Ventilation is the intentional movement of air from outside a building to the inside. It is the V in HVAC.

With clothes dryers, and combustion equipment such as water heaters, boilers, fireplaces, and wood stoves, their exhausts are often called vents or flues this should not be confused with ventilation. The vents or flues carry the products of combustion which have to be expelled from the building in a way which does not cause harm to the occupants of the building. Movement of air between indoor spaces, and not the outside, is called transfer air. Ventilation air, as defined in ASHRAE Standard 62.1[1] and the ASHRAE Handbook,[2] is that air used for providing acceptable indoor air quality. When people or animals are present in buildings, ventilation air is necessary to dilute odours and limit the concentration of carbon dioxideand airborne pollutants such as dust, smoke and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Ventilation air is often delivered to spaces by mechanical systems which may also heat, cool, humidify and dehumidify the space. Air movement into buildings can occur due to uncontrolled infiltration of outside air through the building fabric (see stack effect) or the use of deliberate natural ventilation strategies. Advanced air filtration and treatment processes such as scrubbing, can provide ventilation air by cleaning and recirculating a proportion of the air inside a building. In commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) buildings, and modern jet aircraft, return air is often recirculated to the air handling unit. A portion of the supply air is normally exfiltrated through the building envelope or exhausted from the building (e.g., bathroom or kitchen exhaust) and is replaced by outside air introduced into the return air stream. The rate of ventilation air required, most often provided by this mechanically-induced outside air, is often determined from ASHRAE Standard 62.1 for CII buildings, or 62.2 for low-rise residential buildings, or similar standards.

Contents
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1 Types of ventilation 2 Ventilation rate 3 Ventilation standards 4 Ventilation equipment 5 Natural ventilation 6 Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) 7 Local exhaust ventilation

8 Ventilation and combustion 9 Smoking and ventilation 10 Problems 11 Air Quality Procedures 12 See also 13 References

[edit]Types

of ventilation

Mechanical or forced ventilation: through an air handling unit or direct injection to a space by a fan. A local exhaust fan can enhance infiltration or natural ventilation, thus increasing the ventilation air flow rate.

Natural ventilation occurs when the air in a space is changed with outdoor air without the use mechanical systems, such as a fan. Most often natural ventilation is assured through operable windows but it can also be achieved through temperature and pressure differences between spaces. Open windows or vents are not a good choice for ventilating a basement or other below ground structure. Allowing outside air into a cooler below ground space will cause problems with humidity and condensation.

Infiltration is separate from ventilation, but is often used to provide ventilation air

[edit]Ventilation

rate

The ventilation rate, for CII buildings, is normally expressed by the volumetric flowrate of outside air being introduced to the building. The typical units used are cubic feet per minute (CFM) or liters per second (L/s). The ventilation rate can also be expressed on a per person or per unit floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft, or as air changes per hour. For residential buildings, which mostly rely on infiltration for meeting their ventilation needs, the common ventilation rate measure is the number of times the whole interior volume of air is replaced per hour, and is called air changes per hour (I or ACH; units of 1/h). During the winter, ACH may range from 0.50 to 0.41 in a tightly insulate house to 1.11 to 1.47 in a loosely insulated house. [3] ASHRAE now recommends ventilation rates dependent upon floor area, as a revision to the 62-2001 standard whereas the minimum ACH was 0.35, but no less than 15 CFM/person (7.1 L/s/person). As of 2003, the standards have changed to an addition of 3 CFM/100 sq. ft. (15 l/s/100 sq. m.) to the 7.5 CFM/person (3.5 L/s/person) standard. [4] [edit]Ventilation

standards

In 1973, in response to the 1973 oil crisis and conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62-81) reduced required ventilation from 10 CFM (4.76 L/S) per person to 5 CFM (2.37 L/S) per person. This was found to be a primary cause of 'sick building syndrome

Current ASHRAE standards (Standard 62-89) states that appropriate ventilation guidelines are 20 CFM (9.2 L/s) per person in an office building, and 15 CFM (7.1 L/s) per person for schools. In commercial environments with tobacco smoke, the ventilation rate may range from 25 CFM to 125 CFM. [5]

In certain applications, such as submarines, pressurized aircraft, and spacecraft, ventilation air is also needed to provide oxygen, and to dilute carbon dioxide for survival. Batteries in submarines also discharge hydrogen gas, which must also be ventilated for health and safety. In any pressurized, regulated environment, ventilation is necessary to control any fires that may occur, as the flames may be deprived of oxygen. [6] ANSI/ASHRAE (Standard 62-89) sets maximum CO2 guidelines in commercial buildings at 1000 ppm, however, OSHA has set a limit of 5000 ppm over 8 hours. [7] Ventilation guidelines are based upon the minimum ventilation rate required to maintain acceptable levels of bioeffluents. Carbon dioxide is used as a reference point, as it is the gas of highest emission at a relatively constant value of 0.005 L/s. The mass balance equation is: Q = G/(Ci Ca) Q = ventilation rate (L/s) G = CO2 generation rate Ci = acceptable indoor CO2 concentration Ca = ambient CO2 concentration [8]

[edit]Ventilation

equipment

Fume hood Biological safety cabinet Dilution ventilation Room air distribution Heat recovery ventilation

[edit]Natural

ventilation

Natural ventilation involves harnessing naturally available forces to supply and removing air through an enclosed space. There are three types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind driven ventilation,

pressure-driven flows, and stack ventilation.[9] The pressures generated by 'thestack effect' rely upon the buoyancy of heated or rising air. wind driven ventilation relies upon the force of the prevailing wind to pull and push air through the enclosed space as well as through breaches in the buildings envelope (see Infiltration_(HVAC)). Natural ventilation is generally impractical for larger buildings, as they tend to be large, sealed and climate controlled specifically by HVAC systems. [10] Both are examples of passive engineering and have applications in renewable energy. [edit]Demand-controlled

ventilation (DCV)

DCV makes it possible to maintain proper ventilation and improve air quality while saving energy. ASHRAE has determined that: "It is consistent with the Ventilation rate procedure that Demand Control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy.[citation needed]" CO2 sensors will control the amount of ventilation for the actual number of occupants. During design occupancy, a unit with the DCV system will deliver the same amount of outdoor air as a unit using the ventilation-rate procedure. However, DCV can generate substantial energy savings whenever the space is occupied below the design level[citation needed]. [edit]Local

exhaust ventilation

Local exhaust ventilation addresses the issue of avoiding the contamination of indoor air by specific highemission sources by capturing airborne contaminants before they are spread into the environment. This can include water vapor control, lavatory bioeffluent control, solvent vapors from industrial processes, and dust from wood- and metal-working machinery. Air can be exhausted through pressurized hoods or through the use of fans and pressurizing a specific area. [11] A local exhaust system is comprised of 5 basic parts 1. A hood that captures the contaminant at its source 2. Ducts for transporting the air 3. An air-cleaning device that removes/minimizes the contaminant 4. A fan that moves the air through the system

5. An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged[12]

[edit]Ventilation

and combustion

Combustion (e.g., fireplace, gas heater, candle, oil lamp, etc.) consumes oxygen while producing carbon dioxide and other unhealthy gases andsmoke, requiring ventilation air. An open chimney promotes

infiltration (i.e. natural ventilation) because of the negative pressure change induced by the buoyant, warmer air leaving through the chimney. The warm air is typically replaced by heavier, cold air. Ventilation in a structure is also needed for removing water vapor produced by respiration, burning, and cooking, and for removing odors. If water vapor is permitted to accumulate, it may damage the structure, insulation, or finishes[citation needed]. When operating, an air conditioner usually removes excess moisture from the air. A dehumidifier may also be appropriate for removing airborne moisture. [edit]Smoking

and ventilation

ASHRAE standard 62 states that air removed from an area with environmental tobacco smoke shall not be recirculated into ETS-free air. A space with ETS requires more ventilation to achieve similar perceived air quality to that of a non-smoking environment. The amount of ventilation in an ETS area is equal to the amount of ETS-free area plus the amount V, where: V = DSD VA A/60E V = recommended extra flow rate in CFM (L/s) DSD = design smoking density (estimated number of cigarettes smoked per hour per unit area) VA = volume of ventilation air per cigarette for the room being designed (ft3/cig] E = contaminant removal effectiveness

[13]

[edit]Problems In hot, humid climates, unconditioned ventilation air will deliver approximately one pound of water each day for each cubic foot per minute of outdoor air per day, annual average, This is a great deal of moisture, and it can create serious indoor moisture and mold problems. Ventilation efficiency is determined by design and layout, and is dependent upon placement and proximity of diffusers and return air outlets. If they are located closely together, supply air may mix with stale air, decreasing efficiency of the HVAC system, and creating air quality problems. System imbalances occur when components of the HVAC system are improperly adjusted or installed, and can create pressure differences (too much circulating air creating a draft or too little circulating air creating stagnancy). Cross-contamination occurs when pressure differences arise, forcing potentially contaminated air from one zone to an uncontaminated zone. This often involves undesired odors or VOCs.

Re-entry of exhaust air occurs when exhaust outlets and fresh air intakes are either too close, or prevailing winds change exhaust patterns, or by infiltration between intake and exhaust air flows.

Entrainment of contaminated outside air through intake flows will result in indoor air contamination. There are a variety of contaminated air sources, ranging from industrial effluent to VOCs put off by nearby construction work. [14]

[edit]Air

Quality Procedures

Ventilation Rate Procedure is rate based on standard, and prescribes the rate at which ventilation air must be delivered to a space and various means to condition that air.[15] Air quality is assessed (through CO2 measurement) and ventilation rates are mathematically derived using constants. Indoor Air Quality Procedure uses one or more guidelines for the specification of acceptable concentrations of certain contaminants in indoor air but does not prescribe ventilation rates or air treatment methods.[16] This addresses both quantitative and subjective evaluation, and is based on the Ventilation Rate Procedure. It also accounts for potential contaminants that may have no measured limits, or limits are not set (such as formaldehyde offgassing from carpet and furniture).

Natural Ventilation
by Andy Walker National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Last updated: 06-03-2008

WITHIN THIS PAGE

Introduction Description Relevant Codes and Standards Additional Resources

Introduction
Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally, although many of these have been compromised by the addition of partition walls and mechanical systems. With an increased awareness of the cost and environmental impacts of energy use, natural ventilation has become an increasingly attractive method for reducing energy use and cost and for providing acceptable indoor environmental quality and maintaining a healthy, comfortable, and productive indoor climate rather than the more prevailing approach of using mechanical ventilation. In favorable climates and buildings types, natural ventilation can be used as an alternative to air-conditioning plants, saving 10%-30% of total energy consumption. Natural ventilation systems rely on pressure differences to move fresh air through buildings. Pressure differences can be caused by wind or the buoyancy effect created by temperature differences or differences in humidity. In either case, the amount of ventilation will depend critically on the size and placement of openings in the building. It is useful to think of a natural ventilation system as a circuit, with

equal consideration given to supply and exhaust. Openings between rooms such as transom windows, louvers, grills, or open plans are techniques to complete the airflow circuit through a building. Code requirements regarding smoke and fire transfer present challenges to the designer of a natural ventilation system. For example, historic buildings used the stairway as the exhaust stack, a technique now prevented by code requirements in many cases.
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Description
Natural ventilation, unlike fan-forced ventilation, uses the natural forces of wind and buoyancy to deliver fresh air into buildings. Fresh air is required in buildings to alleviate odors, to provide oxygen for respiration, and to increase thermal comfort. At interior air velocities of 160 feet per minute (fpm), the perceived interior temperature can be reduced by as much as 5F. However, unlike true air-conditioning, natural ventilation is ineffective at reducing the humidity of incoming air. This places a limit on the application of natural ventilation in humid climates.

A. Types of Natural Ventilation Effects

Wind can blow air through openings in the wall on the windward side of the building, and suck air out of openings on the leeward side and the roof. Temperature differences between warm air inside and cool air outside can cause the air in the room to rise and exit at the ceiling or ridge, and enter via lower openings in the wall. Similarly, buoyancy caused by differences in humidity can allow a pressurized column of dense, evaporatively cooled air to supply a space, and lighter, warmer, humid air to exhaust near the top. These three types of natural ventilation effects are further described below. WIND Wind causes a positive pressure on the windward side and a negative pressure on the leeward side of buildings. To equalize pressure, fresh air will enter any windward opening and be exhausted from any leeward opening. In summer, wind is used to supply as much fresh air as possible while in winter, ventilation is normally reduced to levels sufficient to remove excess moisture and pollutants. An expression for the volume of airflow induced by wind is: Qwind = K x A x V, where Qwind = volume of airflow (m/h) A = area of smaller opening (m) V = outdoor wind speed (m/h) K = coefficient of effectiveness The coefficient of effectiveness depends on the angle of the wind and the relative size of entry and exit openings. It ranges from about 0.4 for wind hitting an opening at a 45 angle of incidence to 0.8 for wind hitting directly at a 90 angle. Sometimes wind flow prevails parallel to a building wall rather than perpendicular to it. In this case it is still possible to induce wind ventilation by architectural features or by the way a casement window opens. For example, if the wind blows from east to west along a north-facing wall, the first window (which opens out) would have hinges on the left-hand side to act as a scoop and direct wind into the room. The second window would hinge on the right-hand side so the opening is down-wind from the open glass pane and the negative pressure draws air out of the room.

It is important to avoid obstructions between the windward inlets and leeward exhaust openings. Avoid partitions in a room oriented perpendicular to the airflow. On the other hand, accepted design avoids inlet and outlet windows directly across from each other (you shouldn't be able to see through the building, in one window and out the other), in order to promote more mixing and improve the effectiveness of the ventilation. BUOYANCY Buoyancy ventilation may be temperature-induced (stack ventilation) or humidity induced (cool tower). The two can be combined by having a cool tower deliver evaporatively cooled air low in a space, and then rely on the increased buoyancy of the humid air as it warms to exhaust air from the space through a stack. The cool air supply to the space is pressurized by weight of the column of cool air above it. Although both cool towers and stacks have been used separately, the author feels that cool towers should only be used in conjunction with stack ventilation of the space in order to ensure stability of the flow. Buoyancy results from the difference in air density. The density of air depends on temperature and humidity (cool air is heavier than warm air at the same humidity and dry air is heavier than humid air at the same temperature). Within the cool tower itself the effect of temperature and humidity are pulling in opposite directions (temperature down, humidity up). Within the room, heat and humidity given off by occupants and other internal sources both tend to make air rise. The stale, heated air escapes from openings in the ceiling or roof and permits fresh air to enter lower openings to replace it. Stack effect ventilation is an especially effective strategy in winter, when indoor/outdoor temperature difference is at a maximum. Stack effect ventilation will not work in summer (wind or humidity drivers would be preferred) because it requires that the indoors be warmer than outdoors, an undesirable situation in summer. A chimney heated by solar energy can be used to drive the stack effect without increasing room temperature, and solar chimneys are very widely used to ventilate composting toilets in parks. An expression for the airflow induced by the stack effect is: Qstack = Cd*A*[2gh(Ti-To)/Ti]^1/2, where Qstack = volume of ventilation rate (m/s) Cd = 0.65, a discharge coefficient. A = free area of inlet opening (m), which equals area of outlet opening. g =9.8 (m/s). the acceleration due to gravity h = vertical distance between inlet and outlet midpoints (m) Ti = average temperature of indoor air (K), note that 27C = 300 K. To = average temperature of outdoor air (K) Cool tower ventilation is only effective where outdoor humidity is very low. The following expression for the airflow induced by the column of cold air pressurizing an air supply is based on a form developed by Thompson (1995), with the coefficient from data measured atZion National Park Visitor Center. This tower is 7.4 m tall, 2.4 m square cross section, and has a 3.1 m opening. Qcool tower =0.49 * A* [2gh (Tdb-Twb)/Tdb]1/2, where Qcool tower = volume of ventilation rate (m/s) 0.49 is an empirical coefficient calculated with data from Zion Visitor Center, UT, which includes humidity density correction, friction effects, and evaporative pad effectiveness. A = free area of inlet opening (m), which equals area of outlet opening. g =9.8 (m/s). the acceleration due to gravity h = vertical distance between inlet and outlet midpoints (m)

Tdb = dry bulb temperature of outdoor air (K), note that 27C = 300 K. Twb = wet bulb temperature of outdoor air (K) The total airflow due to natural ventilation results from the combined pressure effects of wind, buoyancy caused by temperature and humidity, plus any other effects from sources such as fans. The airflow from each source can be combined in a root-square fashion as discussed in ASHRAE (2001). The presence of mechanical devices that use room air for combustion, leaky duct systems, or other external influences can significantly affect the performance of natural ventilation systems.

B. Design Recommendations
The specific approach and design of natural ventilation systems will vary based on building type and local climate. However, the amount of ventilation depends critically on the careful design of internal spaces, and the size and placement of openings in the building. Maximize wind-induced ventilation by siting the ridge of a building perpendicular to the summer winds.

Approximate wind directions are summarized in seasonal "wind rose" diagrams available from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). However, these roses are usually based on data taken at airports; actual values at a remote building site can differ dramatically.

Buildings should be sited where summer wind obstructions are minimal. A windbreak of evergreen trees may also be useful to mitigate cold winter winds that tend to come predominantly from the north.

Naturally ventilated buildings should be narrow. It is difficult to distribute fresh air to all portions of a very wide building using natural ventilation. The maximum width that one could expect to ventilate naturally is estimated at 45 ft. Consequently, buildings that rely on natural ventilation often have an articulated floor plan.

Each room should have two separate supply and exhaust openings. Locate exhaust high above inlet to maximize stack effect. Orient windows across the room and offset from each other to maximize mixing within the room while minimizing the obstructions to airflow within the room. Window openings should be operable by the occupants. Provide ridge vents. A ridge vent is an opening at the highest point in the roof that offers a good outlet for both buoyancy and wind-induced ventilation. The ridge opening should be free of obstructions to allow air to freely flow out of the building.

Allow for adequate internal airflow. In addition to the primary consideration of airflow in and out of the building, airflow between the rooms of the building is important. When possible, interior doors should be designed to be open to encourage whole-building ventilation. If privacy is required, ventilation can be provided through high louvers or transoms.

Consider the use of clerestories or vented skylights. A clerestory or a vented skylight will provide an opening for stale air to escape in a buoyancy ventilation strategy. The light well of the skylight could also act as a solar chimney to augment the flow. Openings lower in the structure, such as basement windows, must be provided to complete the ventilation system.

Provide attic ventilation. In buildings with attics, ventilating the attic space greatly reduces heat transfer to conditioned rooms below. Ventilated attics are about 30F cooler than unventilated attics.

Consider the use of fan-assisted cooling strategies. Ceiling and whole-building fans can provide up to 9F effective temperature drop at one tenth the electrical energy consumption of mechanical air-conditioning systems.

Determine if the building will benefit from an open- or closed-building ventilation approach. A closed-building approach works well in hot, dry climates where there is a large variation in temperature from day to night. A massive building is ventilated at night, then, closed in the morning to keep out the hot daytime air. Occupants are then cooled by radiant exchange with the massive walls and floor. An open-building approach works well in warm and humid areas, where the temperature does not change much from day to night. In this case, daytime cross-ventilation is encouraged to maintain indoor temperatures close to outdoor temperatures.

Use mechanical cooling in hot, humid climates. Try to allow natural ventilation to cool the mass of the building at night in hot climates. Open staircases provide stack effect ventilation, but observe all fire and smoke precautions for enclosed stairways.

Photo of visitor center at Zion National Park showing downdraft cooling tower with evaporative media at the top, and exhaust through high clerestory windows. (Courtesy of Robb Williamson)

Natural ventilation in most climates will not move interior conditions into the comfort zone 100% of the time. Make sure the building occupants understand that 3% to 5% of the time thermal comfort may not be

achieved. This makes natural ventilation most appropriate for buildings where space conditioning is not expected. As a designer it is important to understand the challenge of simultaneously designing for natural ventilation and mechanical coolingit can be difficult to design structures that are intended to rely on both natural ventilation and artificial cooling. A naturally ventilated structure often includes an articulated plan and large window and door openings, while an artificially conditioned building is sometimes best served by a compact plan with sealed windows. Moreover, interpret wind data carefully. Local topography, vegetation, and surrounding buildings have an effect on the speed of wind hitting a building. Wind data collected at airports may not tell you very much about local microclimate conditions that can be heavily influenced by natural and man-made obstructions. Hints about what type of natural ventilation strategies might be most effective can often be found in a region's historic and vernacular construction practices.

C. Materials and Methods of Construction

Some of the materials and methods used to design proper natural ventilation systems in buildings are solar chimneys, wind towers, and summer ventilation control methods. A solar chimney may be an effective solution where prevailing breezes are not dependable enough to rely on wind-induced ventilation and where keeping indoor temperature sufficiently above outdoor temperature to drive buoyant flow would be unacceptably warm. The chimney is isolated from the occupied space and can be heated as much as possible by the sun or other means. Air is simply exhausted out the top of the chimney creating suction at the bottom which is used to extract stale air. Wind towers, often topped with fabric sails that direct wind into the building, are a common feature in historic Arabic architecture, and are known as "malqafs." The incoming air is often routed past a fountain to achieve evaporative cooling as well as ventilation. At night, the process is reversed and the wind tower acts as a chimney to vent room air. A modern variation called a "Cool Tower" puts evaporative cooling elements at the top of the tower to pressurize the supply air with cool, dense air. In the summer, when the outside temperature is below the desired inside temperature, windows should be opened to maximize fresh air intake. Lots of airflow is needed to maintain the inside temperature at no more than 3-5 F above the outside temperature. During hot, calm days, air exchange rates will be very low and the tendency will be for inside temperatures to rise above the outside temperature. The use of fan-forced ventilation or thermal mass for radiant cooling may be important in controlling these maximum temperatures.

D. Analysis and Design Tools

Handbook methods such as those presented in ASHRAE's Handbook of Fundamentals or Bansal and Minke's Passive Building Design: A Handbook of Natural Climatic Control(ISBN: 044481745X) are very useful in calculating airflow from natural sources for very simple building geometries. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFM): In order to predict the details of natural airflow, numerical computational fluid mechanics models can be used. These computer simulations are detailed and labor intensive, but are justified where accurate understanding of airflow is important. They have been used to analyze new buildings including the atrium of a courthouse in Phoenix and the hangar of an air and space museum in the Washington, DC area. An extensive list of journals, books, and other reference material regarding natural ventilation and other passive technologies is included in the Solstice Archive. For example:

DOE Building Energy Codes Program EERE Fact Sheet: Cooling Your Home Naturally (PDF 110 KB, 8 pgs) Software packages for natural ventilation analysis include: AIRPAK: provides calculation of airflow modeling, contaminant transport, room air distribution, temperature and humidity distribution, and thermal comfort by computational fluid dynamics. FLOVENT: calculates airflow, heat transfer, and contamination distribution for built environments using computational fluid dynamics. FLUENT: A computational fluid dynamics program useful in modeling natural ventilation in buildings. It models airflow under specified conditions, so additional analysis is required to estimate annual energy savings. STAR-CD: STAR-CD uses computational fluid dynamics to help civil engineers, architects and project managers who need better and more detailed understanding of issues involved in heating and ventilation, smoke and pollutant dispersal and fire hazard analysis, and clean room design. Building models incorporate very limited features for deliberate natural ventilation, but they do include the calculation of natural air infiltration as a function of temperature difference, wind speed, and effective leakage area, or schedules and user-defined functions for infiltration rates. Designing Low Energy Buildings with Energy-10An hour-by-hour simulation program designed to inform the earliest phases of the design process. Runs on IBM-compatible platforms. Best operated with Pentium or higher processor and 32 Megs of RAM. DOE-2: A comprehensive hour-by-hour simulation; daylighting and glare calculations integrate with hourly energy simulation. IBM or compatible Pentium is advisable. ENERGY PLUS: A building energy simulation program designed for modeling buildings with associated heating, cooling, lighting, ventilating, and other energy flows.
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Application
Among the primary types of buildings that can benefit from the application of natural ventilation are: bus stations, picnic shelters, and other structures where stringent space conditioning is not expected, barracks and other single- and multi-family housing projects, most small, free-standing structures in warm and temperate climates, and warehouses, maintenance pools, and other high-bay facilities in warm climates.
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Relevant Codes and Standards

Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB, 550 pgs) Naturally ventilated buildings should be designed to provide thermal comfort, to achieve adequate moisture and contaminant removal, and to meet or exceed Government Energy Conservation Performance Standards.

Standards for building thermal comfort have been defined by ASHRAE 55. Standards for adequate ventilation rates and contaminant levels can be found inASHRAE 62. Additional standards effecting ventilation practice have been developed by:

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) ACGIH: provides threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and biological exposure indices.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) OSHA (1989), Air Contaminants: examines Air Contaminants-Permissible Exposure limits (Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1910.1000).

Federal energy standards: The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has updated 10 CFR 435 to reflect the codified version of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc./Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (ASHRAE/IESNA) Standard 90.1 to be closer to the existing voluntary sector code. This new federal standard, 10 CFR 434 Energy Code for New Federal Commercial and Multi-Family High Rise Residential Buildings, is mandatory for all new federal buildings. For existing buildings, refer to ASHRAE 100 Energy Conservation in Existing Buildings. For residential buildings, the applicable standard is ASHRAE 90.2 Energy Efficient Design of Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Methodology and Procedures for Life-Cycle Cost Analysis are described in 10 CFR 436.

Observe all codes and standards regarding transport of smoke and fire when deciding on the applicability of natural ventilation and in the design of the system.

Paper 6: Volume 4 No.1 June 2005 Edition

Sound Measurements and Natural Ventilation in Schools Alice Andersen1 and Carl Hopkins2 1 WindowMaster A/S, Skelstedet 13, 2950 Vedbaek, Denmark 2 BRE Acoustics, Bucknalls Lane, Garston, Watford WD25 9XX, UK
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Abstract Natural ventilation using open windows is an energy efficient and effective method of providing a good indoor air climate in schools. However, open windows not only let fresh air into the building but also external noise. The availability of automatically

controlled windows enables precise control over the window opening distance in comparison with manually operable windows. This paper considers the benefits of using small opening distances to provide sufficient ventilation for a good indoor climate as well as attenuation of external noise. Airborne sound insulation tests on a window with different opening distances show that the sound insulation varies significantly depending upon the opening distance; the smaller the opening distance, the higher the sound insulation. In many cases, an opening distance as small as 1 to 2 cm can not only provide sufficient ventilation for a good indoor climate, but also adequate sound insulation. The results of sound attenuation tests, performed at BRE in the United Kingdom, are presented in this paper. In addition, empirical results from 3 different naturally ventilated schools, including two in Denmark and one in the UK are described. These results indicate that often only small opening distances are required to obtain a comfortable thermal and atmospheric indoor climate based on measurements during the year. Key words: natural ventilation, demand control, automatic control, sound attenuation tests, schools, control and indoor climate, pulse (purging) ventilation. Key words: airtightness, natural ventilation, stack ventilation, CO2 concentration, apartment buildings

Paper 4: Volume 4 No.1 June 2005 Edition

Thermal and Airflow Modelling of Mediterranean Buildings: Application to Thermal Comfort in Summer L. Gharbi1, N. Ghrab-Morcos1,2 and J. J. Roux3 1 National School for Engineers of Tunis, BP 37, 1002 Tunis Belvdre, Tunisie 2 CERTES, Universit Paris 12, 94010 Crteil, France 3 Thermal Engineering Centre, National Institute of Applied Sciences, Lyon, France
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Abstract The assessment of building thermal comfort quality in the Mediterranean context necessitates an accurate knowledge of air temperature and velocity fields inside the space. Also, these thermal and airflow aspects must be considered in combination because of their very strong interdependence. In this particular context, a threedimensional calculation model of coupled heat transfer and airflow calculation has

been developed, which enables the evaluation of temperature field and airflow pattern inside unconditioned buildings under transient conditions, taking into account external conditions. This approach is based on a temperature and pressure driven zonal airflow model, coupled with a thermal model founded on the coupling of reduced-order state models. By combining this with a thermal comfort model it is possible to evaluate the thermal quality of buildings by the prediction of a comfort vote. This paper presents an application of the coupled simulation tool dealing with the influence of a night natural cross-ventilation strategy upon the summer thermal comfort of a Tunisian building. Key words: zonal model, heat transfer, temperature and velocity fields, airflow pattern, natural ventilation, thermal comfort.