CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND CORPORATE PROFILE

2.1 Introduction This chapter appraises previous research by accredited scholars and researchers. A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge on a particular topic. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as the justification for future research in the area. For this particular study, the chapter shall be a systematic review of available resources, the current practices in budget control, significance of budget control, strategies imposed at the Ministry of Health to counter corruptions that significantly affect budgeting practices and operational definitions. Public budget preparation is one of the tedious tasks that any country should look down upon. The preparation process for the annual budget involves a great deal of energy, time, and expense. Hence, it is important that a country must be able to follow accurately all the methods of preparing an annual budget.

Budgets can be prepared for and used by anyone and anything. That is, we can prepare and use personal budgets and organisations, ministries and non-profit making organisations can all use them. Budgets have to be prepared in advance; and for this reason, they are often referred to in terms of their being part of a feed forward system. Feedback is a term frequently heard both in accounting and ordinary use. Feed forward, on the other hand tends to be less frequently heard, yet this word incorporates

the most important aspect of budgeting. That is, looking at situations in advance, thinking about the impact and implications of things in advance, and attempting to take control of situations in advance. Consequently, a budget is
composed of different functional budgets that could help a country for such development such as agriculture, technology, tourism, and other budgets. The combination of each functional budget made up the capital budget, master budget and even the cash flow budget which consists of income and balance sheets (Smith, & Mcgeary, 1997). Aside from determining the financial needs, other purpose of budgeting is to assess the social spending in any country (Schmidt, 1992). Other essential reasons for having a budget plan is to effectively allocate resources, coordination, rendering tasks, dimensioning of the activities of the country, efficient communication and a foundation for incentive systems. In budgeting, the focus is not only to prepare the budget, but more importantly to have a follow-up operation for budgeting and to act according to known data. In addition, budgets are also known as a financial expression of a countrys plan for a period of time (Falk, 1994). It tells where and how the organisation will spend money and where the money will come from to pay these expenses. Budgets also set limits. Imagine how chaotic an industry or country would be if everyone was allowed to spend as much as they wished on whatever they wanted. Besides setting limits, budgets also enables the assurance that the most important needs of a country are met first and less important needs are

deferred until there are sufficient funds in which to pay for them. (Andrews & Hill, 2003). Even though budget preparation is not the sole thing that needs consideration in budgeting, the basis of it is still needed in order to have at least close estimation. Actually, there are different models of assessing the basis of financial budget of a certain country. And these are through increments, redistribution, zero-based budget, Planning, Programming, and Budgeting Systems Models (PPBS) and etc. In this paper, well be discussing the advantages and disadvantages of using increments in public budget preparation. 2.2 The concept of motivation The word motivation has been derived from motive which means any idea, need or emotion that prompts a man into action. Whatever may be the behaviour of man, there is some stimulus behind it. Stimulus is dependent upon the motive of the person concerned. Motive can be known by studying his needs and desires. There is no universal theory that can explain the factors influencing motives which control mans behaviour at any particular point of time. In general, the different motives operate at different times among different people and influence their behaviors. The process of motivation studies the motives of individuals which cause different types of behaviour.

2.3 Significance of Motivation Motivation involves getting the employees of the organization to pull weight effectively, to give their loyalty to the organization and to carry out properly the purpose

of the organization. The following results may be expected if the employees are properly motivated. 1. The workforce will be better satisfied if the management provides them with opportunities to fulfill their physiological and psychological needs. The workers will cooperate voluntarily with the management and will contribute their maximum towards the goals of the organization. 2. Workers will tend to be as efficient as possible by improving upon their skills and knowledge so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the organization. This will also result in increased performance. 3. The rates of labours turnover and absenteeism among the employees will be low. 4. There will be good human relations in the organization as friction among the employees themselves and between the employees and the management will decrease. 5. The number of complaints and grievances will come down. Accident will also be low.

2.4 Types of Motivation. According to Susan Harter (1981), intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is morally significant.

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act in a certain way because of factors external to him or her like money (Harter, 1981).

2.5 Incentives An incentive is something which stimulates a person towards some goal. It activates human needs and creates the desire to work. Thus, an incentive is a means of motivation. In organizations, increase in incentive leads to better performance and vice versa (Bonner and Sprinkle, 2002).

2.5.1 Need for Incentives Man is a wanting animal, he continues to want something or other. He is never fully satisfied. If one need is satisfied, the other need arises. In order to motivate the employees, the management should try to satisfy their needs. For this purpose, both financial and non financial incentives may be used by the management to motivate the workers. Financial incentives or motivators are those which are associated with money. They include wages and salaries, fringe benefits, bonus, retirement benefits etc. Non financial motivators are those which are not associated with monetary rewards. They include intangible incentives like ego-satisfaction, self-actualization and responsibility. Fig. 2.3 INCENTIVES (Aastha Dogra, 2010)

Financial Incentives

Non-Financial Incentives

Wages and Salaries. Bonus Medical reimbursement Insurance Housing facility Retirement benefits.

- Competition - Group recognition - Job security - Praise - Knowledge of result - Workers participation. - Suggestion system. - Opportunities for growth

2.6 Performance Performance is a commonly used, yet poorly defined concept in industries and organizations. It most commonly refers to whether an employee performs their job well. Despite the confusion over how it should be exactly defined, performance is an extremely important criterion that relates to organizational outcomes and success. Performance refers to output results and their outcomes obtained from processes, products, and services that permit evaluation and comparison relative to goals, standards, past results, and other organizations. Performance can be expressed in non-financial and financial terms (Archer, 1998). Performance in any organization is the cornerstone of business excellence. Business excellence models encourage the use of performance measures, but in addition

and more importantly, they consider the design of performance measurement systems to ensure that measures are aligned to strategy, and that the system is working effectively in monitoring, communicating, and driving performance. Performance in any organization is the systematic process by which an agency involves its employees, as individuals and members of a group, in improving organizational effectiveness in the accomplishment of organizational mission and goals.

2.7 Factors that affect Performance To meet satisfactory or exceed performance goals, employees should have;  Ability. This refers to the character traits, skills and knowledge of employees which are used in the performance of achieving organizational goals. At this point, the capacity of the employee to learn and perform tasks required is key and essential. If an employee lacks ability, the organization can provide training or replace the employee.  Effort. This refers to the amount of manual or mental energy that an employee is prepared to expand on a job to reach a certain level of performance. Efforts employees exert in achieving tasks vary according to incentive and motivation an organization implements.  Knowledge and Skill. This is where an employee is required to have the information and expertise necessary to perform the job in the organization. Without knowledge and skills, an employee cannot perform to achieve the set goals of the organization. Hence, the need for all employees to have the requisite knowledge and skills on products and services of the organization.

 Serene Environment. This refers to acceptable working conditions, such as enough time and equipment to perform the job effectively. On the other hand if there is an environmental problem, the employers of the organization can also usually make adjustments to promote higher performance.  Feedback. Feedback from management that effectively communicates the status of the employees performance, based on measurable guidelines and tools.  Motivation. These include the incentives in place that positively reinforce good performance. Organizations which know how to motivate their employees can achieve optimum output, meet expected targets and the performance of employees soar. But if motivation is a problem, the organization's task is more challenging. Individual behavior is a complex phenomenon, and the organization may not be able to figure out why the employee is not motivated and how to change the behaviour. Thus, also motivation plays a vital role since it might influence negatively performance and because of its intangible nature. Although all of these factors are crucial to an employees success on the job, only one aspectknowledge and skillcan actually be improved by training. If any of the other factors are the cause of decreased performance, management or other forces in the organization must institute the changes necessary to resolve the problem.

2.8 Evaluation of the Performance Concept Performance has now become an everyday word. Since the Second World War, governments, politicians, academics and economists have all stressed the importance of performance because of its relationship with the general economic health of a nation.

Corporate management globally is concerned with performance because it is regarded as a main indicator of efficiency when comparisons are made with competitors in world markets. Governments stress the relationship between productivity, the standard of living, inflation and economic growth (Craig, 1972). Over this period, whole careers have been spent addressing the problem of performance and how it can be measured, without coming to any conclusions. Faraday (1971) comments "The calculation of performance has long been a field of controversy when attempts are made, little value is placed on the results because they seem to contain so many imperfections". Craig (1972) sums up the problem when he says 'performance remains as one of the most elusive concepts in business and economic literature. It remains elusive because of a lack of definitive theoretical work - mainly at the firm level."

2.9 Performance Indicators A performance indicator or Key Performance Indicator (KPI) is an industry jargon term for a type of measure of performance. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are commonly used by an organization to evaluate its success or the success of a particular activity in which it is engaged (Fitz-Gibbon, 1990). KPIs help an organization to define and measure progress of employees toward organizational goals. Sometimes success is defined in terms of making progress toward strategic goals, but often, success is simply the repeated achievement of some level of operational goal (zero defects, 10/10 customer satisfaction etc.).

Accordingly, choosing the right KPIs is reliant upon having a good understanding of what is important to the organization. 'What is important' often depends on the department measuring the performance - the KPIs useful to a Finance Team will be quite different to the KPIs assigned to the sales force, for example. Because of the need to develop a good understanding of what is important, performance indicator selection is often closely associated with the use of various techniques to assess the present state of the business, and its key activities. These assessments often lead to the identification of potential improvements; and as a consequence, performance indicators are routinely associated with performance improvement initiatives for both the organization and employees.

2.10 Effects of Performance on 2.10.1 Job Satisfaction Performance of employees is a powerful tool for the long-term success of the organization. Performance in relation to job satisfaction is a critical characteristic of organizations management since it reflects the progress and achievement of the organization. The root of job satisfaction to achieve the desired goal can vary from individual to individual. For instance one employee may be satisfied in his work to earn higher commission, whereas another employee may be more interested for its satisfaction or the surrounding environment solely (Tietjen & Myers, 1998). Locke and Lathan (1976) give a comprehensive definition of job satisfaction as pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job

experience. Job satisfaction is a result of employee's perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important. Attempting to understand the nature of job satisfaction and its effects on work performance is not easy. Researchers have put a considerable amount of effort into attempts to demonstrate that the two are positively related in a particular fashion: a happy worker is a good worker (Swanson, 1994). Although this sounds like a very appealing idea, the results of empirical literature are too mixed to support the proposition that job satisfaction leads to better performance or even that there is a reliable positive correlation between these two variables. On the other hand some researchers argue that the results are equally inconclusive with respect to the proposition that there is no such relationship. As a result of this ambiguity, this relationship continues to stimulate research and re-examination of previous attempts. According to (Mitchell and Lasan, 1987), it is generally recognized in the organizational behaviour field that job satisfaction is the most important and frequently studied attitude. Some important dimensions to job satisfaction are;  Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation. As such it cannot be seen, it can only be inferred.  Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcome meet or exceed expectations. For instance, if organization participants feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but are receiving fewer rewards they will probably have a negative attitudes towards the work, the boss and or coworkers. On the other hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive attitudes towards the job.

 Job satisfaction represents several related attitudes which are most important characteristics of a job about which people have effective response. These are: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and co-employees. 2.10.2 Employees Commitment Bateman and Strasser (1984), defined employee commitment as,

multidimensional in nature, involving an employees loyalty to the organization, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, degree of goal and value congruency with the organization, and desire to maintain membership Employees commitment to their work, to their individual department and to the organization as a whole can influence turnover and boost the performance of the organization. Building employees commitment to the organization is one important goal of human resource policies and practices. Research shows that commitment has a positive effect on performance, turnover and employees willingness to help co-workers or peers (Becker and Billings, 1993). Employees commitment has an important place in the study of organizational performance. This is in part due to the vast number of works that have found relationships between organizational commitment and attitudes and performance in the workplace (Porter et al., 1974). Managers may be able to increase employee commitment by focusing attention on specific variables aimed at achieving organizational goals and. Employers must also give numerous opportunities to employees to make them feel committed to the organization since this is significantly correlated to performance. This in turn will lead to employees putting up a spirited performance in the advancement of the organization.

2.10.3 Employee Retention Retaining top talents remain a primary concern for many organizations today. Critical analysis of workforce trends points to an impending shortage of highly-skilled employees who possess the requisite knowledge and ability to perform at high levels, meaning that organizations failing to retain high performers will be left with an understaffed, less qualified workforce that ultimately hinders their ability to remain competitive (Rappaport, Bancroft, & Okum, 2003). Researchers emphasize performance-specific differences when studying employee retention processes because of the negative consequences that are associated with turnover among high performers (Griffeth & Hom, 1995). Organizations must bear performance losses, high replacement costs, and potential talent shortages, all of which ultimately erode the core leadership base of the organization. Therefore, employers seek to retain high performers and replace low performers with employees who bring greater skills and abilities to the organization. Dalton & Todor, (1979) have argued that turnover is functional when high performers stay (and low performers leave) and dysfunctional when low performers stay (and high performers leave). Thus, an effective approach to retention management involves understanding why employees stay, but also examines differences in reasons based on what the organization is trying to accomplish from a talent management perspective (e.g., retaining high performers). Employees who are high performers are presumably also those who can leverage their superior skills in the labor market to secure another position with greater motivation rewards. The skills and attributes that enhance an individuals mobility

outside of the organization have been termed movement capital, and include dimensions such as education, cognitive ability, and occupation-specific training (Trevor, 2001). Given that these elements are positively related to job performance, high performers likely have a greater capacity to act on dissatisfaction with workplace elements than low performers because they can turn to the external market when conditions are unfavorable (Jackofsky & Peters, 1983). Factors that promote retention among high performers may be organization-specific (or else they would likely leave), which suggests that dimensions such as organizational prestige or constituent attachments may be more prominent in high performers decisions to stay. High employee performers are more likely to stay in an organization when there is opportunity for salary growth, when they are satisfied with their work, and when contingent rewards are available.

2.10.4 Productivity Organizations rely on performance systems to evaluate how well employees perform. Employees performance processes can provide useful information to employers, as well as positively and negatively impact organizational productivity. The concept of productivity is often vaguely defined and poorly understood, although it is a widely discussed topic. Different meanings, definitions, interpretations and concepts have emerged as experts working in various areas of operations have

looked at it from their own perspectives (Sardana 1987). But a different view is that the terms `performance' and `productivity' are used incorrectly. People who claim to be discussing productivity are actually looking at the more general issue of performance. Productivity is a fairly specific concept while performance includes many more attributes. Performance is a broader term than productivity. It includes factors that are not easily quantified, such as quality, customer satisfaction, and worker morale. The inclusion of these fuzzy terms into the mix reduces the crispness of the measure and makes the calculation more difficult. However, these terms more fully describe what actually occurs in production (Sink, 1985). When the performance of employees is high, it will soar the productivity of the organization in achieving set targets.

2.11 Performance Appraisals Performance appraisals are one of the most important requirements for successful business and human resource policy (Kressler, 2003). Rewarding and promoting effective performance in organizations, as well as identifying ineffective performers for developmental programs or other personnel actions are essential to effective to human resource management (Pulakos, 2003). The ability to conduct performance appraisals relies on the ability to assess an employees performance in a fair and accurate manner. Evaluating employee performance is a difficult task. Once the supervisor understands the nature of the job and the sources of information, the information needs to be collected in a systematic way, provided as

feedback, and integrated into the organizations performance management process for use in making compensation, job placement, and training decisions and assignments. Performance evaluations have been conducted since the times of Aristotle (Landy, Zedeck, Cleveland, 1983). The measurement of an employees performance allows for rational administrative decisions at the individual employee level. It also provides for the raw data for the evaluation of the effectiveness of such personnel- system components and processes as recruiting policies, training programs, selection rules, promotional strategies, and reward allocations (Landy, Zedeck, Cleveland, 1983). In addition, it provides the foundation for behaviourally based employee counseling. In the counseling setting, performance information provides the vehicle for increasing satisfaction, commitment, and motivation of the employee. Performance measurement allows the organization to tell the employee something about their rates of growth, their competencies, and their potentials. There is little disagreement that if well done, performance measurements and feedback can play a valuable role in effecting the grand compromise between the needs of the individual and the needs of the organization (Landy, Zedeck, Cleveland, 1983).

2.12 Operational Definitions 2.12.1 Definition of Motivation According to Flippo, (1984), Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do their work through the possibility of gain or reward. Cofer, Appley, and Mortimer (1967), in their book; Motivation: Theory and Research, defined motivation as, The process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-

oriented behaviours. They also argue that, motivation is what causes employees to act and involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behaviour. Dubin (1974) defined motivation as, The complex forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization. Motivation is something that moves the person to action and continues him in the course of action already initiated

2.12.2 Definition of Performance Hartle and Weiss (1997), defined performance as, a process for establishing a shared understanding about what is to be achieved, and how it is to be achieved; an approach to manage people which increase the probability of achieving job-related success. According to Houldsworth (2006), performance is the actual effort that an employee undertakes in order to carry out the work. Performance relates to the person's ability to perform all of the tasks and duties required for a specific job. It is not considered in isolation but is considered based on the interrelationship with productivity and profitability. Performance is also in relation to the amount of work produced in a given period of time. It relates to the person's ability to produce the standard amount or number of products, services or outcomes as described in a work description. It is not considered in isolation but is considered based on the interrelationship with profitability. Performance includes activities to ensure that goals are consistently being met in an effective and efficient manner. As such, performance can focus on performance of the

organization, a department, processes to build a product or service and employees. (Houldsworth, 2006).

2.13 Theoretical Framework (Theories of Motivation). Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus of many researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne study results (George Elton Mayo, Western Electric company in Chicago, 1924 - 1927). Six major approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation are; McClellands Achievement Need Theory, Frederick Herzbergs Two - Factor Theory, Abraham H. Mallows Need Hierarchy, J.S. Adams Equity Theory, and Vrooms Expectation.

2.13.1 McClellands Achievement Need Theory. According to McClellands (Acquired-Needs Theory, 1961), individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones life experiences. The three types of needs he proposed are;

 Need for Achievement (n Ach); This need is the strongest and lasting motivating factor. People with this need seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement and in high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one's own effort. They need regular feedback in order to

monitor the progress of their achievements. They prefer either to work alone or with other high achievers. They set more difficult but achievable goals for themselves because success with easily achievable goals hardly provides a sense of achievement.

 Need for Power (n Pow) It is the desire to control the behaviour of the other people and to manipulate the surroundings. A persons need for power can either be personal or institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization.  Need for affiliation (n Aff) Those with a high need for affiliation need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. Individuals with high need for affiliation prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer service and client interaction situations. 2.13.2 Frederick Herzbergs Two - Factor Theory Herzberg (1959) proposed the Two Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene Theory), which is also known as the Dual Structure Theory of job satisfaction. According to this theory, people are influenced by two sets of factors. Hygiene Factors are needed to ensure an employee does not become dissatisfied. They do not lead to higher levels of motivation, but without them there is dissatisfaction.

Motivation Factors are needed in order to motivate an employee into higher performance. These factors result from internal instincts in employees yielding motivation rather than movement. Both of these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must be done simultaneously. Employers must treat people as best as they can so they have a minimum of dissatisfaction. They must use people so they get achievement, recognition for achievement, interest, and responsibility and they can grow and advance in their work. These factors are: Fig. 2.1. Frederick Herzbergs Two - Factor Theory (Source: www.onlinejobapplications.biz/motivation-herzberg-two-factor-theory-foremployee)

Herzberg proposed several key findings as a result of this identification. According to this theory, 1. People are made dissatisfied by a bad environment, but they are seldom made satisfied by a good environment.

2. The prevention of dissatisfaction is just as important as encouragement of motivator satisfaction. 3. Hygiene factors operate independently of motivation factors. An individual can be highly motivated in his work and be dissatisfied with his work environment. 4. All hygiene factors are equally important, although their frequency of occurrence differs considerably. 5. Hygiene improvements have short-term effects. Any improvements result in a shortterm removal of, or prevention of, dissatisfaction. 6. Hygiene needs are cyclical in nature and come back to a starting point. This leads to the "What have you done for me lately?" syndrome. 7. Hygiene needs have an escalating zero point and no final answer. In summary, the hygiene factor and motivation factor results in the following scenarios: 1. High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal situation where employees are highly motivated and have few complaints. 2. High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints but highly motivated. The job is perceived as a paycheck. 3. Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are motivated but have a lot of complaints. A situation where the job is exciting and challenging but salaries and work conditions are not up to par. 4. Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: The worst situation. Unmotivated employees with lots of complaints.

2.13.3 Abraham H. Maslows Need Hierarchy. The intellectual basis for most of motivation thinking has been provided by behavioral scientists, Maslow and Frederick Herzberg, whose published works are the Bible of Motivation. Although Maslow himself did not apply his theory to industrial situation, it has wide impact for beyond academic circles. Douglas McGregor has used Maslows theory to interpret specific problems in personnel administration and industrial relations. The crux of Maslows theory (Motivation and Personality, 1954) is that human needs are arranged in hierarchy composed of five categories. The lowest level needs are physiological and the highest levels are the self actualization needs. Maslow starts with the formation that as the lower needs are satisfied, higher needs emerge. Higher needs cannot be satisfied unless lower needs are fulfilled. A satisfied need is not a motivator. This resembles the standard economic theory of diminishing returns. The hierarchy of needs at work in the individual is today a routine tool of personnel trade and when these needs are active, they act as powerful conditioners of behaviour- as Motivators. Hierarchy of needs; the main needs of men are five. They are physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, ego needs and self actualization needs as shown in order of their importance. Fig. 2.2 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs ( Source: http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Hierarchy_of_Needs.asp)

The above five basic needs are regarded as striving needs which make a person do things and it is an excellent model for understanding human motivation.  Physiological Needs: - The individual move up the ladder responding first to the physiological needs for nourishment, clothing and shelter. These physical needs must be equated with pay rate, pay practices and to an extent with physical condition of the job.  Safety Needs: The next in order of needs is safety needs. That is the need to be free from danger, either from other people or from environment. The individual employee wants to be assured, once his bodily needs are satisfied, that he is secured and will continue to be satisfied for the foreseeable future. The safety needs may take the form of job security. That is security against disease, misfortune, old age and industrial injury. Such needs are generally met by safety

laws, measure of social security, protective labour laws and collective bargaining agreements.  Social Needs: Going up the scale of needs, the individual feels the desire to work in a cohesive group and develop a sense of belonging and identification with a group. He feels the need to love and be loved and the need to belong and be identified with a group. In a large organization it is not easy to build up social relations. However, close relationship can be built up with at least some fellow workers. Every employee wants to feel that he is wanted or accepted and that he is not an alien facing a hostile group.  Ego or Esteem Needs: These needs are reflected in our desire for status and recognition, respect and prestige in the work group or work place such as is conferred by the recognition of ones merit by promotion, by participation in management meeting and by fulfillment of workers urge for self expression. Some of the needs relate to ones esteem. Examples are the need for achievement, self confidence, knowledge and competence. On the job, this means praise for a job but more important it means a feeling by employee that at all times he has the respect of his supervisor as a person and as a contributor to the organizational goals.  Self Actualization Needs: This upper level need is one which when satisfied provide insights to support future research regarding strategic guidance for organizations that are both providing and using reward or recognition programs to makes the employee give up the dependence on others or on the environment. He becomes growth oriented, self oriented, directed, detached and creative. This need

reflects a state defined in terms of the extent to which an individual attains his personnel goal. This is the need which totally lies within oneself and there is no demand from any external situation or person.

2.13.4 John Stacey (J. S) Adams Equity Theory Adams (Job Motivation, 1963) equity theory states that, employees compare their job inputs outcome ratio with that of reference. If employees feel that their ratio of inputs to outputs is less beneficial than the ratio enjoyed by referent others, then they become demotivated in relation to our job and employer. People respond to a feeling of inequity in different ways. Some people reduce effort and application and become inwardly disgruntled, or outwardly difficult, recalcitrant or even disruptive. Other people seek to improve the outputs by making claims or demands for more reward, or seeking an alternative job.

2.13.5 Victor Vrooms Expectation Theory Vrooms theory (Management and Motivation, 1970) is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance and performance will lead to rewards. Reward may be either positive or negative. The more positive the reward the more likely the employee will be highly motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward the less likely the employee will be motivated. Vroom's Expectancy Theory is based upon the following three beliefs:
 Valence. This is the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes

(rewards). The depth of the want of an employee for extrinsic (money, promotion,

time-off, benefits) or intrinsic (satisfaction) rewards. Management must discover what employees value.
 Expectancy. Here, employees have different expectations and levels of

confidence about what they are capable of doing. Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision employees need.
 Instrumentality. This is the perception of employees whether they will actually

get what they desire even if it has been promised by a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.

2.14 Summary From the discussions it is clear that employees who are satisfied with their work do not necessarily mean they are highly motivated employees and vice versa. However one cannot rule out the fact that the satisfaction of workers and their will to work are linked to some extent by how enriched their jobs are, the job design, level of empowerment, training, performance appraisal, incentives, and flexible working hours among others. Additionally the relationship between performance and motivation cannot be overlooked and organizations who have a desire to be successful must appreciate the interrelatedness of the two in fulfilling the aspirations of their employees which is key to organizational performance. Furthermore it is important for organizations to put in place monitoring systems to assess the needs of employees at all levels in other to develop programmes for staff development and to appreciate employee perceptions about the conditions under which they work. This can help organizations to stay competitive in an era where it is believed that employees who put up high performance are satisfied with

their job and are likely to be more committed to organizational goals. In concluding, management must strive to incorporate individual employees performance, needs and aspirations with organizational goals and leave no stone unturned in finding a fit between them. There is an old saying you can take a horse to the water but you cannot force it to drink; it will drink only if it's thirsty - so with people. They will do what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do. Whether it is to excel on the workshop floor or in the 'ivory tower' they must be motivated or driven to it, either by themselves or through external stimulus. Are they born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. If no, they can be motivated, for motivation is a skill which can and must be learnt. This is essential for any business to survive and succeed. Self-motivation can go only so far and it needs to be constantly reinforced by rewards. In particular, merit must be measured and rewarded regularly, if it is to be encouraged and sustained. The 'gold banana' in Foxboro has its origin in just an ordinary banana which one of the pioneers could muster on the spur of the moment when he discovered extraordinary performance by one of the employees. Motivating for high performance can cost a lot of money. Not everyone can be motivated by money alone, however much. Incentive pay plans should be designed (Ivancevich, 1983) not only to reward good performance but also to minimize the negative sideeffects, such as conflict and grievance. At times it is difficult to develop a valid, equitable and acceptable means of performance. Many pay plans fail because of either not being suited to the particular situation or because of poor implementation. Corporate Profile As a critical sector of the economy, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in Ghana, seeks to improve the health status of all people living in Ghana thereby contributing to Government's vision of transforming Ghana into a middle income country by 2015. The Ministry of Health, working in partnership with its agencies and stakeholders aims at improving the human capital thus, "creating wealth through health" through the

development and implementation of proactive policies that will ensure improved health and vitality among Ghanaians.

These policies and strategies are human centered and aim at contributing to the socio economic development of the country by ensuring access to quality health, population and nutrition services for all people living in Ghana and by promoting the development of the local health industry. The Ministry of Health also ensures that services are delivered in a humane, efficient and effective manner by well-trained, friendly, highly motivated, and client-oriented personnel.

Mission Statement

The Ministry of Health has specific mandate to access and monitor the country's health status, advise central government on health policies and legislation, formulate strategies and design programmes to address health problems of the country, and implement, monitor and evaluate (in collaboration with other related sectors and agencies) all health programmes and activities in the country.

As a policy, the MOH is to maximise the potential health life years of all individuals resident in Ghana by reducing the incidence and prevalence of illness, injury and disability, and the prevention of premature death.

Objectives of MOH

To address the inequalities between and within regions and districts emergency care, diseases eradication, elimination, financing policy and health insurance,

chemotherapy and HIV/AIDS and quality care. The Ministry of Health has identified seven priority areas. These are HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted Diseases, Malaria, Guinea Worm, Tuberculosis, Reproductive and Child Health, Expanded Programme of Immunisation, and Emergency care.

Achievements by MOH

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Increased Out Patient Department (OPD) visits per capital. Decreased under 5 malaria case fatality rate Increased Tuberculosis (TB) treatment success rate. Increase in number of people on Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART). Number of guinea worm cases declined by 85%. Proportion of guinea worm cases contained 85%