cavity

Solids

Brick-shaped sample ll the cross-section of an enclosed transmission line, causing an impedance change

More accurate and sensitive than the probe method

Easy sample preparation, adaptable for a wide range of temperatures

Table 1 Characteristics of common measurement techniques to determine dielectric properties (adapted from Ier & Baysal, 2004).

Transmission line

A coaxial line cut off forming a at plane boundary in contact with food. A vector analyzer is needed to measure the reection

Sample is a part of the insulator in a lumped circuit

Lumped circuit

Measurement technique

Material must be placed between two electrodes to form a capacitor

Materials with ability to be formed as a at smooth sheet <100 MHz

Parallel plate

Recommended materials

Brief description

Characteristics

Frequency range

Disadvantages

Advantages

Limited frequency range, sheet sample very thin (<10 mm thick)

Inexpensive, high accuracy

200 MHze20 GHz, even >100 GHz Liquid and solid materials Easy to use, noncan be measured destructive for some materials, sample preparation is not required Limited frequency range, Limited accuracy (5%), not suitable for very low low loss resolution, large loss materials sample and solids must show at surface

Coaxial probe

All materials, with exception of gases

Liquids and semisolids

<100 MHz

Less accuracy than resonators, sample preparation is difcult and time consuming

Liquids and solids

<100 MHz

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Fig. 2. Dependence of moisture and temperature on dielectric constant and loss factor of chickpea our at 27 MHz (from Guo et al., 2008).

constant is quite complex, and it may increase or decrease with temperature depending on the material. The temperature of a material has a signicant effect on the dielectric properties. Generally, the loss factor increases with increasing temperature at low frequencies due to ionic conductance (Guan et al., 2004) and decreases with increasing temperature at high frequencies due to free water dispersion (Wang, Wig, et al., 2003).
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of methods to measure dielectric properties: (a) open-ended coaxial probe, from Wang, Tang, et al. (2003), (b) transmission line-waveguide and (c) free-space transmission technique, ports are connected to a network analyzer, from Venkatesh and Raghavan (2005).

4.4. Frequency With the exception of some materials with extremely low loss (materials that absorb essentially no energy from RF and MW elds), the dielectric properties of most materials vary considerably with the frequency of the applied electric elds. Thus, an important phenomenon contributing to the frequency dependence of the dielectric properties is the polarization of molecules arising from the orientation with the imposed electric eld, which have permanent dipole moments (Venkatesh & Raghavan, 2004). At low frequencies (<200 MHz) ionic conductivity plays a major role, whereas both ionic conductivity and the dipole rotation of free water are important at microwave frequencies. For example, ionic conduction was the dominant mechanism for dielectric dispersion in eggs at frequencies lower than 200 MHz (Ragni, Al-Shami, Mikhaylenko, & Tang, 2007), while ionic conduction dominated until 300 MHz in mangoes (Sosa-Morales et al., 2009). For pure liquids with polar molecules, like alcohols or water, polar dispersion dominates the frequency characteristics of dielectric properties and the Debye model can be used to describe the general frequency-dependent behaviour of pure liquids (Decareau, 1985). For example, Liu, Tang, and Mao (2009) used a modied Debye

densities (Berbert et al., 2001). A similar conclusion was reached by Guo, Tiwari, Tang, and Wang (2008) who found that both the dielectric constant and loss factor of chickpea our increased with increases in both density and moisture content from 1.265 g/cm3 for our with 1.9% of moisture, to 1.321 g/cm3 for chickpea our with a moisture content of 20.9% (Fig. 2). The authors also suggested simple relations to estimate dielectric properties of chickpea our from its density and estimation of density from dielectric properties of the our. 4.3. Temperature The inuence of temperature on the dielectric properties of foods depends on many factors, including food composition, especially moisture and salt contents, and the involved frequencies (Tang, 2005). Thus, the temperature dependence of the dielectric

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equation in order to know the frequency-dependent behaviour of the loss factor in breads. From 1 to 1800 MHz, ionic conduction exhibited the major contribution; the dipole relaxation of free water was moderate at high-frequency values. The combined effect of temperature and frequency can be observed in Fig. 3. 4.5. Storage time The storage time, when ripening processes take place, may affect the DP of fruits. Guo, Nelson, Trabelsi, and Kays (2007) measured the dielectric properties of fresh apples (Fuji, Pink Lady and Red Rome) at 24  C, from 10 to 1800 MHz and over 10 weeks of storage at 4  C in order to determine if these properties could be used as quality factors. The dielectric constant and loss factor remained essentially constant during the proposed refrigerated storage period, and further research employing wider frequency ranges is necessary to assess the potential for sensing quality factors in apples through radio frequency electromagnetic elds. Furthermore, dielectric properties of mangoes were measured by Sosa-Morales et al. (2009) at 0, 4, 8, 16 days of storage at 21  C. Both 30 and 300 values decreased with storage time, caused r r mainly by the reduced moisture content and the increased pH observed during that period; while the electrical conductivity of mangoes increased with increasing temperature during the storage time. Shell eggs undergo signicant changes during storage, most of them related to their freshness. Ragni, Al-Shami, Mikhaylenko, et al. (2007) investigated the DP of hen shell eggs using an open-ended coaxial probe technique. Measurements were carried out on intact eggs in the 10e1800 MHz frequency band, after storage at 22  C for 1, 2, 4, 8, and 15 days and at three selected points on the shell eggs. Both dielectric properties (30 and 300 ) increased with storage time; r r for example, the loss factor increased by 22% from day 1 to day 15 at 20 MHz. DP of eggs could be used for predicting basic quality parameters (air cell height, thick albumen height, yolk index among others) and, in general, to know product freshness (Ragni, AlShami, Berardinelli, et al., 2007). 5. Reported values for dielectric properties of foods in the 21st century Characterization of dielectric properties, as mentioned above, is key for understanding the response of a material when subjected to RF or MW elds for the purposes of heating, drying or processing. Recent data are presented and classied depending on food nature.

5.1. Fruits and vegetables Recent data for dielectric constants and loss factors of fresh fruits and vegetables at common frequencies are shown in Table 2. Dielectric heating using RF and MW energy has been studied as a possible disinfestation treatment for several commodities. RF energy has been studied in pilot scale systems against codling moth in cherries (Ikediala, Hansen, Tang, Drake, & Wang, 2002) and apples (Wang, Birla, Tang, & Hansen, 2006). To develop a treatment protocol based on RF or MW heating, the rst step is to gain knowledge of the dielectric properties of the fruit. Wang, Tang, et al. (2003) and Wang, Wig, et al., (2003) published an extensive analysis of dielectric properties of fruits and insect pests in the context of RF and MW treatments. When a selection of fruits and insect larvae were examined the authors found that the loss factors at RF frequencies of common pest insects were clearly greater than that of nuts, suggesting possible differential and faster heating of insects versus nuts when treated simultaneously in an RF applicator. An interesting application for vegetable products was proposed by Zhong, Sandeep, and Swartzel (2004) who considered RF heating as a potential alternative to conventional heating for liquids containing particulates. Using a 30 kW, 40.68 MHz, continuous ow RF unit, the authors processed carrot and potato cubes using a 1% CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose) solution as carrier. Based on thermal images captured by an infrared camera, small temperature gradients were observed inside the carrots and potato cubes that were heated in a short residence time. Likewise, a 600 W, 27.12 MHz, RF applicator was used by Orsat, Garipy, Raghavan, and Lyew (2001) to determine the potential for RF to improve and extend the storability of vacuum-packaged carrot sticks. Despite the fact that the quality of RF-treated samples was higher than that of both control (chlorinated water) and hotwater-treated carrot samples, and that the RF treatments maintained colour, taste and the vacuum pressure of the packages, which was not the case for the control or hot-water-treated carrots, authors concluded that RF heating should not be recommended as a sole treatment to improve safety and storability of minimally processed ready-to-eat carrot sticks. Instead RF should be considered as a part of an integrated approach, including proper packaging and adequate refrigeration. Recently, microwaves treatments have been used in extraction processes. Solid-liquid extraction of oils and bioactive compounds from plants is being studied with microwave assisted extraction (MAE) or solvent free microwave extraction (SFME). Opposite to conventional solvent extraction, presence of water improves the extraction when MAE or SMFE are employed. In fact, water absorbs the electromagnetic energy and the generated heat becomes easy the extraction of chemical constituents from the plant tissue. When MAE is applied, solvents with high dielectric constant should be chosen. Polar molecules and ionic solutions absorb microwave energy since they have permanent dipole moment. The dielectric constant of ethanol, methanol and water (24.3, 32.6 and 78.3 at 20  C in microwaves region) is enough to consider them adequate solvents for MAE processes (Takeuchi et al., 2009). SMFE is considered a green technology, which reduces the time extraction without affecting the quality of the extracted oil (Wang, Ding, et al., 2006). When SMFE is used, the dielectric properties of the material are very important, because of a lack of solvent. Lucchesi, Smadja, Bradshaw, Louw, and Chemat (2007) reported the dielectric properties of cardamom seeds. 30 and 300 for cardamom seeds r r with 5% of moisture content were 2.203 and 0.060, respectively; while that when seeds had 60% of moisture, 30 was 3.3 and 300 had r r a value of 2.2. Loss factor increased when the moisture content was higher, which is desirable for SMFE as the plant is more absorber of the MW energy.

Fig. 3. Mechanisms involved in the loss factor of materials with high moisture content as functions of frequency and temperature (from Wang, Wig, et al., 2003).

1174 Table 2 Dielectric properties of fruits and vegetables. Fruit or vegetable

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Temperature ( C)

Moisture content (% w.b.)

Dielectric constant Frequency 27.12 MHz 915 MHz 74.3 67.8 77.0 68.9 59.9 57.9 64.0 68.0 59.0 59.0 57.5 73.7 66.7 71 69 72.7 66.1 70 73 72 68.2 60.8 64 74 67.3 61 72.9 66.1 69 59.7 55.5 70 67 68.4 68.5 62 68 63 73 55 63 62.6 60.3

Loss factor Frequency 27.12 MHz 120.4 202.2 92.0 153.8 699.6 1136.2 e e e 238.5 406.4 293.0 501.0 e e 202.4 345.3 e e e 230.1 377.7 e 250.1 404.6 e 223.3 367.7 e 264.1 441.2 e e 207.5 346.4 e e e e e e 258.6 433.1 915 MHz 8.5 8.3 10.0 9.8 27.4 39.8 19.0 14.0 18.0 25.4 29.1 16.4 19.3 11 15 12.1 14.2 18 15 18 13.3 15 13 13.8 16.0 12 16.5 17.5 10 15 17.6 12 11 21.1 16.1 22 20 15 14 16 13 24 24.9

Reference

Apple (Golden Delicious) Apple (Red Delicious) Avocado Banana Cantaloupe Carrot Cherimoya Cherry Cucumber Grape Grapefruit Kiwifruit Lemon Lime Longan Mango Mango Tommy Atkins Onion Orange Papaya Passion fruit Peach Pear Persimmon Potato Radish Squash Strawberry Sweet potato Turnip White sapote

20 50 20 50 20 50 23 23 23 20 50 20 50 23 23 20 50 e e e 20 50 e 20 50 e 20 50 e 20 50 e e 20 50 e e e e e e 20 50

e e e e e e 78 92 87 e e e e 97 82 e e 87 91 90 e e 86 86 92 e e 88 e e 90 84 e e 79 96 95 92 80 92 e e

72.5 68.1 74.6 68.7 115.7 137.9 e e e 71.5 72.0 91.2 89.6 e e 89 93.8 e e e 75.2 69.7 e 83.1 79.8 e 84 78 e 82.7 91.6 e e 79.8 76.6 e e e e e e 76 74.5

Wang, Tang, Johnson, et al. (2003) Wang, Tang, Johnson, et al. (2003) Wang et al. (2005) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Wang et al. (2005) Wang, Tang, et al. (2003) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Wang, Tang, et al. (2003) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Wang et al. (2005) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Sosa-Morales et al. (2009) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Wang, Tang, et al. (2003) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Wang et al. (2005) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Venkatesh and Raghavan (2004) Wang et al. (2005) Venkatesh and Raghavan Venkatesh and Raghavan Venkatesh and Raghavan Venkatesh and Raghavan Venkatesh and Raghavan Venkatesh and Raghavan Wang et al. (2005) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2004)

5.2. Bread Shelf life of fresh breads is limited due to mould growth. In order to design efcient MW or RF treatments that assure mould control and retention of product quality, it is desirable to understand dielectric properties of bread products. The dielectric constants and loss factors of white breads at four different moisture contents between 34.0 and 38.6% and ve temperatures from 25 to 85  C were reported by Liu, Tang, and Zhihuai (2009) and are depicted in Table 3. In their work, they also found some valuable equations to calculate both the dielectric constant and dielectric loss factor. In other report, Liu, Tang, and Mao (2009) focused on the analysis of the inuence of frequency, temperature and moisture content of white bread on the dielectric loss factor, which is more directly related to conversion of electromagnetic energy to thermal energy during dielectric heating. 5.3. Nuts

and Simunovic (2004) for several densities, temperatures, and moisture contents in the microwave region (300e3000 MHz) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Dielectric mixture equations were used to correlate the dielectric properties with density and the coefcients of quadratic and linear dielectric mixture equations were tabulated for 915 and 2450 MHz, different temperatures and

Table 3 White bread dielectric properties (adapted from Liu, Tang, Zhihuai, 2009). Moisture Temperature ( C) Dielectric constant content (% wb) Frequency Dielectric loss factor Frequency

27.12 MHz 915 MHz 27.12 MHz 915 MHz 38.6 25 55 85 25 55 85 25 55 85 2.83 3.15 3.55 2.68 3.02 3.50 2.35 2.80 3.45 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.03 2.11 2.23 1.81 1.94 2.13 4.95 8.00 13.26 3.90 6.74 12.55 2.32 5.09 11.98 0.69 0.83 1.15 0.59 0.78 1.13 0.47 0.67 1.07

37.1

34.6

Dielectric properties of ground samples of in-shell and shelled peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) were measured by Boldor, Sanders,

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moisture contents. The values of the dielectric constant and loss factor of bulk in-shell and shelled peanuts were determined by extrapolation of the rst and second-order polynomials that related 30r and 300 with density. An equation that determines the dielectric r properties of nominal peanut pods (in-shell peanuts) and kernels (shelled peanuts) as a function of their temperature and moisture content was also determined by using multiple linear regression. For in-shell peanuts, the dielectric loss factor ranged from 0.005 to 0.05 and the dielectric constant from 0.01 to 0.2. For shelled peanuts, DPs ranged from 0.002 to 0.1 (dielectric loss factor) and from 0.05 to 0.5 (dielectric constant). As the density increased, the dielectric properties increase for both ground in-shell and shelled peanuts. At higher moisture contents, the signicance of temperature effects on 30 and 300 was reduced by the high dependence of r r the dielectric properties on moisture content. Mean values of the dielectric constant and the loss factor for almond and walnut at 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60  C are showed in Table 4. Dielectric properties of almonds and walnuts were below 7 and this was because these nut kernels had a low moisture content (3% wet basis) and high oil content (ca. 50%); results that were comparable with the values of the dielectric constant (2.7) and loss factor (0.3) for walnuts at 2000e3000 MHz obtained by other authors. A similar trend was observed for the dielectric constant and loss factor for the two nuts. There was also a peak value for loss factors at ca. 590 MHz at 20  C, which might have been the result of the presence of bound water in the nuts (Wang, Tang, et al., 2003). Protocols against worms in walnuts have been proposed using RF energy (Wang, Tang, et al., 2006). 5.4. Coffee The dielectric properties of several coffee varieties were determined and analyzed by Berbert et al. (2001), for frequencies from 75 kHz to 5 MHz at 21  C. Permittivity of parchment coffee increased with moisture and bulk density (Fig. 4), but decreased with frequency. Loss factor also decreased when frequency increased, but the behaviour was less regular than that observed for permittivity, ranging from 0.75 to 0.08, which was dependent on the frequency and moisture content. According to the authors, the potential application of the knowledge of the relative permittivity of coffee grains is the indirect moisture content determination or an on-line moisture meters in automatic control of coffee dryers, as a non-destructive technique for this valuable agricultural product. 5.5. Meats and seafood Cooking and heating of meat and meat products is an area where MW and RF radiation has found applications at household
Fig. 4. Effect of bulk density and moisture content on the permittivity of parchment coffee variety Catuai Vermelho: 415 kg/m3 and 11.2% (lower), 414 kg/m3 and 12.3%; 423 kg/m3 and 13.9%, 426 kg/m3 and 15.1%; 426 kg/m3 and 15.9%; 427 kg/m3 and 17.9%; 425 kg/m3 and 19.3%; 424 kg/m3 and 20.5%; 429 kg/m3 and 21.3% and 429 kg/m3 and 22.5% (upper). From Berbert et al. (2001).

Table 4 Dielectric properties of almonds and walnuts (Wang, Tang, et al., 2003). Type of nut Temperature ( C) Dielectric constant Frequency Loss factor Frequency

27.12 MHz 915 MHz 27.12 MHz 915 MHz Almond 20 30 40 50 60 20 30 40 50 60 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.8 6.0 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 1.7 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.1 2.2 2.1 3.0 3.4 3.8 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 5.7 6.4 6.0 5.7 6.4 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.0 1.8

Walnut

level, but that also has industrial potential. A vast amount of information has been published on the dielectric properties of meat and meat products using different methods, frequencies and temperatures, which made it somewhat difcult to cross compare results. With the aim of gathering information related to microwave (MW) and radio frequency (RF) radiation of meat products, Lyng, Zhang, and Brunton (2005) published a survey on the dielectric properties of meats (chicken, lamb, beef, pork and turkey) and typical ingredients used in meat products manufacture (salt, nitrite, soy protein isolate, deionised water, potato starch). In the

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study, dielectric properties at 27.12, 915 and 2450 MHz of lean, fat, aqueous solutions and meat blends of ingredients were measured. In addition, temperature rises of ingredient and meat blends were compared following RF or MW heating. They found that frequency and composition affected dielectric properties, with fat having lower dielectric activity than lean tissue. Also, dielectric properties at MW frequencies were more sensitive to changes in composition. What is more, when low and high dielectric activity ingredients were incorporated into lean meat cuts, dielectric properties did not correlate well with temperature rises, which indicated the importance of other factors in addition to dielectric properties that determine temperature rise. The 30 values obtained for all lean r meats were in the same order of magnitude, with values ranging from 70.5 to 77.8; while 300 values for lean meats were ranked in the r following order: lamb < pork < beef < turkey < chicken; though pork fat was dramatically lower than all lean meats. Table 5 shows the dielectric properties of different species and types (lean or fat) of meat at 27.12 and 2450 MHz. Regarding sh products, Wang, Tang, Rasco, Kong, and Wang (2008) measured the dielectric properties for anterior, middle, tail, and belly portions of Alaska pink salmon (Oncornynchus gorbuscha) llets at frequencies between 27 and 1800 MHz from 20 to 120  C to provide insights for improvement of the modeling of microwave (MW) and radio frequency (RF) commercial sterilization processes of salmon products. Compositional differences contributed to the observed slight differences in the dielectric properties for different parts of salmon llet. For all portions of the llet, similar trends in dielectric constant and loss factor measurements were observed as a function of temperature (20e120  C). At RF frequencies of 27 and 40 MHz, the dielectric constant decreased with increasing temperature. But at microwave frequencies (915 and 1800 MHz), the opposite trend was observed. The dielectric loss factor increased with increasing temperature over the tested frequency range. Calculations from electrical conductivity of minced salmon llets measured at different temperatures suggest

that ionic conductivity was the major contributor to temperature dependent behaviours of dielectric properties at RF frequencies. Table 5 reviews the ndings for salmon llets at two frequencies and three temperatures. Caviars are ready-to-eat aquatic food products made by brining and curing sh roe. Caviar is heat labile and difcult to pasteurize, so radio frequency (RF) and microwave (MW) heating provide a possible alternative to the conventional thermal processing for caviar products. The objectives of a study made by Al-Holy et al. (2005) were to determine the dielectric properties of untreated sturgeon and salmon caviar; to study the effect of product temperature (20e80  C) on dielectric properties in connection with a potential use in the development of pasteurization protocols; and to investigate the impact of commercially used salt concentrations on the dielectric properties. The dielectric constant and dielectric loss factor for salmon and sturgeon caviar increased markedly with increasing temperature at 27 MHz but not at 915 MHz (Table 5). Microwave processing is considered to be a promising technology for shucked oysters. Since its application is restricted by rare information on the thermal and dielectric properties of oysters, the later were determined by Hu and Mallikarjunan (2005) between 300 MHz and 3 GHz, as models were developed to describe the temperature effects on thermal and dielectric properties of oysters. At microwave frequencies of 915 and 2450 MHz, they observed that the dielectric constant decreased (64.02e50.89 and 59.10e47.67, respectively), while the loss factor increased (13.84e20.14) at 915 MHz as temperature increased from 1 to 55  C. 5.6. Dairy products Recently, Nunes, Bohigas, and Tejada (2006) studied the dielectric properties of UHT skim, low fat and homogenized whole milk at room temperature (17e20  C) and over the frequency range of 1e20 GHz 30 for skim and low fat milk was similar at 1 GHz and r 10 GHz, 75 to 53 and 73 to 50, respectively; while 30 of whole milk r

Table 5 Dielectric properties of meats, salmon and caviars. Species (anatomical location) Type Temperature ( C) Dielectric constant Frequency 27.12 MHz Beef (forequarter trimmings) Lamb (leg) Pork (shoulder) Pork (back) Chicken (breast) Turkey (breast) Pink salmon Lean Lean Lean Fat Lean Lean Anterior 20 60 120 20 60 120 20 50 80 20 50 80 20 50 80 20 50 80 70.5 77.9 69.6 12.5 75.0 73.5 40 MHz 87.6 100.8 116.8 85.3 99.1 119.7 27.12 MHz 129.8 121.5 182.0 70.7 46.4 59.6 81.5 111.5 202.8 61.0 77.4 92.5 2450 MHz 43.7 49.4 51.3 7.9 49.0 56.3 915 MHz 55.1 51.4 47.1 57.0 53.7 50.7 915 MHz 29.8 22.7 25.0 30.7 18.3 18.9 25.0 26.4 31.9 32.6 33.7 35.3 Dielectric loss factor Frequency 27.12 MHz 418.7 387.2 392.0 13.1 480.8 458.4 40 MHz 296.3 525.5 890.8 313.9 581.4 1085.2 27.12 MHz 1349.4 1501.1 2614.5 470.8 375.9 642.7 1004.0 1769.5 2873.3 105.5 210.8 352.2 2450 MHz 13.7 15.0 15.1 0.76 16.1 18.0 915 MHz 22.6 33.0 47.1 22.8 34.8 60.4 915 MHz 40.5 43.3 73.6 18.7 14.1 22.2 35.8 59.5 99.9 8.9 11.3 17.0 Lyng Lyng Lyng Lyng Lyng Lyng et et et et et et al. al. al. al. al. al. (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2008) (2008) (2008) (2008) (2008) (2008) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) (2005) Reference

Middle

Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang Wang

et et et et et et

al. al. al. al. al. al.

Sturgeon caviar

Salted

Unsalted

Sturgeon caviar

Salted

Unsalted

Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy Al-Holy

et et et et et et et et et et et et

al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al. al.

M.E. Sosa-Morales et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1169e1179

1177

ranged from 70 to 48 in the same frequency region. Likewise, 300 values were very similar among products: 15 for both skim and r low fat milk and 14 for whole milk at 1 GHz, and around 30 for skim and low fat milk and 27 for whole milk at 10 GHz. Everard, Fagan, ODonnell, OCallaghan, and Lyng (2006) measured the dielectric properties of 16 processed cheeses over the frequency range 0.3e3 GHz. The effect of temperature on the dielectric properties of those cheeses was investigated at temperature intervals of 10  C between 5 and 85  C. Results showed that the dielectric constant was highest at 5  C and generally decreased up to a temperature between 55 and 75  C. On the other hand, the dielectric loss factor generally increased with increasing temperature for cheeses with high and medium moisture/fat ratio, decreased with temperature between 5 and 55  C and then increased, for cheeses with low moisture/fat ratio. Moreover, partial least square regression models indicated that 30 and 300 could be r r used as a quality control screening application to measure moisture content and salt content of processed cheeses. Amhed, Ramaswamy, and Raghavan (2007) determined the dielectric properties of salted and unsalted butter over the MW frequency range of 500e3000 MHz. Their ndings indicated that dielectric spectra of butter without salt differed signicantly from the salted one as function of temperature. The dielectric constant of unsalted butter was observed independent of frequency, whereas the loss factor decreased with an increase in frequency. Both 30 and r 300 of unsalted butter decreased as the temperature increased and r dielectric parameters of salted butter gradually decreased with increasing frequency but increased with temperature. Finally, the dielectric properties of both salted and unsalted butter were adequately described by a second-order polynomial equation and the increase in ionic conductance, as a result of salt presence, appeared to be the principal reason for the differences in electrical properties of salted butter.

Table 6 Dielectric properties of liquid and pre-cooked egg whites and whole eggs (adapted from Wang et al., 2009). Egg State product Temperature Dielectric constant ( C) Frequency Dielectric loss factor Frequency

27.12 MHz 915 MHz 27.12 MHz 915 MHz Egg Liquid white 20 80 120 Pre-cooked 20 80 120 84.6 98.3 135.1 89.3 99.5 124.4 76.3 87.5 106.1 79.6 89.0 104.8 64.0 50.5 53.2 64.5 53.0 50.1 55.5 48.9 44.7 56.5 48.5 44.3 427.0 866.5 1665.8 411.8 937.1 1480.5 335.9 801.8 1132.7 336.8 745.8 1020.0 18.7 33.3 56.9 18.9 34.6 52.2 15.8 30.5 42.3 16.3 29.0 39.5

Whole egg

Liquid

20 80 120 Pre-cooked 20 80 120

Previously, Luechapattanaporn et al. (2004, 2005) successfully validated the use of RF equipment for the sterilization of samples (mashed potatoes and scrambled eggs) inoculated with Clostridium sporogenes (PA 3679), and achieved sufcient microbial inactivation, while producing products which had a higher quality than conventionally retorted products.

5.8. Liquid foods Dielectric properties of pumpable food materials have been measured at 915 MHz in the temperature range of 10e90  C for continuous ow microwave heating applications. The products tested by Coronel, Simunovik, Sandeep, and Kumar (2008) included milk, ready-to-eat puddings, soy beverages and avocado paste products. The results these authors obtained showed that the dielectric properties of skim milk and 3.2% fat milk were very similar within the studied range of temperatures, demonstrating that the fat content has a negligible effect on these properties. The value of the dielectric constant ranged from 70 to 57.7, while the dielectric loss factor varied from 14 to 28 in these products. In the case of chocolate avoured milk (1.5% fat), a different trend was observed at 30  C, with changing values of 30 from 65 to 23 and 300 r r from 16 to 5, as the temperature raised from 20 to 30  C (Coronel et al., 2008). The dielectric properties of soy beverages followed the same general trend: a decrease in the value of 30 and increase in the value r of 300 as temperature raised. Dielectric constant values (ranging r from 73 to 61) were very similar between products (1% fat, fat-free and lactose-free soy beverages), but 300 values, ranging from 9 to 14, r were smaller than those obtained for skim milk as a result of different composition and nature of solutes found in both liquid foods (Coronel et al., 2008). For puddings (tapioca and cornstarch), they both had similar dielectric properties, 64 and 52 at 10 and 90  C for 30 and for 300 at 10 r r and 90  C were 17.2 and 22.7, respectively. Values of 30 for freshr made avocado paste ranged from 51 to 39 and the values of 300 were r calculated between 16 and 26 in a temperature interval of 15e85  C. Fresh-made avocado paste dielectric constant was lower than those tested for commercial avocado paste at 70 and 80  C, as 300 for the commercial paste was much higher and increased quickly r with temperature than that of the fresh-made product (Coronel et al., 2008). The typical characterization of musts and wines is based on chemical composition and sensory analysis. Garca, Torres, Prieto, and De Blas (2001) aimed to describe grape juice by dielectric

5.7. Eggs and egg products Eggs represent an interesting, and so far little explored, biomaterial from the standpoint of their dielectric characterization. For example, Ragni, Al-Shami, Mikhaylenko, et al. (2007) and Ragni, Al-Shami, Berardinelli, et al., 2007 investigated the electrical changes of egg constituents (albumen and yolk), throughout dielectric properties and conductivity, during storage. Moreover, data of dielectric properties is important to the research of RF and MW heating applications for egg products potential pasteurization and sterilization. Since there was a lack of information on the dielectric properties of whole eggs and egg whites, Wang, Tang, Wang, and Swanson (2009) studied the effects of cooking on dielectric properties of liquid whole eggs and liquid egg whites in relation with radio frequency and microwave heating processes to prepare shelf-stable products. Dielectric measurements were made using an open-ended coaxial probe method over a temperature range of 20 and 120  C at radio frequencies 27 and 40 MHz, and microwave frequencies 915 and 1800 MHz. Thermal denaturation of liquid egg whites and whole eggs inuenced the dielectric constants and dipole loss component of eggs, as reected by changes in loss factors above 60  C. In addition, loss factor of liquid whole eggs was found generally smaller than that of egg whites and larger than the loss factor of egg yolk. Ionic conductivity was considered a dominant factor determining the dielectric loss behaviour of egg products at radio frequencies, whereas dipole water molecules played an increasing role with an increase in microwave frequencies (Wang et al., 2009). Table 6 shows the dielectric properties of liquid and pre-cooked egg whites and whole eggs.

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M.E. Sosa-Morales et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 1169e1179 Everard, C., Fagan, C., ODonnell, C., OCallaghan, D. J., & Lyng, J. G. (2006). Dielectric properties of process cheese from 0.3 to 3 GHz. Journal of Food Engineering, 75, 415e422. Feng, H., Tang, J., Cavalieri, R., & Plumb, O. (2001). Heat and mass transport in microwave drying of hygroscopic porous materials in a spouted bed. AIChE Journal, 47, 1499e1512. Garca, A., Torres, J., Prieto, E., & De Blas, M. (2001). Dielectric properties of grape juice at 0.2 and 3 GHz. Journal of Food Engineering, 48, 203e211. Guan, D., Cheng, M., Wang, Y., & Tang, J. (2004). Dielectric properties of mashed potatoes relevant to microwave and radio-frequency pasteurization and sterilization processes. Journal of Food Science, 69(1), FEP30eFEP37. Guo, W.-C., Nelson, S. O., Trabelsi, S., & Kays, S. J. (2007). 10e1800 MHz dielectric properties of fresh apples during storage. Journal of Food Engineering, 83, 562e569. Guo, W., Tiwari, G., Tang, J., & Wang, S. (2008). Frequency, moisture and temperature-dependent dielectric properties of chickpea our. Biosystems Engineering, 101, 217e224. Hu, X., & Mallikarjunan, P. (2005). Thermal and dielectric properties of shucked oysters. LWT e Food Science and Technology, 38, 489e494. Ikediala, J. N., Hansen, J. D., Tang, J., Drake, S. R., & Wang, S. (2002). Development of a saline water immersion technique with RF energy as a postharvest treatment against codling moth in cherries. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 24, 209e221. Ikediala, J. N., Tang, J., Drake, S. R., & Neven, L. G. (2000). Dielectric properties of apple cultivars and codling moth larvae. Transactions of the ASAE, 43, 1175e1184. Ier, F., & Baysal, T. (2004). Dielectric properties of food materials-2: measurement techniques. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 44, 473e478. Komarov, V., Wang, S., & Tang, J. (2005). Permittivity and measurements. In K. Chang (Ed.), Encyclopedia of RF and microwave engineering (3693e3711). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Liu, Y., Tang, J., & Mao, Z. (2009). Analysis of bread loss factor using modied Debye equations. Journal of Food Engineering, 93, 453e459. Liu, Y., Tang, J., & Zhihuai, M. (2009). Analysis of bread dielectric properties using mixture equations. Journal of Food Engineering, 93, 72e79. Lucchesi, M. E., Smadja, J., Bradshaw, S., Louw, W., & Chemat, F. (2007). Solvent free microwave extraction of Elletaria cardamomum L.: a multivariate study of a new technique for the extraction of essential oil. Journal of Food Engineering, 79, 1079e1086. Luechapattanaporn, K., Wang, Y., Wang, J., Al-Holy, M., Kang, D. H., Tang, J., et al. (2004). Microbial safety in radio frequency processing of packaged foods. Journal of Food Science, 69(7), 201e206. Luechapattanaporn, K., Wang, Y., Wang, J., Tang, J., Hallberg, L. M., & Dunne, P. (2005). Sterilization of scrambled eggs in military polymeric trays by radio frequency energy. Journal of Food Science, 70(4), E288eE294. Lyng, J., Zhang, L., & Brunton, N. (2005). A survey of the dielectric properties of meats and ingredients used in meat product manufacture. Meat Science, 69, 589e602. Marra, F., Zhang, L., & Lyng, J. (2008). Radio frequency treatment of foods: review of recent advances. Journal of Food Engineering, 91, 497e508. Metaxas, A. C., & Meredith, R. J. (1993). Industrial microwave heating. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. Mudgett, R. E. (1986). Electrical properties of foods. In M. A. Rao, & S. S. H. Rizvi (Eds.), Engineering properties of foods (pp. 329e390). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Nelson, S. O. (1992). Correlating dielectric properties of solids and particulate samples through mixture relationships. Transactions of the ASAE, 35(2), 625e629. Nelson, S. O. (1996). Review and assessment of radio-frequency and microwave energy for stored-grain and insect control. Transactions of the ASAE, 39(4), 1475e1484. Nelson, S. O. (2003). Frequency- and temperature-dependent permittivities of fresh fruits and vegetables from 0.01 to 1.8 GHz. Transactions of the ASAE, 39(1), 281e289. Nelson, S. O., & Kraszewski, A. W. (1990). Dielectric properties of materials and measurement techniques. Drying Technology, 8(5), 1123e1142. Nunes, A., Bohigas, X., & Tejada, J. (2006). Dielectric study of milk for frequencies between 1 and 20 GHz. Journal of Food Engineering, 76, 250e255. Orsat, V., Garipy, Y., Raghavan, G. S. V., & Lyew, D. (2001). Radio-frequency treatment for ready-to-eat fresh carrots. Food Research International, 34(6), 527e536. Ragni, L., Al-Shami, A., Berardinelli, A., Mikhaylenko, G., & Tang, J. (2007). Quality evaluation of shell eggs during storage using a dielectric technique. Transactions of the ASABE, 50, 1331e1340. Ragni, L., Al-Shami, A., Mikhaylenko, G., & Tang, J. (2007). Dielectric characterization of hen eggs during storage. Journal of Food Engineering, 82, 450e459. Ryynnen, S. (1995). The electromagnetic properties of food materials: a review of basic principles. Journal of Food Engineering, 26, 409e429. Sheen, N. L., & Woodhead, I. M. (1999). An open-ended coaxial probe for broadband permittivity measurement of agricultural products. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 74, 193e202. Sosa-Morales, M. E., Tiwari, G., Wang, S., Tang, J., Lpez-Malo, A., & Garca, H. S. (2009). Dielectric heating as a potential post-harvest treatment of disinfesting mangoes I: relation between dielectric properties and ripening. Biosystems Engineering, 103, 297e303.

parameters and to examine the obtained data by means of statistical methods in order to nd out a possible connection among dielectric values and grape varieties. Red wine grape juice samples (from Merlot, Tempranillo and Cabernet Sauvignon grape varieties) were used for measuring dielectric constant and loss factor at 0.2 and 3 GHz. Cabernet grapes presented the highest mean values of the dielectric constant at 0.2 GHz, 3 GHz and total losses at 0.2 GHz; whereas, Merlot grapes had the highest mean values of total losses at 3 GHz and dipolar losses at both 0.2 and 3 GHz. Tempranillo grapes had the lowest mean values, except for dielectric constant at 3 GHz (Merlot) and dipolar losses at 0.2 GHz (Cabernet). The investigators observed the existence of differences among the three varieties in relation to the values of total and dipolar losses at 3 GHz; however, those preliminary results were not decisive enough and more measurements were considered as necessary. Nevertheless, the use of this electromagnetic radiation would have some advantages such as a clean and fast operation, in addition to the non-destructive character, as it also offers the possibility of making continuous measurements (Garca et al., 2001).

6. Final remarks Dielectric properties of a wide diversity of foods are being needed to understand the behaviour of the material when is submitted to electromagnetic heating. Their importance as basic concepts must not escape to the current engineering background. Valuable data have been published in this Century, and more studies will be conducted in order to explore other food materials. Depending on the values of both dielectric constant and loss factor, new food processes or measurements procedures based on RF or MW could be developed to improve the food quality (disinfestations protocols) and/or become faster the food production (pasteurization, sterilization) and quality assurance based on determinations of moisture content, density, egg age, among others. Also, dielectric properties have an important role when extraction process of phytochemical compounds from plants is developed involving microwaves.

Acknowledgement Author M. E. Sosa-Morales thanks the nancial support from CONACyT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologa, Mexico) for a scholarship to support her PhD studies.

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