Study Guide for Quiz Chapter 1 & 2 Anatomy and Physiology

Atom is the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical characteristic of that element

Molecule is formed when two or more atoms chemically combine to form a structure that behaves as an independent unit. The atoms that combine to form a molecule can be of the same type such as two hydrogen atoms combining to form a hydrogen molecule - A molecule is a particle composed of at least 2 atoms. - Two or more atoms joined together. Certain atoms, such as Carbon (C ), hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P ), Calcium ( Ca), and Sulfur (S) are essential for maintaing life.

Cell the structural and functional unit of all living things, is a very complex entity. Cells do have common anatomical features, and all cells must carry out certain functions to sustain life. Main Function Basic unit of life cell is the smallest part to which an organism can be reduced that still retains the characteristics of life Protection and support cells produce and secrete various molecules that provide protection and support of the body Movement Communication Cell metabolism and energy release Inheritance

Tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform specific function. Specialized cells and the extracellular matrix surrounding them form all the different tissue types found at the tissue level of organization Four primary tissues Epithelial tissue protective and glandular Connective tissue supports Muscle tissue allows for movement Nervous tissue Regulation

Organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions Example: Urinary bladder, heart, skin, and eyes

Organism is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell such as a bacterium or of trillions of cells such as a human.

Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body prevent disease the physiological equilibrium is homeostasis it is a very dynamic equilibrium and the body systems have to continuously adapt to

is a condition in which the bodys internal environment remains within certain physiological limits What is the function of DNA? Forms the genetic code inside each cell and thereby regulates most of the activities that take place in our cell throughout a lifetime. Each gene is a segment of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA contains the information that determines the structure of protein

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body. It consist of Catabolism (breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones) and Anabolism (synthesis of larger molecules) The ability of an organism to breakdown food molecules, which are used as a source of energy and raw materials to synthesize the organisms own molecules

Catabolism reactions that breakdown complex organic compounds into simple ones; they provide energy (exergonic) within cells these catabolic reactions often occur in the cytoplasm and mitochondria Example: Breaks down of glucose Consists of energy-releasing decomposition reactions. Such reactions break covalent bonds, produce smaller molecules from larger ones, and release energy that can be used for other physiological work. EXERGONIC

Anabolism a series of synthesis reactions in which small molecules are built up into more complex ones that form the bodys structural and functional components. Anabolic reactions use energy (Endergonic) within cells these anabolic reactions often take place in the cytoplasm, ribosomes or ER Example: synthesis of proteins from amino acids. Glycogen from glucose

Transverse Plane (horizontal) divides the body into superior and inferior portions

Frontal Plane (coronal) divides the body into anterior and posterior parts Example: would divide it into one portion bearing the face and another bearing the back of the head.

Midsagittal Plane (median) divides the body into equal left and right halves

Thoracic Cavity or chest cavity is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum(breastbone and thoracic portion of the vertebral column (neckbone) within Thoracic Cavity are the pericardial cavity a fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart and 2 fluid filled spaces called pleural cavities is divided into right and left parts by a median partition called the mediastinum. Pleural cavity, pericardial cavity, and mediastinum

Cervical Area pertaining to the neck region

Abdominopelvic cavity extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the abdominal wall and bones and muscles of the pelvis Divided into two: Abdominal cavity- stomach, spleen, liver, gall bladder, SI and most LI Pelvic cavity- Urinary bladder, portion of LI and internal organs of reproductive system.

Axillary area pertaining to armpit

Pericardial cavity a fluid- like space that surrounds the heart

Protons within the nucleus are positively charged protons (p )+

Neutrons uncharged; neutral

Electrons the tiny negatively charged electrons (e-) move about in a large space surrounding the nucleus. They do not follow a fixed path or orbit but instead form a negatively charged cloud that envelops the nucleus.

Covalent Bonds when two atoms share one, two or three pairs of electrons, without gaining or losing them, then they form covalent bonds. Single, double or triple covalent bonds. Stability of atoms is influenced by the number of electrons in the outermost orbits For some atoms, stability can be achieved by sharing electrons between 2 or more atoms Sharing can be equal this is called a non-polar covalent bond Sharing can be unequal this is called polar covalent bond

Ionic bonds when two atoms loose or gain electrons they may ATTRACT ( no sharing) each other forming an ionic bond Sometimes one atom donates one or more electrons to another atom The atom that donates (loses) electrons then becomes an Ion: Cation ( +) The atom that accepts the electrons becomes negatively charged: Anion (-)

Steroids have four rings of carbon atoms Example: Cholesterol an important component of cell membranes and as the starting material for synthesis of other steroids derivative Bile salts substances that assist fat digestion and absorption (liver-steroid derived) Fat- soluble Vitamin D necessary for bone growth and repair; it is a cholesterol

Adrenocortical hormones: cortisol- helps in inflammation; aldosterone: helps regulate salt and water balance in the body; Sex hormones estrogen and progesterone (female hormones) and testosterone (male hormone) stimulate reproductive functions and sexual characteristics.

Polysaccharides monosaccharide joined through dehydration synthesis. Insoluble in water

(Not sweet) the largest carbohydrates and may contain hundreds of monosaccharide. The principal polysaccharide in the human body is glycogen which is composed of glucose units linked to each other and is stored in the liver or skeletal muscles. When the blood glucose level goes down, glycogen from the liver is hydrolyzed to produce extra molecules of glucose, which can then serve as sources of energy. From tens to hundreds of monosaccharides joined by DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

Example: Glycogen( the stored form of carbohydrates in animals), Starch( the stored form of carbohydrate in plants and main carbohydrate in food) Cellulose( part of cell walls in plants that cannot be digested by humans but aids movement of food through intestines).

Proteins (12-18% of the body weight) are large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some proteins also contain sulfur. Functions: Structural they give structure to the body

Example: collagen in bone, Keratin in skin, hair and fingernails Regulatory regulate processes

Example: Insulin(regulates blood glucose level), substance P (regulates pain) Immunological provide protection against foreign substances

Example: antibodies and interleukins Contractile help muscles contract

Example: myosin and actin Transport transport substances

Example: hemoglobin which transports O2 and CO2 in the blood Catalytic serve as enzymes

Example: salivary amylase, lipase and lactase

Carbohydrates (2 to 3% of the body weight) Examples: sugars, glycogen, and cellulose Functions: provide most of the energy necessary for life (sugars)

Some carbohydrates are converted to other substances, which are used to build structures and to generate ATP (source of chemical energy)

Other carbohydrates function as food reserves(glycogen)

Cellulose: most abundant organic substance on earth. Humans do not digest cellulose. But it creates bulk; it helps move the food and waste down the gastrointestinal track. In humans and animals, carbohydrates function mainly as a source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions.

Triglycerides the most abundant lipids in the body Provide protection, insulation and energy. Bodys most highly concentrated form of chemical energy Composed of one molecule of glycerol (three carbons) and three molecules of fatty acids each attached to a C atom of the glycerol by dehydration synthesis The type of covalent bond found in fatty acids determines whether the triglyceride is

Saturated- only SINGLE covalent bonds between fatty acid C atoms. Each carbon atom is saturated with H atoms. Examples: palmitic and stearic acids. They are solid and occur mostly in animal tissues. Plants: coconut oil and palm oil Monosaturated contain one DOUBLE covalent bond between two Catoms in the fatty acid and therefore the C atoms are not fully saturated with H atoms. Examples: oleic acid, olive oil, peanut oil. Polyunsaturated contain more than one DOUBLE covalent bond between carbons in fatty acids. Examples: linoleic acid. Corn oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, etc. A triglyceride consists of two types of building blocks, a single glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules.

Glycogen the main polysaccharide in the human body which is made entirely of glucose monomers linked to one another in branching chains. Glycogen is made up of glucose monomers and is the stored form of carbohydrates in human body.

Glucose is the blood sugar that provides energy to most of our cells. Monosaccharide simplest carbohydrates conatin from 3 (triose) to 7 (heptose) carbon atoms.

pH body fluids must constantly maintain balanced quantities of acids (acidity) and bases(alkalinity). The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is expressed as its pH. The pH scale runs from O(most acidic) to 14(most alkaline or basic) 7= Neutral Below 7= acidic H+ > OH-

Above7 = alkaline OH- > H+